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IUWNE | Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials Volume 1 Version 2.0 Student Guide Text Pant Nunber stftalis cisco. ‘rn ears ‘AsiaPac Henares ‘rope vendors pies eee Saene Sas hs eee Syne rato BV Arts Soran ‘Sone ‘eReteeree Ciscoe mare hn 200 offess worldwide Akrostes phone numbers end numbers ae ated on the Caco Vib t wwciaca com/goetces {G5 Se do Geo Loge racer cl Ceca Sylora he snare ilaosin be US ander counties. Alina ol GacaeVegarartcanbefaundat sr cicoconigrracomars nc pty Taderatts mararasre re propery oor oepostvs era Thausadl ha warp doc amp pararchoosionsnp butwoen Caco end my obo! compory (OD8R) [DISCLAIMER WARRANTY: THIS CONTENT IS BEING PROVIDED “AS IS" CISCO MAKES AND YOU RECEIVE NO WARRANTIES IN |CONNECTION WITHTHE CONTENT PROVIDED HEREUNDER, EXPRESS, IMPLIED, STATUTORY OR IN ANY OTHER PROVISION OF THIS CONTENT OR COMMUNICATION BETWEEN CISCO AND YOU. CISCO SPECIFICALLY DISCLAIMS ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, NON-INFRINGEMENT AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR |PURPOSE, OR ARISING FROM A COURSE OF DEALING, USAGE OR TRADE PRACTICE, Tis eaming product my contain aly release content and while Cisco believes ito be accurate it ils subject othe disclaimer above ‘Student Guide (© 2011 Cisco andor its alates. Al rights reserved tft. cisco. Students, this letter describes important course evaluation access information! Welcome to Cisco Systems Learning. Through the Cisco Learning Partner Program, Cisco Systems is committed to bringing you the highest-quality training in the industry. Cisco learning products are designed to advance your professional goals and give you the expertise you need to build and maintain strategic networks. Cisco relies on customer feedback to guide business decisions; therefore, your valuable input will help shape future Cisco course curricula, products, and training offerings. We would appreciate a few minutes of your time to complete a brief Cisco online course evaluation of your instructor and the course materials in this student kit. On the final day of class, your instructor will provide you with a URL directing you to a short post-course evaluation. If there is no Intemet access in the classroom, please complete the evaluation within the next 48 hours or as soon as you can access the web. On behalf of Cisco, thank you for choosing Cisco Learning Partners for your Internet technology training. Sincerely, Cisco Systems Learning Table of Contents Volume 1 Course Introduction. 4 Overview. 1 Leamer Skills and Knowledge. 1 Course Goal and Objectives sii 2 Course Flow. oem 4 2 5 6 4 Additional References. Cisco Glossary of Terms. Your Training Curriculum, Wireless Fundamentals... Overview. Module Objectives. Describing Wi Overview. Objectives... Wireless Today... Wireless Usage and Topologies. Wireless Personal Area Network .. Wireless LAN... Wireless Metropolitan-Area Network... Wireless WAN " Ad Hoc Networks Wi-Fi Direct in the Enterprise Infrastructure Mode. Service Set Identifiers. ‘Workgroup Bridges. Repeaters Outdoor Wireless Bridges. Outdoor Mesh Networks. ‘Summary. Describing WLAN RF Principles. Overview. Objectives. RF Spectrum. Frequency. Wavelength... Amplitude... Free Path Loss ... Absorption... Reflection Multipath Scatlering.. Refraction nnn Line of Sight Fresnel Zone... RSSI and SNR. ‘Summary, Describing RF Mathematics Overview. Objectives. Watts, Milwatts, and Decibels Decibel Referenced to 1 Miilwatt Decibel Referenced to Isotropic Antenna... é ten 157 Elective tstropie Radatod POWEr nn nnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnnannnnnnnnnnnn Summary... 1-62 ER & SSSGNI6 B Describing Antennas 4 OVENVIOW rn 1-63 Objectives, 1-63 Antenna Principles.. 1-64 Polarization 1-66 Diversity 1-68 ‘Antenna Types. 4-70 ‘Omnidirectional Antennas . Directional Antennas ‘Antenna Accessories: Connectors Attenuators and Amplifiers Lightning Arrestors. Spliters. Overview. Objectives 2 Spread Spectrum Concept DSSS: Encoding DSSS Modulations: DBPSK and DaPSK DSSS Modulation: CCK. ‘Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing OFDM Modulations: BPSK and QPSK (OFDM Modulation: QAM Channels and Overlapping Issues. Summary eae moi Describing Wireless Requlation Bodies, Standards, and Certifications . Overview. Objectives IEEE Wireless Standards WiFi Alliance. Regulatory Bodies FCC. European Telecommunication Standards Institute 802.114 Amendment... Echo te POWET rn IEEE 802.11 Family of Protocols. 802.11 Standards for Channels and Speeds 2.4 GHz (802.11b/9), 5 GHz (802.114), 802.11n... 802.11 Original Protocol 802.11b Protocol 802.11g Protocol 802.11b and 802.11g Coexistence. 802.114 Protocol Channels... 802.1 1n Protocol... 802.11n Components... 802.11n Channel Aggregation. 802.11n MAC Efficiency 802.11n MIMO: Spatial Multiplexing, 802.11n MIMO: Transmit Beamforming 802.11 MIMO: MRC. 802.1 1n MIMO Benefits Cisco Enhancements to 802. 11n. Gating the Desired Troughout ‘Summary . oe Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisoo Systems, ne References, Examining Wireless Media Access . OVENVIEW wn Objectives... Sending Data Frames. Frame Format and Speeds. Frame Format. Frame Types Speed Management Frames: Discovering the Network. Beacon PROBES wn Management Frames: Connecting ...-. Management Frames: Managing the Connection Control Frames: Improving the Connection Power-Save Mode... ‘Summary. Examining Non-802.11 Wireless Technologies and Their Impact on WLANS. Overview. Objectives... Bluetooth Cordless Phones Potential 802.11b Interference... Potential 802.1 1a Interference ZigBee. a Other Non-802.11 Radio interferers... WiMax Technology Summary, References. Reviewing the Wireless Frame Journey: End to End. Overview. Objectives... Journey of a Wireless Frame... VLANS.rrn VLAN Operation.. Trunking with 802.10 Native VLANS.... Configuring VLANS and Trunks VLAN Creation VLAN Port Assignment VLAN Membership Modes. 802.10 Trunking Configuration ‘Switch Configuration for a WLC ‘Switch Configuration for Controlier-Based APS. Swit Coniguration for Standalone APs and H-REAPS Summary, Identifying Desian and Site-Survey Considerations Overview. Objectives. Building Materials and interference... ‘Sources of Interference Cisco CleanAir Technology Cells and Usage ‘Summary... Module Summary. Module Self-Check Module Self-Check Answer Key. (© 2011 Cisco Systems, ne Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentias (IUWNE) v2.0 iW | __Implomenting Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine IUWNE | Course Introduction Overview Welcome to Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0, an. instructor-led course for Cisco training partners to present to their end-user customers. This five-day course focuses on using, positioning, planning, implementing, and operating Cisco wireless LANs (WLANs), Upon completing this training course, you will be able to help design, install, configure, ‘monitor, and conduct basic troubleshooting tasks for a Cisco WLAN in small and medium- sized business (SMB) and enterprise installations, Learner Skills and Knowledge ‘This subtopic lists the skills and knowledge that learners must possess to benefit fully from the course, The subtopic also includes recommended Cisco learning offerings that learners should first complete to benefit fully from this course. k ind Knowledge * Knowledge and skills equivalent to those learned in interconnecting Cisco Networking Devices Part 1 Explain the Open Systems Interconnection (OS!) madel and identify network ‘components, Describe the switched LAN technology solution for Ethernet issues and how routing expands the network. [Understand the host-to-host packet delivery process of TCPIIP, Use the Cisco CLI to install, configure, and troubleshoot a small network * Knowledge of Cisco Lifecycle Services deployment + Knowledge of Cisco Service-Oriented Network Architecture (SONA) * Basic knowledge of wireless standards (IEEE), wireless regulator ‘environment (FCC, European Telecommunications Standards Institute [ETSI], etc.), and wireless certification (Wi-Fi Alliance) Course Goal and Objectives This topic describes the course goal and objectives. ‘To help design, install configure, monitor and conduct basic troubleshooting tasks for co WLAN in nd enterprise installations _nplementng Ctco Unie Wireless Networking Essentas 20 Upon completing this course, you will be able to meet these objectives: = Describe wireless fundamentals, such as topologies, RF principles and math, antennas, spread spectrum technologies, frames and physics, wireless regulatory bodies, standards and certifications, and the non-802.11 wireless technologies and their impact on Wi-Fi = Describe Cisco Unified Wireless Network basics, and configure a Cisco Unified Wireless Network controller = Describe and configure default operating system wireless-client configuration tools; use Cisco AnyConneet; and describe the Cisco Compatible Extensions program Describe and configure WLAN security m= Manage a wireless network from the Cisco WCS = Maintain and troubleshoot wireless networks. Triplementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (©2011 Gisco Systems, nc. istration Class-related Facilities-related * Sign-in process + Site emergency procedures = Length and times * Restrooms * Break and lunchroom locations _—- ‘Telephones and faxes » attire * Course materials The instructor will discuss the following administrative issues so that you know exactly what to expect from the class: Sign-in process Starting time and anticipated ending time of each class day Class break and lunch facilities Appropriate attire during class Materials that you can expect to receive during class = What to do in the event of an emergency = Location of the restrooms = How to send and receive telephone messages ‘© 2017 Cisco Systems, ne. Course ivoduction 3 Course Flow This topic presents the suggested flow of the course materials. Course Flow coe a Basic Cisco WLAN Inatatation (Cont) Invoduction —_Wiroless Fundamentals Wireless (Cont) Fundamentals tare Bale Caco eos Fundareniaeataton wireless “(Coney lia unsere (Cont) BasicClsco — Wraless itt, “Sren wan Security WLAN Securlty (Cont) Cise0 wes Basics Cisco wes Basics (Cont) WLAN Maintenance ‘and “Troubleshooting The schedule reflects the recommended structure for this course. This structure allows enough time for the instructor to present the course information and for you to work through the lab activities. The exact timing of the subject materials and labs depends on the pace of your specific class. Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (UNE) v2.0 (©2011 Cisco Systems, In Additional References ‘This topic presents the Cisco icons and symbols that are used in this course, as well as information on where to find additional technical references. Cisco Icons and Symbols nn The 802.11 standa ‘committe is curently working on mesh networks, under the number 802.115, 1-22 Implementing Cisco Unified Wirelass Networking Essentials (UWNE) 20 (© 2047 Giseo Systems, Inc. Summary This topic summarizes the key points that were discussed in this lesson. nary «The wireless revolution started 10 years ago, with the first protocols. * Wireless topologies can be classified as WPAN, WLAN, WMAN, or WWAN, according to their range. + Whentwo machines communicate over a radio, they create an ad hoc network. « Adding a centralized and dedicated device—the AP—increases networking possibilities, + The SSID provides a workgroup type of structure. * Devices lacking a wireless card can use a WGB. + Arepeatercan extend the range of an AP. + Bridges allow creation of point-o-point or point-to-multipoint inks. + Mesh networks are more robust than other types of networks. (©2017 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-23 1-24 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v20 (©2011 Cisco Systors, ne. Lesson 2 Describing WLAN RF Principles Overview To fully understand the IEEE 802,11 technology, you must have a clear concept of how wireless works at the first (physical) layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model. RF communications is at the heart of the physical layer. This lesson gives you the tools that you need to understand what happens when a device sends a wave. Objectives Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to describe the principles of wireles (WLAN) RF. This ability includes being able to meet these objectives: LAN = Describe the concept of the RF spectrum, Describe frequency m= Describe the concept of wavelength Describe the concept of amplitude Describe the free path loss model Describe absorption = Describe reflection = Describe multipath = Describe scattering Describe refraction = Describe line of sight = Describe the Fresnel zone m= Describe RSSI and SNR RF Spectrum This topic describes the concept of the RF spectrum. pectrum * Wireless networks use RF signals. + Radio frequencies are electromagnetiowaves. + The spectrum defines wave sizes, grouped by categories. Wireless network radio ranges in the microwave segment. =a ply Sma eee Many devices use radio waves to send information. A radio wave can be defined as an electromagnetic field that radiates from a sender. This wave propagates to a receiver, which receives its energy. Light is an example of electromagnetic energy. The eye can interpret light. and send its energy to the brain, which in tur transforms that light into impressions of colors. Different waves have different sizes that are expressed in meters. Another unit of measurement, hertz (Hz), expresses how often a wave occurs per second, Waves are grouped by category, each group matching a size variation. The lowest waves are in the sonic category, and the highest waves are in the gamma-ray group. ‘The waves that a human body cannot perceive are used to send information, Depending on the type of information that is being sent, certain wave groups are more efficient than others in the air because they have different properties. Because of the different needs and regulations that arose over time, creating subgroups became necessary. “28 Implomenting Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Frequency This topic describes frequency and how it relates to wavelength, ency « Frequency determines how often a signalis seen, + One cycle per second equals 1 Hz. * Low frequencies travel farther in the air than high frequencies. Ajo porsoo= 4h 7 eyes pec = 7 He ‘A wave is always sent at the speed of light because it is a magnetic field. Therefore, the wave takes a shorter or longer time to travel one eycle, depending on its length. For example, a signal wavelength that is 2 inch (S mm) long takes less time to travel a cycle than one that is 1312 feet (400 m) long. The speed is the same in both cases, but because a longer signal takes more time to travel one cycle than a shorter signal, the longer signal goes through fewer cycles in 1 second than the shorter signal. A direct relationship exists between the frequency of a signal (how often the signal is seen) and the wavelength of the signal (the distance that the signal travels in one cycle). The shorter the wavelength, the more often the signal repeats itself over a given time and, therefore, the higher the frequency. A signal that occurs once per second is a 1-Hz signal. A signal that occurs 10 times per second isa 10-Hz signal; a signal that occurs one million times per second is a megahertz (MHz) signal; and a signal that occurs one billion times per second is a gigahertz (GHz). This fact plays a role in wireless networks because lower-frequency signals are less affected by the air than high-frequency signals. Note ‘The effect that air has on sound can be seen in everyday life. When a car thats playing loud music approaches, the first sounds that you hear are the drums and the bass because lower frequencies travel farther than higher ones, without being affected by the air. Note Wireless networks use the 2.4-GHz band and the 5-GHz band. The 5-GHz band has loss coverage than the 2.4-GHz band and less coverage than the frequencies that are used for Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), such as 900 MHz, (©2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-27 Wavelength This topic describes the concept of wavelength. gth + The signal generated in the transmitters sent to the antenna. * The movement of the electrons generates an electric field, which is the electromagnetic wave. ~ The size of the cycle pattems called the wavelength. ‘Tansmiter Wiavetonth() ‘An RF signal starts with an electrical AC signal that a transmitter generates. This signal is sent through a cable to an antenna, where the signal is radiated in the form of an electromagnetic wireless signal. Changes of electron flow in the antenna, otherwise known as current, produce changes in the electromagnetic fields around the antenna and transmit electric and magnetic fields. An AC is an clectrical current in which the direction of the current changes cyclically, The shape and form of an AC signal—defined as the waveform—are known as a sine wave. This shape is the same as the signal thatthe antenna radiates. ‘The physical distance from one point of the cycle to the same point in the next cycle is called a wavelength, which is usually represented by the Greek symbol lambda (A). The wavelength is defined as the physical distance that the wave covers in one cycle. ‘Wavelength distance determines some important properties of the wave. Certain environments and obstacles can affect the wave. The degree of impact varies depending on the wavelength and the obstacle that the wave encounters. This phenomenon is covered in more detail later in this lesson, ‘Some AM radio stations use a wave that is 1312 or 1640 feet (400 or 500 m) long. Wireless networks use a wave that is a few centimeters long. Some satellites use waves that are about .04 inch (1 mm) long. 1-28 Implomonting Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 © 2071 Cisco Systems, Ine Amplitude This topic describes the concept of amplitude. plitude + Amplitude s the vertical distance, or height, between crests. + Different amplitudes can existfor the same wavelength and frequency. Amplitude represents the quantity of energy injected in the signal + The value of the amplitude is usually regulated because it can affect the I OO ETA ore ‘eine ‘mele | | | Amplitude is another important factor that affects how a wave is sent. Amplitude can be defined as the strength of the signal. In a graphical representation, amplitude is seen as the distance between the highest and lowest crests of the cycle. The Greek symbol gamma (y) is the common representation of amplitude. Amplitude also affects the signal because it represents the level of energy that is injected in one cycle, The more energy that is injected in a eycle, the higher the amplitude. Note ‘An easy way to represent this concept isto picture a 20-foot (600-cm) rope that is tied to a fence. If you shake the free end of the rope, you create @ wave in the rope. To create & larger wave, you must shake the rope harder. Generating a large wave with the rope requires more energy than generating a small one. Amplification is the increase of the amplitude of the wave. Amplification can be active or passive. In active amplification, the applied power is increased. Passive amplification i accomplished by focusing the energy in one direction, by using an antenna, Amplitude can also be decreased. This decrease is called attenuation, nding the right amplitude for a signal can be difficult. The signal weakens as it moves away from the emitter. Ifthe signal is too weak, then it might be unreadable when it arrives at the receiver. Ifthe signal is too strong, then generating it requires too much energy (making the signal costly to generate). High signal strength can also damage the receiver. Regulations exist to determine the right amount of power that should be used for each type of device, depending on the expected distance that the signal will be sent. Following these regulations helps to avoid problems that can be created by using the wrong amplitude. (© 2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-29 Note The transmitter can dynamically modify amplitude; this modification is called amplitude ‘modulation (AM). Some radio stations use this modulation to encode the information that they send to a radio receiver. Others prefer to change the frequency of the signal to encode the information; this modification is called frequency modulation (FM). 1-80___Implomenting Gisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 ©2071 Ceo Syatems, Ine Free Path Loss This topic describes how a signal loses power after being sent. ath Loss + Thewave becomes weaker as it spreads away from the emitter. ‘The quantity of energy dectinesas the distance increases; the quantity of ‘energy available on each point of the circles less as the circle is larger, and the receiver catches only part of this energy. Determining a range is determining the energy loss that depends on the distance. ‘A radio wave that an access point (AP) emits is radiated in the air. If the antenna is, ‘omnidirectional, then the signal is emitted in all directions, like when a stone is thrown into ‘water and waves radiate outward from the point at which the stone touches the water. Ifthe antenna is unidirectional, then the beam is more focused, As the signal, or wave, travels away from the AP, it is affected by any obstacles that it encounters. The exact effect differs depending on the type of obstacle that the wave encounters, Even without encountering any obstacle, the first effect of wave propagation is strength attenuation. Note Continuing with the example ofa stone being thrown into water, the generated radio wave circles have higher crests close to the center than they do farther out. As the distance Increases, the circles become flatter, unt they finaly disappear complotoly. ‘The attenuation of the signal strength on its way between a sender and a receiver is called free path loss. The word “free” in the expression refers to the fact that the loss of energy is simply a result of distance, not of any obstacle. Including this word in the term is important because RF engineers also talk about path loss, which takes into consideration other sources of loss. Keep in mind that what causes free path loss is not the distance itself; there is no physical reason why a signal is weaker farther away from the source. The cause of the loss is actually the combination of two phenomena: ‘D201 Cisco Systems, ne ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-31 The signal is sent from the emitter in all directions. The energy must be distributed over a larger area (a larger circle), but the amount of energy that is originally sent does not change, Theréfore, the amount of energy that is available on each point of the circle is higher if the circle is small (with fewer points) than if the circle is large (with more points among which the energy must be divided). The receiver antenna has a certain physical size, and the amount of energy that is collected depends on that size. A large antenna collects more points of the circle than a small one, But regardless of size, the antenna cannot pick up more than a proportion of the original signal, especially because this process occurs in three dimensions (whereas the stone-in- ‘water example occurs in two dimensions); the rest of the sent energy is lost. The combination of both factors causes free path loss. If energy could be emitted toward a single direction, and if the receiver could catch 100 percent of that sent signal, there would be no loss at any distance because there would be nothing along the path to absorb any signal strength, Some antennas are built to focus the signal as much as possible, to try to send a powerful signal far from the AP. But the focus is still not like that of a laser beam, so receivers cannot capture 100 percent of what is sent. 132 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireloss Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2 © 2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Absorption This topic describes how obstacles absorb wave energy. Absorption * Absorption takes energy from the wave. + This energyis dissipated as heat in the obstacle. + When 100% of the energy is taken, the wave stops. + The effect of absorption is to reduce ampiitude. + The signallis therefore less powerful, butthe same wavelength and frequency are maintained. Final Signal Degraded Signal |. Less Amplitude I Asa signal travels away from the AP, it loses energy—through free path loss, but also by passing through different types of material. Each material absorbs part of the energy, just like a copper cable. In the air, dust and humidity (water drops) are warmed by the signal, thus weakening it ‘The signal also encounters other materials or objects, such as walls. Because the density of an obstacle is usually higher than the density of air, a higher proportion of the wave energy is lost while crossing the obstacle. This process is called absorption. Note This effect is something that can be observed in everyday ite. For example, when you hear people talking in another room, the voices sound softer than they do if here is no wall between you; the wall absorbs part of the wave energy. The wave that your ear receives has. the same frequency and wavelength as when itis frst emitted, but the amplitude (strength) of the received wave is lower. If the absorption is high—that is, 100 percent—then the whole wave stops inside the obstacle. If the absorption is less than 100 percent, then only part of the original wave reaches the receiver. Ifthe wave, or signal, is too weak—if its amplitude is too flat—then the receiver might be unable to understand what was sent and will hear only “noise.” Absorption plays an important role in wireless networks. All buildings are full of obstacles, but not all obstacles absorb the signal in the same way: A concrete wall absorbs most of the signal energy, whereas a plasterboard wall absorbs only a portion. Site surveys are often conducted to position APs while the building is empty. When furniture is brought into the building, the wireless network suddenly is not as efficient as it was before; new obstacles change the pattem (©2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-33 Crowds can also affect absorption. If, for example, a site survey for a fair is conducted before the fair starts, then the coverage might be reduced when the fair begins and people arrive; the ‘human body is full of water, which absorbs the signal 38 Implomenting Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essantala (JUWNE) v2.0 ‘© 2017 Cisco Systems, ine Reflection This topic describes how a signal can bounce off obstacles. Reflection « Partof the energyis reflected Partofthe energy may be transmitted ‘The angle of reflection is the same as the initial angle. Reflection depends on the roughness of the material, relative to the wavelength and the angle. Amplitude has no impact. Reflection Point ‘Access Point Reflection is another major phenomenon that affects wireless signals and must be considered. When a signal hits an obstacle, the effect depends on the nature of the obstacle. For example, porous materials absorb part of the energy. Materials that are rough (in surface texture, relative to the wavelength) tend to reflect the energy, at an angle equal to the one at which the energy ‘was received. A flat surface reflects the signal because the wave tends to bounce uniformly on such a surface; a more irregular (rough) texture partly reflects the signal and partly absorbs it ‘The quantity of energy that is absorbed and either reflected or transmitted through the material to the other side of the obstacle depends on the angle at which the wave was received and the type of obstacle. For example, metal cabinets reflect more energy than carpet or plasterboard. A given obstacle might not be a source of reflection for a signal at one frequency, but might be ‘a high source of reflection for the same signal when itis sent at another frequency. Reflection depends on the frequency because the roughness of an obstacle is relative to the wavelength. Reflection also depends on the angle at which a signal is received. The intensity of the reflection off a window differs according to whether the signal is received at an acute angle or an obtuse angle. ‘©2011 Gisco Systems, Ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-38 Multipath This topic describes how multipath affects the received signal. * Ocours when a signal reflects from surfaces and signals arrive at the receiverat differenttimes. + Delayed multiple copies of the same signal hit the receiver ~ Depends on the wavelength and the position of the receiver Another way in which reflections affect wireless networks is through the phenomenon called ‘multipath. When a signal is sent as a wave, one portion of the wave travels in a straight line from the sender to the receiver. This partis the main signal. But another part of the same wave hits obstacles and is reflected, some of it toward the same receiver. That part of the wave reaches the destination slightly later; this second wave must travel a longer distance because it does not travel in a straight line, As a result, the first wave (the main signal) becomes mixed up with its own reflection. This effect can cause major problems in wireless networks. The first problem is that the received signal is distorted and more difficult to understand. Ifthe alteration is too great, the receiving station might be unable to understand the signal at all, even if the sender is close and the signal strength good. ‘The second problem is that the signal might be weaker than it should be. This weakness results, in the signal being out of phase, which results in downfade. Phase refers to the relationship between two signals that are at the same frequency. A wave has particular amplitude, which is the height of the crests. Downfade occurs when the difference in the amplitude of the primary and secondary wave signals is 121 10 179 degrees. 1-38 Implomenting Goo Unified Wireless Networking Essantiala (UWNE) v2.0 (©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine v: Phase * Two signals are in phase when the crests of their cycles coincide. * Being out of phase weakens both signals or cancels them if amplitude and wavelength are the same. Main signal In-phase signal 90 degrees outot phase signal +180 degrees out phase sana Ifa signal is received twice at exactly the same time, then the secondary wave adds its power to the primary wave, so that the receiver gets twice the positive energy (positive crest) at the same instant, then twice the negative energy (negative crest) at the same instant. As a result, both waves add up (o twice the amplitude (energy) of a single wave. Both signals are in phase, resulting in upfade, Although the final received signal level can never be stronger than the original transmitted signal, itis stronger than it would have been at reception without upfade. ‘The upfade occurs when the difference between the primary and secondary wave signals is 0 to 120 degrees. However, if both signals are not sent at the same time, then the receiver might simultaneously receive a positive crest from the first signal and a negative crest from the second signal. Receiving a positive signal to which the same negative signal is added results in a neutral signal or no signal at all Note ‘An everyday example of this scenarios the noise cancellation that occurs when you use a noise-cancellation headset. This device usually contains an electronic system that detects, or captures, surrounding noise as it approaches the ear, and dynamically plays the opposite wave with the same amplitude. The result is silence. The signals are out of phase, resulting in mulling, with an angle of 180 degrees. A 180-degree angle means that the high crest of the first signal reaches the endpoint at the same time as the low crest of the second signal. The signals are exactly the opposite, and if both signals have the same amplitude and wavelength, then the receiver gets no signal. Most of the time, the difference between both signals is not 180 degrees, so the receiver does receive a signal, but the second signal (or third signal, or so on, depending on how many reflected signals are required to reach the receiver) jams the original signal. {©2017 Cisco Systems, ne. Wireless Fundamentals 1-37 Physical position is another important issue. When the source of reflection is a flat metallic ceiling, reflection can occur in most places. But when the source of reflection is a smaller ‘obstacle, reflection depends on the relative positions of the sender and the receiver and on the ‘wavelength. For example, an emitted signal that has a longer wavelength does not hit an obstacle at the same position, nor bounce in the same way, as a signal with a shorter wavelength. The result is that a given signal at a given frequency might be negatively affected by reflections ata given position but be unaffected at a position a few centimeters away. (Remember that the Wi-Fi wavelengths are a few centimeters long.) Note Here is an example of the effect that physical position can have: As a car pulls up o @ stop sign, the driver notices static on the radio. But as the car moves forward a few inches or feet, the station starts to come in more clearly. By roling forward, he antenna is moved away slightly from the point at which the multipath signals converge. Another result is that a signal ata given frequency might be negatively affected by reflections ‘a any given position but be unaffected when at the same position but using another frequency. 1-38 Implomening Cisco Uniied Wrelose Networking Essentials (TUWNE) v2.0 ‘© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Scattering This topic describes the concept of scattering, attering + Occurswhen microparticles deviate the wave in muttiple directions + Affects shorter wavelengths more than longer ones: + Can weaken or block the signal Reflection involves major obstacles but also occurs in the air. If you could see the radio wave and the air particles, you would see that some of them, such as dust or microscopic drops of water (humidity), affect the wave. These multiple reflections are described as scattering, Note {An effect that is similar to scattering occurs when a light beam is sent to @ mitrored disco bal. Scattering affects signal quality because the received result is weaker (because part of it was reflected in other directions along the path) and more diffuse (because many of these micro- reflections might hit the receiver). Dust and humidity are not the only things that cause scattering. Other types of droplets, bubbles, density fluctuations, roughness of the surface on which a reflection might occur (part of the signal is reflected in one direction, part of it in many scattered directions), or cells in organisms (such as the human body) can also cause scattering, The effect of scattering depends on the frequency. When crossing the same environment, some frequencies are highly scattered, whereas others are mostly unaffected. {© 2011 Cisco Systems, nc Wireless Fundamentals 4-39 Note “The effects of scattering can be seen almost every day. When the light from the sun crosses the atmosphere, the air scatters the higher frequencies, such as blue, much more than the ‘ther frequencies. As a result, the blue frequency is reflected in all directions, and the sky looks blue from the ground. This effect is called Rayleigh scattering (so called because the British physicist Lord Rayleigh was the first to understand it. But at sunrise and sunset, sunlight enters the atmosphere at a shallow angle and travels @ long distance before reaching your eyes. During this long passage, most of the blue light is effected, so virtually all that you see from the sun is the red and orange wavelengths (unless tne humidity in the atmosphere is high, in which case the scattering effect is more Lniform and the evening sky looks yellow). Scattering can cause two effects in wireless networks: = The first effect is a degradation of the wave strength and quality of the signal at the receiver. This effect is usually easy to predict, because the degradation is relatively consistent in the atmosphere. The effect is more difficult to determine in nonheterogeneous environments; for example, in long-range radio links that eross highly polluted urban air. ‘= The second effect occurs when a wave crosses uneven environments, such as tree leaves, or reflects off uneven surfaces, such as moving water or rocky terrain. The effect on the wave at the receiver in these scenarios is more difficult to predict because it depends on how the reflections occur. 1-40 Implementing Cisco Unifed Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Refraction This topic describes how a signal can change direction under certain conditions. + Occurs when a wave passes fromone medium to another, causing the wave to change direction + Has a minor effect on indoor networks. + Can havea majoreffecton outdoor long-ange links Refraction is a phenomenon that occurs when a wave changes direction. This change in direction usually happens when a wave passes from one medium to another. Tip This effect can be seen when you look at @ spoon or @ straw in a glass: It looks as though the spoon or straw has been cut instead of being a continuous, straight object. The light goes through the liquid and the glass and is refracted. The change of direction in the light ‘beam creates this illusion, Refraction generally has only a minor effect on indoor networks. Refraction might have more of an effect on long-range wireless links that cross areas of the atmosphere that have different densities and humidity. Drier air typically bends the signal away from the earth, whereas more hhumid air bends the signal toward the earth, {© 2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentale 747 Line of Sight This topic describes how obstacles between two locations might prevent a signal from being received properly Sight * Line of sight is necessary for good signal transmission. + Earth curvature plays a role in the quality of outdoor links, even with a distance of a few miles (depending on the elevation of the transmitter and receiver). ~ Visual obstacles may or may not prevent radio line of sight. Asa signal travels in a straight line toward a receiver, it is received in good condition, if there is clear line of sight between the sender and the receiver. [fan object, such as a tree or a building, isin the path of the wave, then attenuation (absorption) and other phenomena will prevent communications. In an outdoor link, if the receiver is placed beyond a certain distance, the curvature of the earth also plays a role. For a 6-foot (183-cm) person, the horizon appears at about 6 miles (10 km). Its disappearance is determined by the height of the observer. If there are two 10-foot (3-m) structures, the top of one will have a line of sight to the other to about 16 miles (26 km) but will have minimum clearance at the horizon point. Thus, a signal is said to be received in good condition if the receiver is in the line of sight of the sender. But the line of sight that is mentioned here is a radio line of sight rather than a visual line of sight. The two concepts are closely related, but are different. For instance, there might be no visual line of sight, because the antenna is hidden behind a light object such as roof tiles. Yet there is stil be a radio line of sight, because the signal reaches the receiver in a good enough condition to be decoded. In some extreme conditions, the signal might reflect on an object or the atmosphere and be received in a place from which the sender cannot be seen, {7-42 Implementing Cisco Unifad Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) 20 ‘©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Fresnel Zone ‘This topic describes the Fresnel zone and how to calculate it. Fresnel Zone « Determines an area around radio line of sight where reflections have the mostnegative impact on the signal + Should be at least 60% free from obstacles Line of Sight, SS SS ) ‘The radio line of sight, even when it matches the model of a straight line or a visual line of sight, is more than a simple line. If obstacles are close to but not directly on the path (understood to be a direct line between the sender and the receiver), then the radio waves that reflect off those objects might arrive out of phase with signals that travel directly to the receiver. This problem reduces the power of the received signal or causes the signal to arrive in or out of phase. Objects and their reflections most commonly decrease the signal One way to mitigate these interferences is to ensure a minimum distance between the direct line of the signal and the closest obstacle, This minimum distance depends on the distance between the two points and the frequency of the signal, because individual frequencies are affected differently by travel through the air and by reflections. ‘Augustin-Jean Fresnel (pronounced fray-NELL), a 19th century physicist, provided a method for calculating where reflections will be in phase and out of phase around the direct line between the sender and the receiver. Fresnel created corresponding zones. In the first zone, which is closest to a direct line, reflections cause signals that are 0 to 90 degrees out of phase, thus negatively affecting the signal. In the second zone, which surrounds the first zone, the signals are 90 to 270 degrees out of phase. In the third zone, the signals are 270 to 450 degrees out of phase, and so on. Odd-numbered zones are constructive to the signal strength, and even- numbered zones are destructive to the signal strength, ‘Theoretically, there are an infinite number of zones, but the area of main concem is the first zone. This zone should be kept primarily free from obstructions, to avoid interfering with radio reception. Some obstruction might be acceptable, but at least 60 percent of this first zone should be free from any interference; 80 percent is recommended. {© 2011 isco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-83 To determine the Fresnel zone, think of the radio signal as a rugby ball or an American football ‘A sender and a receiver are at each end of the ball, and there is an imaginary line from one to the other! Calculating the Fresnel zone involves trying to determine the maximum radius of the ball. It will be at its largest exactly midway between the ends. An equation determines the radius of the ball at midpath. ‘The Fresnel zone primarily affects outdoor links. For indoor links, distances are usually too short for obstacles to be a major issue. "The example uses this shape because of reflection angles. For example, suppose that a sender and a receiver are 100 yards (or 100 m) apart, on a 2-yard (or 2-m) pole. Ifa reflection source ison the ground 3 yards (or 3 m) from the ‘sender, then the signal needs to drop from the sender to hit the source. The source then reflects with the same angle, sending the signal tothe sky. The source would need to be a strange shape for the reflection to be deviated close t0 90 degrees and to follow the curve of Earth to finally reach the receiver. But ifthe reflection source is exactly inthe ‘middle, assuming thatthe reflection occurs at the same angle at which it was sent, then the signal will go straight to the receiver. So the middle part ofthe ball is more widely affected by reflections than the ends. This is why Fresnel determined that zones would have ths ball shape. nother words, the distance that should be kept between the direct line and the first obstacles depends on the distance between the sender and the receiver (the longer the ball, the larger that distance will be), and the frequency of the signal b=0SxVaxd where bis the radius of the zone at mid-distance, dis the distance between the sender and the receiver, and 2 is the frequency of the signal, For additional information and online tools, refer to the Terabeam Wireless website Calculations: Fresnel Clearance Zones at http://www terabcam.com/support/calculations/fresnel-zone.phpimeter. 1-44 _Iiplementing Cisco Unified Wireless Nelworking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Syelems, Ine RSSI and SNR This topic describes Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), ‘and how they are used in combination to determine signal quality. and SNR * RSSlis the signal strength indicator. + The dBm value is obtained from a signal grading coefficient, which the vendordetermines. + RSSIis usually a negative value; the closer to 0, the better. + SNRis signal strength, relative to noise level. + Thehigherthe SNR, the better. Because the RF wave might be affected by obstacles in its path, it is important to determine how much signal the other endpoint will receive. If the sender and receiver are compatible devices (for example, two bridges, or an AP and a client WLAN adapter), then the signal will probably not be too strong, Rather, the signal can be too weak for the receiver to hear or detect it asa signal The value that indicates how much power is received is called RSSI and is a more common ‘name for the signal value, RSSI is the signal strength that one device receives from another device. RSSI is usually expressed in decibels referenced to | milliwatt (4Bm). Calculating the RSSI is a complex problem because the receiver does not know how much power was originally sent. RSSI, therefore, expresses a relative value that the receiving card determines while comparing received packets to each other. RSSI is a grade value, which can range from 0 (no signal or no reference) to a maximum of 255, However, many vendors use a maximum value that is lower than 255 (for example, 100 or 60). The value is relative because a magnetic field and an electric field are received, and a transistor transforms them into electric power, current is not directly received. How much electric power can be generated depends on the received field and the cireuit that transforms it into current. ‘©2017 Gisco Systoms, Ine. ‘Wreless Fundamentals 1-45 From this RSSI grade value, an equivalent dBm is displayed. Again, this value depends on the vendor. One vendor might determine that the RSSI for a card will range from 0 to 100, where 0 is represented as -95 dBm and 100 as -15 dBm; another vendor might determine that the range ‘will be 0 to 60, where 0 is represented as -92 dBm and 60 as —12 dBm. In such a case, you ‘cannot compare powers when reading RSSI = ~35 dBm on the first product and RSSI = -28 dBm on the second product.* ‘Therefore, RSSI is not a means of comparing cards; rather, itis a way to help you understand, card by card, how strong a received signal is, relative to itself, in different locations. This ‘method is useful for troubleshooting or when comparing the values of cards by the same vendor. On Cisco cards, an RSSI grading (such as good, poor, and so on) is also displayed. ‘An attempt is being made to unify these values through the Received Channel Power Indicator (RCPI). Future cards might use RCPI, which will be the same scale on all cards, instead of RSSI. Measuring the strength of the signal is one metric. Another important metric is SNR. SNR is @ based valu that evaluates your signal, based on the noise that is seen, SNR is measured as ive value between 0 and 120; the closer the value is to 120, the better. SNR comprises two values = Signal (RSS) = Noise (any signal that interferes with your signal) Noise can be caused by other wireless devices, such as cordless phones and microwaves. The noise value is measured in decibels from 0 to -120. The noise level is the amount of interference in your wireless signal, so the lower value, the better. If the noise value is close to =120, then there is litle or no interference. To calculate the SNR value, subtract the noise value from the RSSI. Because both values are usually expressed as negative numbers, the result is @ positive number that is expressed in decibels (4B). For example, if the RSSI is ~55 and the noise value is -95. wm -35--95=-55 + 95=40 m= You have an SNR of 40, The general principle is that any SNR above 20 is good. Note ‘An example of SNR in everyday ife is that when someone speaks in a room, a certain ‘volume is enough to be heard and understood. But i the same person speaks outside, surrounded by the noise of traffic, the same volume might be enough to be heard but not ‘enough to be understood. Note Ina very quiet room, a whisper can stil be heard. Although the voice is almost inaucibe, itis ‘easy to understand because its the only sound that is present. In an outdoor, noisy ‘envionment, isolating the voice from the surrounding noise is more dificult, so the voice needs to be much louder than the surrounding noise to be understood. ‘The lesson “Examining Wireless Media Access” discusses the recommended values. These values depend not only on the background noise, but also on the speed that is to be achieved. Keep in mind that with negative numbers, the closer to zero, the higher the number. Therefore, -28 dBm is more than ~ 95 dBm. An easy way to remember this fact is to think about temperatures: -] degree is a much higher temperature than 20. 7-46 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 ©2011 Cisco Systems, Inc. {A final term to discuss in this lesson is link budget. This value accounts for all the losses that might occur between the sender transmitter and the receiver circuit. The link budget determines how much power needs to be sent out of the transmitter for the receiver to get a signal that can be interpreted. The link budget is used in all wireless networks, but the term is encountered ‘more often in reference to outdoor links than to indoor networks, {© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 1-47 Summary This topic summarizes the key points that were discussed in this lesson, y + Thewireless spectrum expresses the range of radio waves. + Frequency is how often the same cycle repeats per second. * Wavelength isthe distance of the same points in a signal cycle + Amplitude is how strong the signalis and how high the wave is. » When a wave is radiated, some energyis lost as the signal spreads, incurring free pathloss. + As the signal goes through obstacles, absorption weakens it. + The signal can also bounce on abjects, an action known as reflection. y(Cont.) * When reflection occurs and several signals arrive at the receiver, a multipath issue occurs. Scattering ocours when the small obstacies reflect the signal in many directions. * Refraction occurs when the signal goes from one medium to another and changes direction. + Fora signal to be transmitted in good condition, radio line of sight should exist between endpoints. * Around the line of sight, a zone (the first Fresnel zone) should be mostly free of obstacles. + RSSI determines received signal strength, and SNR determines the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver. 1-48 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Lesson 3 Describing RF Mathematics Overview This lesson gives you the tools that you need to understand the mathematics that are used in wireless networks. The lesson is not intended to be a comprehensive analysis of all the equations that are used in the wireless world, but rather to provide some basic references that can help you to understand how power is applied to wireless devices. Objectives Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to understand the basic mathematics that are used in wireless networks for power comparison. This ability includes being able to meet these objectives: = Describe watts, milliwatts, and decibels = Describe how to apply decibel scale to electric power = Describe how to apply the decibel scale to antenna power = Describe EIRP Watts, Milliwatts, and Decibels ‘This topic describes the common values that are used to describe power in an RF environment. 5, and Decibels rns fore of 1 Nisapplied Force =1N 1 N= required force to accelerate 1 kg to 1 m/s When 1 kg travels 1 mata speed of m/s, 1 J of Energy is consumed When 1, of energy is consumed each second, itis written as 1 W A key problem in wireless network design is determining how much power is or should be sent from a source and, therefore, is or should be received by the endpoint. The distances that can be achieved depend on this determination. The power that is sent from a source also determines which device to install, the type of access point (AP) to use, and mainly, the type of antenna to The first unit of power that is used in power measurement is the watt (W), which is named after James Watt. The watt is a measure of the energy that is spent (or emitted, or consumed) per second; 1 W represents I joule (1) of energy per second, A joule is the amount of energy that is generated by a force of | newton (N) moving I m in one direction. A newton is the force that is required to accelerate | kg ata rate of 1 m per second squared (mis?) Another way to represent 1 W is to say that it is 1 V with 1 A power. Note To give an everyday example, breathing consumes 40 W and climbing a ladder consumes 200 W. A Boeing 747 consumes 140,000,000 W on average. In electrical terms, a CD-ROM laser uses 0.005 W, a typical incandescent household light bulo uses between 40 and 120 W, and a PC uses between 300 and 400 W, 1-50 Implementing Cisco Uniied Wireless Networking Essontias (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Iti surprising that a CD-ROM laser uses only 0.005 W. In RF terms, as with a CD-ROM reader, the power that is consumed is used to move an object or to produce light, not only to ‘ransmit a signal that can be interpreted. Therefore, the strengths are usually low and use units ‘of 1/1000 W, or I milliwatt (mW). Note ‘Atypical AP can have a power of 100 mW. But this power varies depending on the context {indoor or outdoor) and the country, because there are some regulations in ths feld. You will leam more about these regulations in the lesson "Describing Wireless Regulation Bodies, Standards, and Certifications.” (© 2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-51 cibels sounds < 0.dB = same power “etme 3.08 = 2times the power Compares powers, originally“ [O¥#4eresInsounaininaiytel) 3 | 12 the power Otimes the power ~10dB = 1/10 the power Watt or milliwatt is an absolute power value that simply expresses power consumption. These ‘measurements also are usefal in comparing devices. Another value that is commonly used in wireless networks is the decibel (dB). This term is a familiar one regarding sound levels. A decibel is a logarithmic unit of measurement that expresses the amount of power relative to a reference. Calculating decibels can be more challenging than simply understanding them, The term decibel derives from the term bel. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Bell Laboratories needed a value to represent losses on a telephone line, so they invented the bel to represent the typical loss from their lines over | mile. The unit was later standardized. A decibel is one-tenth ofa bel. ‘An important and often misunderstood part of the decibel concept is that itis relative value. A 1-bel loss was a loss over | mile, compared to the originally emitted sound level When talking about decibels for sounds, the reference level is the minimum sound that a human ‘ear can perceive. All other sound levels are compared against this reference. But because the decibel is a power scale, it can be used to compare sounds or anything else. The decibel is used to compare relative powers or strength and is followed by the relevant unit expressing that strength. Therefore, dB-J compares joules, dB-Hz compares hertz, and so on. ‘The decibel scale is logarithmic, a progression that can be difficult to comprehend. To simplify the task, remember these main values: ‘= 0B: A measurement of 0 dB is the reference value. In other words, decibels compare one value to another value that is used as a reference. If the value that is compared against the reference is 0 dB strong, then that value has no more and no less strength than the reference; both values are the same. = 10.dB: When the power is 10 dB, the compared value is 10 times as powerful than the reference value. This process also works the other way around: If the compared value is 10 times less powerful than the reference value, then the compared value is written as —10 dB. 72 Tmmplementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essontale (UWNE) 20 (© 2017 Cisco Systoms, Ine m3 dB: Remember that decibels are a logarithm. If the power is 3 dB, then the compared value is twice as powerful as the reference value. With the same logic, if the compared value is half as powerful as the reference value, then the compared value is written as ~3 6B. This progression has some consequences. A power increase of 6 dB means that the second device is four times as powerful as the first device. (A 3-dB increase makes the second device twice as powerful, and another 3 dB makes it twice as powerful as twice as powerful, or four times as powerful.) By the same logic, a power increase of 9 dB means that the second device is eight times as powerfull as the reference source. (If3 dB is twice as powerful, and another 3 dB is four times as powerful, then another 3 dB increases the power by two times again, making the device eight times as powerful.) ‘Therefore, a 9-dB increase means that the device is 8 times as powerful, and a 10-dB increase means that the device is 10 times as powerful {©2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-53 Decibel Referenced to 1 Milliwatt This topic describes how to apply the decibel scale to electric power. | References 1 Milliwatt + Used for AP transmitters [pete + Samescaleas the other dB O.dBm=1 mW 30dBm=1 W L Decibels are used extensively in wireless networks, to compare powers. Two types of powers can be compared: the electric power that a transmitter sends, and the power of an antenna, Because the signal that a transmitter emits is an AC current, the power levels are expressed in milliwatts. Comparing powers between transmitters is comparing milliwatts. Following the rules regarding decibels, and keeping in mind that a decibel expresses a relative value, you can establish these facts: mA device that sends at 0 dBm (which stands for decibel referenced to 1 milliwatt) sends the same amount of milliwatts as the reference source. The power reference is | mW, so the device sends 1 mW. A device that sends at 10 dBm sends 10 times as much power (in milliwatts) than the reference source of 1 mW; therefore, the device sends 10 mW. A device that sends at -10 dBm is one-tenth as powerful as the reference source and sends ‘one-tenth of a milliwatt, or 0.1 mW. = A device that sends at 3 dBm is twice as powerful as the reference source and sends 2 mW. = A device that sends at -3 dBm is half as powerful as the reference source and sends 0.5 mW. = By the same logic, a device that sends 6 dBm is four times as powerful as the reference source: Adding 3 dBm makes the device twice as powerful, and adding another 3 dBm makes it twice as powerful again—four times in total, or 4 mW. “1-54 Implementing Gsco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 ‘©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine To convert decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt (dBm) to milliwatts (mW), calculate that each addition of 10 dBm multiplies the power by 10, and then each addition of 3 dBm doubles the result. For example, consider 36 dBm. This measurement can be written as 10+ 10+ 10-43 + 3 dBm. Each addition of 10 multiplies the power by 10. Because three additions of 10 are in this measurement, multiply the reference power by 10 three times. The reference power is 1 ‘mW, so the equation can be written as (((1 mW * 10) * 10) * 10), or 1000 mW. Then, each addition of 3 doubles the result, so the result will be doubled twice. Doubling 1000 mW twice gives you 4000 mW, or 4 W. Therefore, 36 dBm =4 W. To convert milliwatts (mW) to decibels referenced to 1 milliwatt (dBm), first determine whether the value that you want to convert can be divided by 10, with the aim of achieving an integer that is as close to one as possible. For each set of division by 10, add 10 dBm. Then, try to divide that resulting value by two. For each set of division by two, add 3 dBm. For example, consider 40 mW. You can divide 40 by 10 one time, so 40m\W contains 10 dBm, You cannot divide the result of that division (four) by 10 and achieve an integer, but you can divide four by two, so add 3 dBm. You can also divide the resulting value (two) by two, so add another 3 dBm. You cannot divide the result (one) by two, so stop there. The final value is 10 +3 +3 = 16 dBm. ‘These rules can help you to perform an easy calculation of power levels. The table will help you find some intermediate values, ‘©2011 Gisco Systems, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-55 Conversions to and from dBm and mW mW dm mW =20 0.0100 ° 1 19 0.0125 os 1.42202 =18 0.0158 1 1.2589 a7 0.0200 15 14125 16 0.0261 2 115849 15 0.0316 25 17783 4 0.0398 3 119053 =13 0.0801 35 2.2387 2 0.0631 4 25119 1 0798 45 20186 =0 0.100 5 3.1623 9 0.126 6 3.9841 8 0.158 a 5.0119 a 0.200 8 6.3096 6 0.251 9 7.9433 6 0316 10 10.0000 45 0.355 " 12.5698 = 0.398 12 75.8489 “35 0.447 18 79.9828 = 0.500 14 25.1189 25 0.562 18 31.6228 2 0.631 16 39.8107 15 0.708 7 90.1187 a 0.794 18 6810957 05 0.891 18 79.4328 ° 1 20 +100,0000 "F58_Implementing Cisco Unifed Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v20 ‘©2011 Cisco Systems, Decibel Referenced to Isotropic Antenna This topic describes how to apply the decibel scale to antenna power. Decibel Referenced to Isotropic Antenna + The dBi measurement refers to anisotropic antenna. + This antennais theoretical and does not exist in really + The dBi measurements used asa reference point to compare antennas. The same logarithm progression appliesto dBi as to the other decibel scales. Decibel referenced to isotropic antenna (dBi) compares power as regards current, This ‘measurement is useful in many scenarios (as scen in most of the remaining lessons of this module), but wireless engineers also need to compare the power of antennas. An antenna does not send an electric current as such; rather, an antenna sends an electric and magnetic field Wireless engineers and others need a tool that compares the power of antennas without using the indirect value of the current that is sent. To achieve this goal, a reference antenna was created. This antenna is a spherical antenna that is 1 dot large! and that radiates in all directions. Such an antenna is theoretical and does not exist in reality, for two reasons: = Anantenna that is 1 dot large is almost impossible to produce because something would need to be linked to the antenna to send the current to it. = An antenna usually does not radiate equally in all directions because its construction causes it to send more signal in some directions than in others. Although this theoretical antenna does not exist, it can be used as a reference to compare actual antennas. This theoretical antenna allows comparison of one antenna to another because the antennas are labeled in reference to the same point of comparison, " How large is 1 dot? This mathematical concept defines a theoretical sphere with a radius of zero, ‘©2077 Cisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 1-57 This theoretical antenna is called an isotropic antenna because it radiates equally in all directions. (The term isotropic comes from the Greek tropos, meaning “to turn,” and iso, ‘meaning “equal.” An isotropic signal encircles the emitter equally in all directions.) Therefore, the scale that is used to compare the powers that antennas radiate to an isotropic antenna is, called dBi (the “i* stands for isotropic). ‘The logarithm progression of the dBi scale obeys the same rules as for the other decibel scales: 3 dBi is twice as powerful as the theoretical reference antenna, 6 dBi is four times as powerful, and 10 dBi is 10 times as powerful Using the same logarithm progression allows you to compare antennas. If one antenna is 6 dBi and another is 9 dBi, then the second antenna is 3 dBi more powerful than the first, or two times as powerful 1-58 Implementing Ceco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) 20 (©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Decibel F 1 to Dipole Antenna + ThedBd measurementrefersto a dipole antenna, * Dipole is the simplest antenna, This antennas sometimes calleda ‘rubber duck’ antenna. + OdBd= 2.14dBi « The logarithm scale for dBdis the same as for, the other decibel scales. Other scales can be used to compare antennas. Some wireless professionals prefer to use an existing antenna as the reference. The antenna that is chosen is the simplest possible antenna, called a dipole antenna. This comparison is expressed in decibel referenced to dipole antenna (aBd). ‘Some companies present the values of their antennas in dBd and some in dBi, making it look like some antennas have the same or more gain than other antennas. When comparing antennas, ‘be sure to use the same format (either dBd or dBi) for each antenna, How do you relate dBd to dBi? The power of a dipole antenna can be compared against the theoretical reference antenna as 2.14 dBi.’ Converting one measurement to the other is simply a ‘matter of adding or subtracting 2.14: dBi =dBd +214 Bd = dBi~2.14 Consider these examples. Antenna 1 has a dBd value of 5.4. To compare this antenna against an antenna that shows a ‘dBi value, you need to convert the dBd value of Antenna 1 to a dBi value: 5.4 dBd + 2.14 = 7.54 dBi Antenna 2 has a dBi value of 13.8. To compare this antenna against an antenna that shows ‘2 dBd value, you need to convert the dBi value of Antenna 2 to a dBd value: 13.8-2.14= 11.66 Bd Regardless of which measurement you use, there is a 6.26-dB difference between these two antennas,’ so Antenna 2 is a little more than four times as powerfull as Antenna I. This power comparison is what matters when determining which antenna to use in a given situation, Some vendors use a value of 2.2 {© 2017 Cisco Systoms, ine. ‘Wireless Fundamenias 1-59 Effective Isotropic Radiated Power This topic describes how to measure radiation energy from an antenna, lated Power Cable “ransmiter Loss (8) Power (2m) | EIRP = TX power (im) + Antenna Gain (85) - Loss (68) G 23 Te 10m Antenna Anion cag EIRP 1078-0. 16 d6m Z | ‘Access Point Comparing antennas gives a measure of their gain, The antenna is a passive device, so it does not add to the energy that it receives from the cable, The only thing that the antenna can do is to radiate that power in one or more directions. ‘An easy way to understand this concept is to take the example of a balloon. The quantity of air inside the balloon is the quantity of energy to be radiated. Ifthe balloon is shaped as a sphere, with an imaginary AP at the center, the energy is equally distributed in all directions. The imaginary AP at the center of the balloon radiates in all directions, like the isotropic antenna. Now suppose that the balloon is pressed into the shape of a sausage, and the imaginary AP is placed at one end of this sausage. The quantity of air in the balloon is still the same, but the now the energy radiates more in one direction (along the sausage) than in the others. The same principle applies to antennas. When an antenna concentrates the energy that it receives from the cable in one direction, itis said to be more powerful (in that direction) than ‘an antenna that radiates the energy in all directions, because there is more signal in that one direction. In this sense, describing the power of antennas is like comparing their ability to concentrate the flow of energy in one direction. The more powerful an antenna—the higher its dBi or dBd value—the more it focuses or concentrates the energy that it receives into a narrower beam. But the total amount of power that is radiated is no higher; the antenna does not actively add power to what it receives from the transmitter. * Ifexpressed in dBi, the antenna powers are 7.54 dBi compared to 13.8 dBi, or a difference of 6.26 dB. If expressed in <4Bd, the powers are 5.4 dBd compared to 11.66 dBd, which is still a 6.26-dB difference. As long as the compared units are the same, dBi or dB can be used and will give the same rato, Trmplementing Osco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) 20 (©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Nevertheless, in the direction toward which the beam is concentrated, the received energy is higher because the receiver gets a higher percentage of the energy that the transmitter emits. And if the transmitter emits more energy, then the result is higher again. Wireless engineers need a way to determine how much energy is actually radiated from an antenna toward the main beam. This measure is called Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP). One important concept to keep in mind is that EIRP is isotropic because it is the amount of power that an isotropic antenna would need to emit to produce the peak power density that is observed in the direction of maximum antenna gain. In other words, EIRP tries to express, in isotropic equivalents, how much energy is radiated in the beam. Of course to do so, EIRP takes into consideration the beam shape and strength and the antenna specifications. In mathematical terms, EIRP, expressed in dBm, is simply the amount of transmit (Tx) power plus the gain (in dBi) of the antenna. However, the signal might go through a cable through Which some power might be lost, so the cable loss must be deducted: EIRP = Tx power (dBm) + antenna gain (dBi) ~ cable loss (dB) EIRP is important from a resulting power and regulations standpoint: Most countries allow a ‘maximum Tx power of the transmitter and a final maximum EIRP value, which is the resulting power when the antenna is added. This limitation creates a constraint on which type of antenna can be used, depending on the power to be injected. You will lear more about these regulations in the lesson “Describing Wireless Regulation Bodies, Standards, and Certifications.” {© 2017 Cisco Systems, in. Wireless Fundamentals 1-81 Summary This topic summarizes the key points that were discussed in this lesson. mary * 1 Wrepresents 1 J of energy per second; 1000 mW = 1 W. Decibels are used to compare relative powers. + dBm compares miliwatts. + dBi compares antennas toa theoretical isotropic antenna. dBd compares antennastoa basic 2. 14 dBi dipole antenna «EIRP (dBm) is the power of the transmitter (dBm), minus the loss of the cable (dBm), plus the gain (dBi) of the antenna. “62 Iplomenting Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (TUWNE) v2.0 (©2011 Gisco Systems, Ine Lesson 4 Describing Antennas Overview An antenna is needed to transmit RF signals. Several types of antennas are available. Which antenna you decide to use will depend on where and how you want the signal to be received. ‘This lesson guides you through an investigation of the different types of antennas. Objectives Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to describe wireless antennas. This ability includes being able to meet these objectives: = Describe antenna principles Describe polarization Describe diversity Describe the main antenna types Describe omnidirectional antennas Describe directional antennas Describe connectors Describe attenuators and amplifiers Describe lightning arrestors = Describe splitters Antenna Principles This topic describes the types of antennas and the tools that can be used to compare them. Ar Principles + Theradiation patter describes coverage shape. RF radiation pattem is described by E-plane (elevation chart)and H-plane (azimuth chart) + The patterns expressed in decibels, Each antenna design producesa different RF radiation pattern. ‘There are many antenna types and vendors. The most important factor when choosing an antenna is how it radiates a wave. This factor has an impact on the strength and range of the signal and its range and has legal implications because radiating certain signals on certain frequencies is impermissible, An antenna is a piece of equipment that can receive an AC current and, by letting a flow of electrons move back and forth, can transform this energy into an electromagnetic fica. Depending on the material that is used to build the antenna and on the thickness, shape, length, and physical characteristics of the antenna, the antenna generates fields of various shapes. This result is expected: Antenna makers create specific radiation shapes to match specific needs. For ‘example, a maker might create these shapes: = A circular shape, to cover a conference room = A long, thin shape, to cover a long corridor ‘The shape is rarely simple. The internal components of antennas can cause a shape with small zones that radiate more in one place and less in another. The first task in choosing an antenna is to precisely determine its radiation shape, which is called a radiation pattern. One way to determine the radiation pattern is to install the antenna, then move around it with a wireless device such as a laptop, to determine where the strongest Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) is found, This method allows lines to be drawn showing where and how far a given RSSI occurs. This method is tiresome; the radiation pattern can be discovered only after purchasing the antenna, and interferences can render the readings unreliable. The operation must be repeated numerous times to confirm a valid reading. To facilitate the antenna purchasing decision, most vendors publish drawings that show the radiation pattern analysis and the antenna specifications. The analyses are performed in controlled environments, to avoid interference issues. 1.64 _Implomenting Goo Uniied Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Gisco Systems, Ine ‘An antenna radiates in a three-dimensional (3-D) environment, but providing a 3-D view of the radiation pattern is possible only if the person who intends to purchase the antenna has 3-D. ‘capable viewing software. Therefore, vendors usually provide two views, as shown in the previous figure: a horizontal plane (H-plane) and an elevation plane (E-plane). = The H-plane, or azimuth chart, represents the radiation pattern as seen from the top. This chart shows how the signal spreads ahead, behind, to the right, and to the left but not how the signal spreads up or down. This chart provides a flat, or horizontal, view. m= The E-plane, or elevation chart, represents the radiation pattern as seen from the side of the antenna. This chart shows how the signal spreads ahead, behind, to the top, and to the bottom but not how the signal spreads to the right or left. This chart provides a top-down, view of the signal shape. = Together, both charts help deduce the rest of the beam in a 3-D extrapolation, In all cases, the antenna is supposed to be in the center of the chart but is usually not represented, However, in most eases, this position is obvious. ‘The strength of the radiation patter is expressed in decibels, but the charts do not show an actual distance that is reached in certain directions; increase power and the distance will increase. Instead, vendors take a reference point, which is usually chosen in the main beam of the field in front of the antenna, in the direction in which the signal is strongest. This reference point is labeled 0 dB, and all the other (weaker) points are drawn in relation to this reference point. The strongest signal is at this point. The other points are labeled -n dB, depending on how much weaker the signal will be in the given area than atthe strongest point. Some vendors use a double representation. A peak point that is labeled 0 dB and a second point that is labeled 3 dB indicate that at a point that is at the same distance as the reference point but on the side, the signal will be 3-dB weaker. The Tine that shows the radiation pattern represents a line of ‘equal power relative to the distance from the antenna. In other words, by following the line, you will read the same RSSI all along the circle as you go around the antenna, But if you go around the antenna in a perfect circle, maintaining the same distance from the access point (AP), the value in decibels shows how the signal strength varies. ‘©2017 Cisco Systems, ne. Wireless Fundamentals 1-65 Polarization ‘This topic describes the different types of polarization, Polarization + Polarization describes the orientation ofthe electric field + Polarization an be linear or “> snanotena peter circular. eee + The magnetic field is on the right ofthe electric field. Wireless antennas can use any Polarization, but consistency is required. Vertical polarization is seta poraton we ‘common. ‘The H-plane and the E-plane are usually different. This fact implies that the antenna does not radiate the same way in all three dimensions. The reason for this difference is linked to the fact that the required coverage is not uniform in the space and to the fact that the electric field is polarized—an important factor. The antenna will radiate an electromagnetic field, meaning an electric field and a magnetic field. The electric field is the actual wave and is defined as a variation in the electric characteristics of the space that surrounds an electric charge. Note Electric and magnetic fields are all around you. Earth radiates a strong eld that protects you from space particles and helps your body orient its cel. ‘Ona much smaller scale, TV and radio signals ae fields, and each power cord radiates @ tiny electromagnetic fel around its Because the electric field is the wave, it ean move in different ways: = In vertical polarization, the wave goes up and down in a linear fashion, = Inhorizontal polarization, the wave goes left and right in linear fashion. In citeular polarization, the wave circles as it moves forward. The antenna determines this polarization. 765 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (©2071 Cisco Systems, Ine Magnetic Field The magnetic field is 90° perpendicular to the electric field. Perpendicular to this electric field is a magnetic field, which the radiation phenomenon generates at the same time. The magnetic field is always on the left of the electric field when the electric field is going upward. To illustrate this concept, extend your right hand, thumb up. When the electric field is going up and toward the front, following the direction of your thumb and index finger, the magnetic field is going toward the lef, following the direction of your ‘middle finger. Antennas in wireless networks are often vertically polarized, so the electric field should be vertical. The vendor always represents how the antenna should be placed for the field to be sent with the correct angle, and these indications should be followed carefully. The orientation is usually intuitive. An antenna with a tube shape should usually be positioned vertically, but some antennas might have different characteristics (or polarization that can be changed), so verifying the correct orientation is important. Note “There isa historical reason why antennas are vertically polarized. In the 1950s, the frst TV signals were sent in New York City, with @ much longer wavelength than future wireless. signals. The experiment showed that horizontal polarization would be more efficient for {going around the interferences that the skyscrapers caused. Later, when the first RF signals ‘were used for data transmission, the RF engineers decided to use vertical polarization to point away from TV signals. If the orientation of the antenna is wrong, then the receiving antenna, instead of seeing a field that goes up and down, receives a varying value, even though the receiving antenna has minimal movement. As a result, the receiving antenna has much more difficulty recomposing the signal: The loss that results from wrong orientation is commonly a loss of 20 dB or more. This loss means that the received signal is at least 100 times weaker than it should be. Both ‘outdoor links and indoor deployments are affected by this loss. If an antenna should be pointed downward and if, for aesthetic or security reasons (to be hidden, for example), itis positioned flat instead, then the signal to and from the antenna will be considerably degraded. In indoor environments, other factors, such as multipath interferences, might have more impact than antenna orientation. In outdoor links, antenna orientation is a crucial factor. ©2071 Cisco Systems, ine. Wireless Fundamnials 1-67 Diversity This topic describes diversity and how it is used in wireless networks. Diversity ‘Some wireless technologies use diversity to choose, on a per-client basis, which antenna to use to receive and which to use to answer. These antennas should be the same type and in the same area, Ceiling Poor reception Diversity is another point to consider regarding antennas. The multipath propagation phenomenon is a problem that occurs with indoor wireless networks. One way to solve this problem is to move the client away from the zone in which reflection most affects the signal. The problem of where to locate an AP is usually solved by permanently mounting it on a ceiling or wall, providing service to several clients without needing a network administrator to check the signal quality or move it slightly. Another common technique is to use two antennas, placed one wavelength away from each other for the best result. When a client sends a frame, it contains a preamble (like an Ethernet frame does). When receiving the frame, the AP alternates between both antennas to determine which one has better reception, The AP can alternate this way because the preamble does not contain active data, The AP then receives the rest of the frame from the antenna that gives the best results and uses the same antenna to answer the client. Note The AP has no real way of quessing which antenna will be the best one to use to send the signal back, especially because the client might be moving. i the path taken and the Position ofthe client remain the same, the AP assumes that the same antenna that was the best for receiving will give the best result on the way back. Most APs that use diversity have a single radio to which two antennas connect, An internal switch allows the AP to use one antenna or the other, but the AP will not use both antennas at the same time. Implementing Gisoa Unified Wirlass Networking Essentiale (UWNE) v2.0 ‘©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine ‘An important point to understand about diversity is that the algorithm that an AP uses compares the signals that the AP hears from both antennas. This fact implies that the client signal must be heard on both antennas for diversity to work, even if one antenna has a poor signal. The need to hear the signal on both antennas results in two important issues: = First, the two antennas should be used in only one area, not in two areas, to provide better coverage. Otherwise, a client in one area will not be heard by the second antenna, usually resulting in an error message in the AP log rather than in better coverage.' The client needs to be heard on both antennas, Second, the antennas that are attached to the AP should be the same as each other, for the same reason. If you use a weak antenna on one side and a powerful one on the other, then a client that is heard only by the powerful antenna will generate an error message. The coverage pattern might also be different, which implies that a client might be heard on the ‘weak antenna and not on the powerful antenna, only because of its position relative to the APs. ' For example, in a worst-case scenario, a client that sends ping messages might see only every other packet succeed, because the AP is busy using its antenna in the other area, ©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine ‘Weless Fundamentals 1-69 Antenna Types ‘This topic describes the specifications that are used to describe antennas. Antenna Types e-7e dager 24GHe ar 360 degrees at 24 GH » Directional Yo ‘The two main families of antennas are omnidirectional and directional. Omnidirectional antennas send a signal of the same strength in all directions, although an antenna can never be completely omnidirectional. Directional antennas concentrate the beam in one or more directions. A directional antenna radiates the same amount of energy as an omnidirectional antenna. The main difference is that a directional antenna focuses the beam in a specific direction. Because a directional antenna is stronger in a specific direction, itis said to add more gain—in other ‘words, to be more powerful (in that specific direction) than an omnidirectional antenna. The rating of the directional antenna, in decibels referenced to isotropic antenna (dBi), will be higher. Another way of representing this change in radiation pattern is to talk about angles. An ‘omnidirectional antenna radiates all around itself equally, or at 360 degrees. A directional antenna radiates toward a certain direction, but the beam might be wide or narrow; its angle is. said to be more or less narrow. ‘The angle for each antenna type is fixed and is shown in the radiation pattern. This angle is called the beamwidth, The beamwidth is correlated directly to the strength of the signal in the main beam: the narrower the beam, the higher the strength of the signal in the beam, and therefore, the higher the gain. Some antennas are said to be high gain because they concentrate ‘the beam, allowing these antennas to reach faraway points with a good signal. Note ‘A flashlight provides an analogy to beamwidth and energy levels. By adjusting the focus of a flashlight, the beam of light can be made to be more concentrated, but the flashlight stil emits the same quanti of light 4-70___Implementing Cisco Uniied Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v20 ‘© 2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Note ‘A typical example of a high-gain antenna is the dish type, which can send a signal over long distances. The world record Is a Wi-Fi signal sent 237 miles (382 km), Wireless antennas radiate their electric and magnetic fields in the air but could also work in the vacuum of space. Fields, electric or magnetic, do not depend on the material through which they travel, even though that material might affect the signal speed slightly. The wave, or the electromagnetic signal speed, travels at the speed of light, which is close to 300,000 k's. {© 2011 Cisco Systems. Ine Wireless Fundamentals 7-71 Omnidirectional Antennas This topic describes some classical omnidirectional antennas and how to choose the right type, depending on the area to cover, nal Antenna 2.14-dBi dipole ‘Omnidirectional antennas are omnidirectional at least on one plane, usually the azimuth plane. They radiate around themselves as seen from the top, but do not necessarily do so in the vertical plane. The most basic omnidirectional antenna is the 2.14-dBi dipole antenna. This type of antenna is not very powerful and is typically designed for an indoor environment, with APs or client cards. The antenna radiates everywhere on the H-plane, to reach clients in the whole room or surrounding premises, but has a certain vertical angle because itis expected to work on a “one~ floor coverage” logic, in which the AP destination is on the same floor as the antenna, ‘This design makes the shape of the radiation pattern more like a donut than a pure sphere. This shape is common for many indoor omnidirectional antennas, the difference being the thickness of the donut. 1-72 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Omni tional Antennas Cisco AIR-ANT1728, 5.2-dBi ceiling-mount omnidirectional When you need to cover a large area, the 2.14-dBi antenna might not provide enough gain, For instance, that antenna might not reach all the comers of a large conference room. ‘An antenna that might meet this need is the Cisco Aironet High Gain Omnidirectional Ceiling Mount Antenna (AIR-ANT1728), which provides 5.2-dBi gain. This antenna is typically ‘mounted on ceilings (pointing downward, to respect polarity), to cover a large hall This antenna has a 5.2-dBi gain—a higher gain than the 2.14-4Bii dipole (and therefore twice as powerful). But this gain is still passive because the antenna does not contain an active amplifier. This gain is achieved by reducing the E-plane angle, to make it flatter. Based on the antenna design, and because the antenna is placed on the ceiling, it provides good coverage on the sides and, to some extent, below itself. But the antenna does not provide coverage very far below itself nor high above itself. The ceiling material (usually concrete) between the antenna and the next floor should absorb most upward emissions. Respecting the mounting specifications is important because the shape of the upward radiation and the shape of the downward radiation are not the same. {© 2011 Cisco Systoms, ne Wireless Fundamentals 1-73 Omnidirectional Antennas (Cont.) Cisco AIR-ANT2506 5.2- Fe Network ‘4 Fiber-Optic Cable 1 Ethernet Lightning Arrestor Lightning arrestors are another device that can be used. These devices usually connect to the antenna or to the cable between the AP and the antenna, although these lightning arrestors do not always stop direct strikes. Ifthe lightning strikes nearby, and if the surge is not too high (common models protect up to a surge of 50 V in 100 ns), the lightning arrestor might burn and protect the rest of the network. In any case, good grounding is necessary because it is difficult to predict where lightning might strike, For instance, lightning strikes are not just related to the height of the building. 7-84 Implementing Gsco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials UWNE) v20 (© 2017 Gisco Systems, Ine Splitters This topic describes splitters. plitters Splitters divide the signal between two antennas but considerably reduce range: A 21-dBi dish loses 4 dBi (the dish range drops from 33 to 21 km on each side). A splitter is a device that is sometimes used in wireless networks, mainly outdoors. The spliter allows a signal that comes from one cable to be split in two so that the signal can be sent fo two cables. A.common use for splitters is to receive a signal that comes from one direction and forward it, through another antenna that connects to the same AP, and toward another direction. This process allows two directional antennas to be used back-to-back, without the need to invest in a second AP. An important downside is the loss of power on the cable. The use of a good-quality splitter usually adds a loss of about 4 dB to the system. This loss is seen at both antennas (each antenna suffers a 4-dB loss). At 2.4 GHz, this loss reduces the gain of a dish from 21 to 17 dBi, providing some distance advantage but not twice the amount. When reducing the gain on one antenna to 17 dBi (at 11 Mbis), the distance drops from 20.5 miles (33 km) to approximately 13 miles (21 km). A second drawback is thatthe throughput is reduced by approximately 50 percent because the repeater must receive, buffer, and transmit the data on the same channel. Using a splitter is generally not recommended, (©2011 Cisco Systems, ne Wirless Fundamentals 1-85 Summary This topic summarizes the key points that were discussed in this lesson. nary + Each antenna radiates in a unique way. Wireless uses vertical polarization Some APs use diversity to offer betterresistance to multipath issues. Antennas can be directional or omnidirectional. ‘Omnidirectional antennas radiate 360°in the H-plane. Directional antennas focus their beam more or less, depending on models. Connectors are usually specificto a vendor. Attenuators and amplifiers can be added to change the power transmitted to the antenna, Lightning arrestors can mitigate the impact of surrounding lightning strikes on the AP and the network. Splitters can be used to split the signal of one AP totwo antennas. References For additional information, refer to Cisco Aironet Antennas Hardware View at http://www. cisco.com/web/ANZ/epp/refguide/hview/wireless/antenna.html 186 Implementing Caco Unifed Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 {© 2011 Cisco Systems, ine Lesson 5 Describing Spread Spectrum Technologies Overview This lesson gives you the tools that you need to understand how information can be sent by using a wireless frame. The lesson also explains the technologies that the creators of wireless protocols chose to help prevent the problem of interference. Objectives Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to describe the spread spectrum technologies that are used to send a wireless frame in a wireless network. This ability includes being able to meet these objectives: = Describe spread spectrum technology = Describe DSSS ‘= Describe the DSSS basic modulations DBPSK and DQPSK Describe the DSSS advanced modulation CCK Describe OFDM Describe the OFDM basic modulations BPSK and QPSK = Describe the OFDM advanced modulation QAM = Describe the issues that are linked to channel overlaps and channel reuse Spread Spectrum Concept This topic describes the concept of spread spectrum technology. Spread Spectrum « Narrowband and spread spectrum are the two main ways of sending a signal » Spread spectrum uses less energy at peak. * The bandwidth required depends on the ‘amount of information to be sent. Bandwidth in kite When you send a wave, or signal, an electric field is emitted at a certain frequency and with a certain wavelength. The only element that cannot be controlled is the interference level of the medium through which the wave is transiting. Also, many devices might be using the same frequency range, or band. Because wireless networks use the unlicensed industrial, scientific, and medical (ISM) band, some nonwireless appliances might radiate in the same frequencies as the signal that you send, For example, microwave ovens work in the same 2.4-GHz band as the ISM band, The power of a microwave oven is closer to 1000 W, as opposed to the 100 milliwatts (mW) of an access point (AP), although the wave energy of a microwave is constrained to the inside of the oven However, if even 0.5 percent of that energy should bleed outside the oven, there would be a radiating source of 500 mW on the path, or five times as much as the transmit power of the AP. If the AP signal traveled close to the oven, the signal would probably be jammed. Electric engines, power adapters, and many other devices might radiate a signal in a frequency that is far from the range of your signal or right in the spectrum your device is using. One of the main problems for the creators of wireless protocols was to eliminate the interference that other devices cause or to mitigate the impact of that interference on the signal. ‘To meet this need, a transmission technology—spread spectrum— was invented. Ifa signal at a defined frequency—for example, 2.412 GHz—is emitted, and a nearby device ‘emits a signal at the same frequency, then the first signal collides with the second signal, and the message that the first signal carries is jammed. (This is true even if the second signal is not intended to carry data but is simply a result of a magnetic field caused by the activity of an electric engine.) But ifthe first signal can emit in a range of frequencies or a band, then two alternative methods of emitting can prevent the signal from being jammed: ‘= The signal can be sent at different frequencies, one after the other. ‘= The signal can be sent over a larger frequency than the needed peak 2.412 GHz. 1-88 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (1UWNE) v2.0 {©2017 isco Systems, In. In the first technique, the interference source might still affect the signal, and itis difficult to predict at which frequency interference will occur. But because the signal stays at that frequency for a short time (typically 300 to 400 ms) and then goes to another frequency, the interference source affects only a small amount of data. This method or technology is called Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS). The term spread spectrum comes from the fact that the emission will be spread over a larger spectrum than just one peak frequency. Inthe second technique, interference is overcome by sending a signal around the interference. Instead of sending one signal at the peak frequency, such as the 2.412 GHz in this example, the signal is spread over a larger frequency band. The same information is sent, but on all frequencies ranging from 2.401 to 2.423 GHz. Ifthe interference that affects the emission is at 2.412. GHz, the message that is sent around this disturbed frequency will probably be heard. This technology is called Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS). The term direct sequence ‘comes from the fact that the signal is spread over one large frequency in a directly larger signal, instead of hopping from one frequency to another. Note ‘An example of the use of DSSS is the way that radio stations transmit thelr signals. When you tune a radio to a station, each station can be heard over a range of frequencies: Itis, ‘weak at the edge and clearer toward the middle. Radio stations send their signals over a range to avoid being disrupted by a narrow interference. When the speaker announces the station frequency, only the peak frequency is mentioned. In both FHSS and DSSS, more than the peak frequency is used, so the signal is spread over a larger part of the spectrum. Therefore, these are called spread spectrum technologies. ‘©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-89 FHSS vs. DSSS ete) FHSS is a time-based narrowband hopping of frequencies. teense + DSSS is a broadband use of cote eeet frequencies, Which technology is best? Both avoid interference that is centered on one precise frequency —a type of interference called narrowband interference. If the timers of the sending and the receiving stations are properly set, then devices that use FHSS hop to the same frequency at the same time and stay tuned, Because it hops, the signal from the device that uses FHSS might lose only a few packets every now and then, whereas the signal from the device that uses DSSS might be more durably affected if the interference is in the middle of its emission zone, On the other hand, an FHSS signal is more likely to cross an interference zone than a DSSS signal, which might be away from the interference and does not move from the frequencies around which itis spread, From a pure interference point of view, itis difficult to determine which technology is more efficient because it depends on the circumstances. DSSS can achieve a higher speed than FHSS because it uses a larger bandwidth to send its data. When the number of senders increases, DSSS offers more resistance to multiple devices in the same spectrum as FHSS. For these and a few other technical reasons, DSSS is the technology that was developed for and is currently used in wireless networks. "£80 Implementing Cisco Unifed Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine DSSS: Encoding This topic describes how DSSS works in a wireless environment. < recoding + Each bit is transformed into a sequence, called a chip or symbol. + Inthis example, the chipping code is called Barker 11 + As many as nine digits of a chip can be lost. eer SCC cores (01001000111 10110111000 10110111000 01001000111 DSSS is used to send a signal over a spectrum that is wider than the one that is needed solely for signal-density use. This course is not meant to give in-depth training on signal theories. To keep things simple, consider that the net bit rate—that is, how many bits per second are sent—is usually close to one-half the raw bit rate, In other words (and without considering any specific techniques), a 2~ ‘MHz-wide signal allows about | MHz of useful data to be sent ‘When using a spread spectrum, a 1-MHz signal is sent over a bandwidth that is larger than 2 ‘MHz. But what should be sent? The technique that is used in wireless networks consists of encoding the real information to send. Ifa “I” is to be sent, it is encoded—that is, transformed—into a sequence of numbers, and it is this sequence of numbers that is sent in parallel to represent the I.” The process of converting the signal into data “I” and “0” is known as encoding, ‘The first encoding system that is used in wireless networks is called Barker code 11, from the ‘name of its inventor. (There are some other Barker codes, such as Barker codes 2, 5, 13, and so ‘on.) The Barker code is an 11-bit sequence of numbers, 10110111000, which has some interesting properties that are designed to minimize autocorrelation (that is, to avoid a situation in which one misunderstood signal results in parallel signals also being misunderstood). Each digit of information that is sent is run with an exclusive OR (XOR) operation against this Barker code 11. An XOR is a mathematical operation in which the following are true: OXORO OXOR1= 1XOR0=1 1 XOR 1= ‘©2071 Cisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 1-91 When a “1” isto be sent, transforming it with the Barker code gives the sequence 01001000111. When a “0” is to be encoded, the result will is 10110111000. These long, sequences, representing one digit, are called chips. Using the Barker code 11 with DSSS means that whenever “I” isto be sent, the sequence (01001000111 is sent instead, in parallel. When a “0” is to be sent, 10110111000 is sent instead, in parallel. In examining these numbers, you can see that as many as nine digits of any chip can be lost, and the receiver can still understand if'a “O” or a “1” was sent. Because each signal uses 2 MHz, a 22-MHz-wide band is needed to send a wave of 1 chips. 1-82 Implementing Cisco Uniied Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 ©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine. DSSS Modulations: DBPSK and DQPSK This topic describes how a wave is modulated to represent chips DSSS Modulat * When using DBPSK, the phase shifts with 180° angles; each shift represents 1 bit When using DOPSK, shifts are 90"; each shift represents 2 bits: DBPSK allows 1 Mbis. DOPSK allows 2 Mb ‘The Barker code allows you to send a chip of 11 digits (or symbols) instead of the value itself, so that the signal can go through interference and still be understood. Because the signal is spread over 22 MHz and contains 11 symbols that representing only one digit, the signal can lose as many as 9 digits while going through interference of as much as 18 MHz and still be read as intended. These 11 digits are sent in parallel, over a 22-MHz-wide channel. But the code does not specify how each part of the chip will be represented in the wave; in other words, how the wave will be altered for the receiver to understand that a “1” or a “0” is being ‘transmitted. This process is called modulation. Note Chipping, or encoding, isthe way that a digit is transformed in a longer sequence so that part of the sequence can be lost and the message can sill be understood. Modulation is the ‘way in which each symbol is represented inside the wave. ‘The first technique that is used to modulate a wave is called Differential Binary Phase Shift Keying (DBPSK). The name complex, but the operation is simple, A wave is a signal that goes up and down at a regular pace. Keying means representing the zeros and ones, and to shift phase means to change the orientation of the wave: If the wave is going up, make it go down. This modulation is done in binary, which means simply up or down (no other possibility), depending on what is being sent. The DBPSK rule simply states the following: When the next value to send is a zero, do nothing special; continue sending the wave without alteration, When the next value to send is a one, change direction 180 degrees. ‘This means that if the wave was going up, it should suddenly go down instead. If the wave was going down, it should suddenly go up. In a best-case scenario, in which only zeros are sent, the signal is an undisrupted wave. However, if only ones need to be sent, the signal permanently changes direction. ‘©2017 Cisco Systems, ine ‘Wireless Fundamenials 7-03 This simple technique works very well because the rhythm of the transmission is known—one digit is sent each microsecond, with 11 digits being sent in parallel. The receiver only needs to listen to the shape of the wave for the next microsecond to know whether the next value is a “0” or “I.” If the next microsecond is unreadable because of interference issues, 10 other signals are available in parallel to confirm or refute the nature of the next symbol. Sending one symbol each microsecond means sending 1 million symbols per second, or | Mb/s. Caution Do not be confused by the chipping code: 11 symbols are sent in parallel, each at arate of 1 per microsecond, or 1 Mb/s. Because 11 symbols are used to represent one digit, a wave that is 22 MHz large and contains 11 parallel symbols results in 1 Mbs of real data throughput A data rate of 1 Mb/s is, of course, too slow for modern networks. To increase the speed, DSSS allows you to use the same Barker code 11 chipping process with another modulation that is, called Differential Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (DQPSK). Although there is only a one- letter difference between the two names (“B” for binary and “Q” for quadrature), DQPSK is a little more complex and allows more data to be sent, using two steps: 1. DQPSK starts by grouping the individual bits of the symbol in groups of two. If, for example, the chip flow that is sent is 1100101010100, the DQPSK determines the groups 11, 00, 10, 10, 01, 01, and 00. Again, these are the symbols that are used to send one bit after the other. Eleven symbols are sent in parallel. 2. DQPSK determines one alteration of the wave to represent a group of two symbols.’ With a single alteration of the wave, you can represent two symbols instead of one, doubling the speed of the transmission. Of course, because there are four possible combinations (00, 01, 10, and 11), there need to be four possible alterations of the wave. The DQPSK rule therefore says the following: — Ifthe group to transmit is 00, do nothing (carry on sending the wave as it is). — Ifthe group to transmit is 01, turn 90 degrees. If the wave is going up, the signal should carry on from the top of the wave. If the wave is going down, the signal should carry on from the bottom of the wave. Ifthe wave is on the high crest, the signal should carry on going down from the zero line, and so on. — If the group to transmit is 10, turn 270 degrees (or ~90 degrees); in other words, the ‘opposite of the 01 sequence. Ifthe signal is going up suddenly, the signal should carry on from the bottom. If the wave is going down, the signal should carry on from the top, and 50 on, — Ifthe group to transmit is 11, turn 180 degrees, which is shifting phase just like DBPSK. If the wave is going up, go down; ifit is going down, go up, and so on. This clever system allows a speed of 2 Mb/s while using the same 22-MHz-wide signal and an 1 l-chip Barker code for each bit to send. "symbols are the unit of a chip. DQPSK does not encode the data flow; it simply groups the individual bits of the resulting chip—the symbols—before altering the wave to represent each group. 7-84 Implementing Cisco Uniied Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 (©2017 Cisco Systems, Ine DSSS Modulation: CCK This topic describes how different types of modulation and encoding are used to achieve higher speeds. $$ Modulation: CCK + With CCK, each symbol of 6 bits is associated to a unique code sequence, as shown in this example. * Coding 4 bits per symbol allows 5.5 Mb/s; coding & bits per symbol allows 11 Mb/s. oyphase Complementary (Code (ets Detne 1 ot) A speed of 2 Mbis is still not fast enough. However, a signal cannot go faster by keeping the same Barker 11 encoding and cannot shift more than 90 degrees. (An eight-shifting technique ‘would present too many risks of missing one shift and no longer understanding the sent data.) To increase speed, a new technique is used. This technique is called Complementary Code Keying (CCK). CCK uses groups of 4 bits, and encodes them in chips of 6 bits each (whereas Barker code 11 uses an 11-bit chip to represent 1 bit of data). CCK then associates a complex and unique resulting symbol for each chip; each symbol is a combination of phase changes that use DOPSK (that is, four angle rotations of 90 degrees). Each symbol is a precise and unique sequence of phase shifts in the wave. DOPSK is closely associated to CCK, because CCK uses DQPSK to represent the symbols, Because there are 6 bits in each symbol, there are 64 (two to the power of six) different symbols, each one representing a unique 6-bit chip. To each 6-bit chip, 2 bits are added, resulting in an 8-bit-long code symbol. The 2 bits at the beginning are added to represent the orientation of the beginning of the symbol, so that if a symbol is not received in good condition, part of it—plus the first 2 bits—will be enough to recompose the whole symbol. ‘The wave is sent over 22 MHz at a speed of 1.375 million code symbols per second, each representing 4 bits, resulting in a speed of (1.375 * 4) 5.5-Mb/s throughput. This result is far better than Barker code and DQPSK. ‘©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 7-05 Ina later version, CCK uses the 2 bits that come before the 6-bit chip not only to give the orientation of the symbol, but to allow the same symbol to represent two values, depending on the initial 2-bit orientation of the symbol. This process allows you to code 8 bits instead of 4 bits in each 6-bit chip, meaning @ doubled speed of 11 Mbis instead of 5.5 Mbis. ‘The higher the speed, of course, the more sensitive the wave becomes to interference and multipaths. When CCK is used at 11 Mb, altering the first 2 bits is enough to render the —and thus, a complete octet—unreadable. As a result, the frame check sequence (FCS) will probably not match what is expected. With 5.5 Mbs, it takes three to five consecutively ‘missed symbols to corrupt a chip (depending on which symbol), whereas Barker allows seven to nine consecutively missed symbols before corrupting the frame. This result is why the speeds depend on the quality of the connection, which is a ratio between the Received Signal Strength Indicator (RSSI) and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR, which refers to how clear the signal is and how much better itis than the noise surrounding it). When conditions are good and the risk of missing symbols is low, the wireless LAN (WLAN) adapter uses CCK at 11 Mb/s. As soon as the conditions degrade because of multipath or the distance to the receiver, the adapter drops back to DQPSK. If conditions degrade again or if the distance increases, then the adapter reverts to DBPSK, before finally reaching a point beyond which it cannot transmit, DSSS is not necessarily uniquely tied to these encoding and modulation techniques. Any time thata signal is spread over a larger frequency range to avoid interference, the DSSS technique is in use, This lesson presents the modulations and encoding that are used with DSSS in wireless networks. 196 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentias (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine. Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiplexing This topic describes how orthogonal frequeney-division multiplexing (OFDM) is used to increase speed and resistance to multipath requency-Division Multiplexing (064 subcarriers: + 12 2er0 subcarirs n black) on sides ‘and in center Side acariasfndon a eauency (usd bad, leaving 16 5c ocewied andy Conte sucai or DC ofetarir ea roesien + 48 data subcarers (In green) per symbol + plot subcarriers (n red) per symbol for ‘synehronizaon and wacking Freqseney In response to Ethernet networks that were adopting 100-Mb/s throughput, another modulation technique needed to be found, to inerease the speed beyond 11 Mb/s. The point was not only to increase speed, but also to find even better techniques to fight the wireless-specific challenges that multipath and interference present. OFDM was already in use in radio transmissions and offered a good altemative to DSSS for wireless networks. Instead of sending one large 22-MHz wave, OFDM divides the carrier” into 52 subcarriers (or tones), 312.5 kHz apart, Forty-eight of these subcarriers are used to carry data, while the four others are used to control the communication, adding to the robustness of the whole. To these 52 subcarriers, 12 others are added, to be used as guards on the side (to distinguish one main carrier from the other next to it) and in the middle (to mark the center of the carrer). ‘The great advantage of this system is that if 48 channels carry data, each channel can transmit slower than a CCK channel and the group of 48 will still achieve a higher throughput. For example, if each subcarrier sends at 1 Mb/s, a total speed of 48 Mbis is achieved. As a result, not only is OFDM faster but, because each channel transmits more slowly (that is, bears less density of symbols per millisecond), it becomes more resistant to multipath. Because there are many channels, some can be affected by interferences, but the others can still offer normal communications. The control channels allow the receiver to detect which channels are unusable and provide feedback to the sender. 2In OFDM, the carrier is actually 20 MHz instead of 22. But these two values are close enough to be compatible. An OFDM carrier can have any size: the larger it is, the higher the throughput. The 20-MHz carrier was chosen precisely for compatibility purposes. {© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 167 ‘One important feature of OFDM is the way that it manages tone overlapping. If you look at a drawing of the OFDM channels, you will see that the subcarriers are close to one another and overlapping (each tone touches the shoulders of its neighbors), which should cause interference. But OFDM considers not only the electric field but also the magnetic field. Each channel is sent with an angle of 90 degrees, compared to the two channels on each side. This feature makes OFDM more like a three-dimensional (3-D) transmission than a two-dimensional (2-D) one. 4-98 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essontils (IUWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Gisco Systems, Ine OFDM Modulations: BPSK and QPSK © This topic describes the modulations that are used with OFDM in wireless networks. OFDM Modulations: BPSK and QPSK + Uses the same principles as DBPSK ‘and DOPSK: BPSK shifts 180°, QPSK shifts 90° + Speed depends on density of signal per tone. Pree os Pree sa 15 6 1875 ° 250 2 a5 6 OFDM relates to the way in which a wave is sent. Its not a DSSS technology per se but is very close in its consequences (channel occupation and so on). Each tone is considered to be an independent carrier that bears data, The OFDM mechanism ensures that the carriers do not interfere with one another. OFDM implies a specific coding technique. Each frame comprises part of the Layer | preamble that is designed to prevent confusion between the tone that is sending new information and any other tone, OFDM has only one way of coding and must use a specific preamble sequence of digits as an identifier. ‘Nevertheless, there are several ways to represent these digits within a tone. The simplest way is to use Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK). BPSK is slightly different than the DBPSK system of DSSS modulation, ‘The DBPSK rule stated that “When the next value to send is a zero, do nothing special; continue sending the wave without alteration. When the next value to send is a one, change direction 180 degrees.” Therefore, if multiple “1” values are sent continuously, phase shifting continues. ‘The BPSK rule states that “When the next value to send is the same as the value that was just sent, do nothing; continue sending the wave without alteration. When the next value to send is different from the value that was just sent (a 0 following a | ora I following a 0), change direction 180 degrees.” Therefore, if multiple “1” values are sent, there should be only one phase shift. ‘The difference between DBPSK and BPSK is the reason for the shift: getting a “I” versus getting a different value. BPSK alone does not differentiate ones and zeros—any change causes the shift {© 2041 Cisco Systems, Inc Wireless Fundamental 1-89 With BPSK, each carrier contains 125-kb/s worth of information, which implies that 48 tones represent a 6-Mb/s throughput ‘You can increase the density of information per subcarrier and rise to 9 Mb/s (187.5 kb/s per subcarrier). The density can be increased because OFDM prefers to send redundant information, to make sure that the message is received even if some bits are lost. At 6 Mb/s, half the bits are information and half are redundant. At 9 Mbys, three-fourths of the bits are information and only one-fourth are redundant. But this higher density implies a higher sensitivity to distance and interferences. To go higher than 9 Mb/s and do better than DSSS using CCK, OFDM uses Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). QPSK appears similar to DQPSK, but for the missing “D.” The principle is still to send values in groups of two (00, 01, 10, and 11). ‘The rule for DQPSK stated that “If the group to transmit is 00, do nothing. Ifthe group to transmit is 01, tum 90 degrees. Ifthe group to transmit is 10, tum 270 degrees (or -90 degrees). Ifthe group to transmit is 11, tum 180 degrees.” The rule for QPSK states the following: = Ifthe next group to send is 00, turn 270 degrees (or -90 degrees). If the signal is going up suddenly, the signal should carry on from the bottom, If the wave is going down, the signal should carry on from the top, and so on. = If the group to send is 01, tum 180 degrees. Ifthe wave is going up, go down; ifit is going down, go up, and so on. = Ifthe group to transmit is 10, tur 90 degrees. If the wave is going up, the signal should carry on from the top of the wave. If the wave is going down, the signal should carry on from the bottom, and so on. = Ifthe group to transmit is 11, do nothing and carry on sending the wave as itis. QPSK is like a reversed DQPSK. Why one instead of the other? Some people consider the differential method to be more robust than the nondiffeential one. Robust hee refers tothe, ability of the receiver, if it completely misses one change, to understand the next symbol is.’ OFDM is inherently more robust regarding interferences and multipath and uses a more complex coding scheme, so it does not need to use the differentiated technique. With QPSK, each carrier bears 250 kb/s of information, thus allowing 12-Mb/s total throughput. This density can be increased to 375 kb/s per tone, for a total throughput of 18 Mb/s. At 12 Mb/s, one-half of the bits are pure information and one-half are redundant. At 18 Mbis, three-fourths of the bits are pure information, and one-fourth are redundant, * Ifthe instruction (turn » degrees) is not understood, and the next instruction says “tum 90 degrees,” then there is a ‘200d chance that the whole signal will be impossible to understand, 7-100 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v20 (© 2011 isco Systems, Ie. OFDM Modulation: QAM This topic describes how quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM) allows speeds as great as 54 Mbis. OFDM Kh lation: QAM + With QAM, 90° shifts are associated with amplitude modulation. With four amplitude positions, 16 values are possible. * OFDM for wireless uses ‘16-QAM and 64-QAM, with speeds as great as 54 Mbis, Now that you understand that QPSK and DQPSK work in 3-D, allowing four 90-degree rotations, you are ready to lear about quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM). Rotations of 90 degrees, whether they occur actually (by the electric field changing its orientation) or virtually (by the field staying vertical but changing shape), allow a wave to have four directions: up, left, down, and right. Hopping from one direction to the other is the principle behind QPSK and DQPSK. ‘To obtain QAM. the only other parameter that needs to change is the amplitude; in other words, the height of the wave. All the modulation techniques that you have seen up to this point changed the orientation of the wave but kept the wave at the same size. With QAM, four different amplitudes, or power levels, are determined: null (no signal), low, average, or high. Because OFDM specifies that each tone can have a different orientation (up, lef, down, or right), the signal strength information can be coupled with the signal orientation Four amplitudes multiplied by four directions create 16 possibilities (16 symbols), thus the name of the first variant: 16-state QAM (16-QAM).. ‘The 16-QAM variant allows 4 bits to be coded by symbol and 500 kb/s per carrier, or 24-Mbis total throughput, With this speed, one-half the bits are redundant, to make sure that the signal is, understood. By increasing the density of useful information to three-fourths (with only one- fourth of the bits redundant), the speed increases to 750 kb/s per tone, for a total speed of 36 Mbis. To increase the speed even more in a wireless network, OFDM can use 64-state QAM (64- QAM). The behavior is the same, except that there are 64 possibilities in total (64 symbols), and 8 bits are coded in each symbol. Using 64-QAM allows | Mb/s per carrier, for a total speed of 48 Mb/s. At that speed, two-thirds the bits are information bits and one-third are redundant. ©2011 Caco Systems, Ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-101 By increasing the ratio to three-fourths information and one-fourth redundant bits the speed can increase to 1.125 Mbis per carrier, for a total speed of $4 Mb. Is it possible to go even higher? Even though 128-QAM does exist to interferences to be used in the networks that exist today. is probably too sensitive In summary, these modulations are available: = DSSS exists in IEEE 802.11 and 802.11b and uses these modulations: — _ DBPSK, with Barker chipping, resulting in 1-Mb’s throughput — DQPSK, with Barker chipping, resulting in 2-Mb/s throughput — _ DQPSK, with CCK 16 codes, resulting in 5.5-Mb/s throughput — DQPSK, with CCK 128 codes, resulting in 11-Mbis throughput © OFDM exists in IEEE 802.1 1g and 802.1 1a and uses these modulations: — BPSK, with 125 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 6-Mb/s throughput — BPSK, with 187.5 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 9-Mb/s throughput — QPSK, with 250 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 12-Mb/s throughput — QPSK, with 375 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 18-Mb/s throughput — _ 16-QAM, with $00 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 24-Mb/s throughput — _ 16-QAM, with 750 kb’s of data per tone, resulting in 36-Mb/s throughput — _ 64-QAM, with 1000 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in 48-Mb/s throughput — _ 64.QAM, with 1125 kb/s of data per tone, resulting in S4-Mb/s throughput, 7-102 Implementing Gisoa Unifiad Wireloss Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0 (© 2077 Cisco Systems, Ine Channels and Overlapping Issues This topic describes how channel sizes affect network behavior. Overlap Issues * With channels built for 5-MHz interchannel space, each DSSS channel uses more than one channel + Only three or four nonoverlapping channels are available in the 2.4-GHz ISM band. + Channel overlap can be cochannel interference or adjacent-channel interference. ASAD aca Gis |-—— 22042 | bans aie When you use spread spectrum technologies in wireless networks, what happens when you use 20- or 22-MHz* spectrums instead of the narrowband 2-MHz spectrum? ‘The ISM band (2.4-GHz spectrum) was planned with channels that were defined by their center peak frequencies, 5 MHz apart. There are 11 channels available in the United States, 13 in Europe, and 14 in Japan. But if device uses a channel that is 22-MHz wide (11 MHz on each side of the peak channel), that channel will encroach on the neighboring channels. Therefore, two devices that use two adjacent channels in the same area will interfere with cach other. As a result, there are three nonoverlapping channels in the United States: 1, 6, and 11. Any attempt to use channels that are closer to each other will result in interference issues. Nonoverlapping channels need to be separated by 25 MHz at center frequency, or by five channel bands, In Europe, as many as four ‘channels (1, 5, 9, and 13) can be used. Because European channels are a little closer, they overlap a bit more, which creates a stightly higher average noise level. In Japan, four channels (1, 6, 11, and 14) can be used because 14 is far apart from the other channels. ‘When two APs use channels that are too close to each other, those APs create what is called adjacent channel interference, When two APS must be located in the same area, if nonoverlapping channels are unavailable, itis better to put the APS on the same channel than to put them a few channels apart * DSSS uses a 22-MHz-wide signal, and OFDM uses a 20-MHz-wide signal, ‘©2011 Cisco Systems, ne. ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-108 APs on the same channel will hear each other, and each will be able to detect that the other is transmitting. When a wireless device transmits, it informs the cell in its header about the duration of its message. The neighboring AP hears this information and stays quiet while the signal is sent, Sharing a channel stows down both cells, but each can cope with the other. There will stil be some interference: Some clients of the first AP might send a signal without the second AP or its client hearing the message, thus creating collisions. This interference is called cochannel interference If the APs are two or three channels apart, they can stil be disturbed by the other signals, but they will be unable to hear the other messages that state the duration of the emission, The result is many collisions. In a good wireless design, only nonoverlapping channels are next to one another. In the other bands that are used in wireless networks, called Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure (UNI, the first (UNII-1) has its channels 10-MHz apart: 34, 36, 38, 40, 42, 44, and 48. To avoid interferences (in some countries, for regulation reasons), only the 36, 40, 44, and 48 nonoverlapping channels are used. In the second and third infrastructures (UNII-2 extended and UNII-3), the channels are 20-MHz apart (and the numbering system is in the form 149, 153, 157, 161—four digits apart, instead of ‘two digits), and are considered nonoverlapping by default. This second spectrum has as many as 23 nonoverlapping channels, but its regulation is different from the ISM band. 1-104 Implementing Ciso Unified Wireless Networking Essentials ((UWNE] v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Inc Summary This topic summarizes the key points that were discussed in this lesson. nary * Spread spectrum technologies offer better resistance to narrowband interferences. + Wireless networks use DSSS. + DBPSK allows 1 Mb/s; DOPSK allows 2 Mbis. + Using CCK increases the speed to 11 Mbis. + OFDM uses subcarriers to carry the signal. + BPSK allows 9 Mbis; QPSK allows 18 Mb/s. = Using QAM increases the speed to 54 Mb/s. * Larger channels imply interference and channel colocation planning. (© 2011 Gisoo Systems, ns Wireless Fundamental 1-705 1-108 Implementing Cisco Unifed Wireless Networking Essentiala (1UWNE) v2.0 ‘©2011 Cisco Systems, Ine Lesson 6 Describing Wireless Regulation Bodies, Standards, and Certifications Overview Sending information through wireless devices implies the use of the RF spectrum. Different countries have different rules about which transmit (Tx) power is allowed in specific frequencies. To allow interoperability, vendors need to use a common set of protocols to send information. This lesson gives you the information that you need to understand which bodies regulate the use of the wireless spectrum and which organization creates the protocols that are used in wireless networks. The lesson also describes the organization that ensures that all vendors implement protocols in the same way so that real interoperability is possible. Objectives Upon completing this lesson, you will be able to describe wireless regulation bodies, standards, and certifications. This ability includes being able to meet these objectives: = Describe the IEEE = Describe the Wi-Fi Alliance ‘= Describe country code regulatory bodies such as the FCC and ETSI = Describe 802.114 = Describe the 802.11 family of protocols = Describe the 802.11 standards for channels and speeds = Describe the 802.11 original protocol = Describe the 802.1 1b protocol = Describe the 802.1 1g protocol = Describe how 802.1 1b and 802.11g interact, = Describe the 802.1 1a protocol Describe the 802.1 1n protocol Describe the main components of the 802.1 In protocol Describe 802.1 In channel aggregation Describe 802.1 In MAC layer enhancements Describe 802.1 In spatial multiplexing Describe 802.1 In transmit beamforming, Describe 802.11n MRC Describe the main benefits of $02.1 1n for all wireless stations Describe 802.1 In Cisco enhancements, Describe throughput values for different schemes 1-108 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) 20 (©2011 Cisco Systems, ne IEEE Wireless Standards This topic describes the role of the IEEE for wireless networks. he IEEE + The IEEE develops communicationstandardsin electrical and computer sciences, engineering, and elated disciplines. + There are more than 1300 protocols. * The 802.11 committee analyzes the applications and environments in which wireless networks are used and develops standards for them, + The 802.11 family has more than 30 subprotocols. IEEE Wireless networks use the industrial, sciemtific, and medical (ISM) bands. Being able to use a bband, or range of frequencies, does not mean using it in any way you like. Important elements, such as which modulation technique to use, how a frame should be coded, which type of headers should be in the frame, what the physical transmission mechanism should be, and so ‘on, must be defined for machines to communicate with one another effectively. ‘The IEEE defined these elements. The IEEE is a nonprofit organization of researchers and engineers, counting more than 370,000 members worldwide, whose aim is to develop communication standards in electrical and computer sciences, engineering, and related disciplines. The IEEE has published more than 900 standards and is working on more than 400 others In February 1980, the IEEE communication committee defined several network communication areas, which were divided into working groups. This is why most network protocols today start with 802 (a combination of numbers that represent 1980 [80] and February (02)). One of the groups, the IEEE 802.3 committee, worked on the Ethernet networks. In 1985, the U.S. FCC decided to open several bands of the wireless spectrum for use without a government license. These bands were already allocated to equipment such as microwave ovens in many countries. Many other countries made the same decision in subsequent years Many vendor-proprietary solutions started to use these frequencies to send data, but without any common technique. In 1990, a new IEEE committee, called 802.11, was set up to analyze the applications and environments in which wireless networks are used. However, it was only in 1997 that the committee started publishing its fist protocol (though prestandard devices were already shipping). This protocol defined how wireless devices should transmit in the ISM band, ‘©2011 Gisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 1-108 When an IEEE committee works on a standard, the members ask engineers from all the appropriate companies in the field to participate in the development of the specification. The 802.11 committee is no different. Engineers from many wireless data companies (and some wired LAN companies) together developed a standard that they believe is a high-quality, high- performance standard. For this reason, an IEEE 802.1 radio isa better product than any older, proprietary products. The 802.11 standard defines such things as receiver sensitivity, MAC layer performance, data rates, Security, and so on. Radio engineers from wireless companies such as Cisco (Aironet), Harris Corporation (Intersil), and Lucent Technologies (Agere) and network engineers from companies such as Bay Networks, 3Com Corporation, and Microsoft worked together to define the 802.11 specifications. IEEE 802.11 actually forms a large family of protocols. Most vendors follow this family of protocol specifications when building wireless devices. Today, whenever a wireless device is used, its Layer 1 and Layer 2 functionalities are defined by an IEEE 802.11 series protocol. Some of these protocols will be defined later in this lesson. 710 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Exsentials (UWNE)v20 (© 2041 Cisco Systems, Ine Wi-Fi Alliance This topic describes the wireless hardware certification body. Wi-FiAlliance ‘The WiFiAliance certifies interoperability between WLAN products. Products include 802. 11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n, duatband products, and security testing, ‘The organization provides assurance to customers of migration and integration options. + Cisco is a founding memberof the Wi-Fi Alliance. + Certified products can be found at http://www.wici.org mrp When vendors create a wireless device, they usually follow the 802.11 specifications; but following those specifications does not guarantee that the device will be compatible with other wireless devices on the market, Some vendors might choose to implement only part of the protocol specifications or to implement extra features that are not mentioned in the 802.11 family. The IEEE has no power to require a company to implement certain protocols in its products, ‘The Wi-Fi Alliance was created to solve the compatibility issue. The Wi-Fi Alliance develops rigorous tests and conducts Wi-Fi certification of wireless devices that implement various wireless IEEE 802.11 specifications. Ifa product is fully compatible with other devices currently on the market, then that product receives a Wi-Fi certified label, which is usually visible on the back of any certified wireless LAN (WLAN) adapter or access point (AP). Created in 2000, the Wi-Fi Alliance has certified more than 4000 products. If you buy a wireless product that does not have the Wi-Fi certified stamp, then the product probably has features that make it incompatible with the products of other vendors. This fact does not mean that the product will not work, but to send and receive data, you will probably need to buy other devices from the same vendor to ensure the compatibility of all the devices that must work together. ‘An interesting point is that the reference APs that the Wi-Fi Alliance uses for compatibility testing are Cisco products: Cisco Aironet 1242AG Access Point for 802.1 la/b/g and Cisco 1252 Access Point for 802.1 In draft 2.0. ‘©2071 Cisco Systems, Ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1117 Regulatory Bodies ‘This topic describes the local regulation authorities that define which channels can be used and the level of transmission power that is allowed. ry Bodies Each country or region defines rules about the use of the RF space, including these rules: » Which frequencies are allowed (spectrums and channels) + Which transmit powers are possible (transmitterand antenna gain and EIRP) + How a wave can be sentin each frequency (modulation and encoding techniques) ‘The IEEE defines Layer | and Layer 2 protocols, and the Wi-Fi Alliance ensures compatibility, However, each country has its own rules about which type of radio signal can be sent over which frequency and which signal strength can be used. Nevertheless, country-specific regulations and IEEE protocols are linked. The IEEE would probably not define a protocol that matches frequencies that are not allowed in other countries. Each committee tries to work on a worldwide, common point of convergence and need. However, when the IEEE defines a protocol to describe how a radio device can behave in a certain frequency range, that protocol influences each local regulatory body, causing them to consider the protocol and decide whether it can be implemented locally. The regulatory bodies probably also are influenced by the decision of other countries to adopt the protocol. Nevertheless, each country has its own set of regulations. Several countries can (and often do) group their rules into one global regulatory domain, In the United States and several other countries in the American continents, the FCC determines which frequencies and transmission power levels may be used. Europe and some other countries (such as Israel or Mexico) follow the specifications of the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI). In Japan, the Ministry of Communication defines rules, and Telecom Engineering Center (TELEC) manages the application of those rules. Before implementing a network, make sure that the device uses a channels and transmits at a level of power that comply with local regulations. Each regulatory domain has its own rules and habits. Some local authorities use accredited companies to randomly check new networks, mainly outdoor wireless installations, for compliance. If'a noncompliant network is found, the fine can be prohibitive; if the installation ‘was made by a professional, the result can include a prison sentence. Other local authorities adopt a trust-by-default attitude and inquire only when a neighbor complains about undue interference. In any case, finding the exact Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (EIRP) is difficult without access to all the elements (transmitter, cable specifications, and antenna). 1-112 implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (1UWNE) v2.0 (© 2011 Cisco Systems, in. FCC This topic describes the FCC rules. ina Requirements Antennas + Antennas must use a unique or proprietary connector. » Cisco Aironet products typically use RP-TNC connectors. + Some Cisco products designed for professional installation can use nonproprietary connectors, such as a type N connector. FCC Part 15 Standards + Approved antennas may exceed the regulations of other countries, + Exceeding the regulations might lead to interference problems. + Penaltiescan resultin fines. + FCC standards apply to Part 15 users in the United States + Different countries have similar standards. ‘The FCC added rules about spread spectrum technologies in 1994, These rules require that an antenna that is sold with a product must be tested and approved with that product. To keep users from installing any antenna that they want, the FCC also implemented a rule that states that any removable antenna must use a unique, nonstandard connector that is not available through general distribution channels. Cisco uses a reverse-polarity threaded Neill-Concelman (RP-TNC) connector. This connector ‘complies with the FCC requirement. The connector looks like a standard threaded Neill- Concelman (TNC), but the center contacts have been reversed. This design prevents a standard, off-the-shelf antenna from being attached to a Cisco Aironet RF product. ‘The FCC does permit a professional installer to use other antennas or connectors. A professional installer is defined as someone who has been trained in the applicable rules and regulations, receives compensation for the work, has knowledge of radio emissions, and can verify that a site that deviates from the standard product-set requirements meets the limitations of the FCC rules. {© 2017 Cisco Systems, ne, Wireless Fundamentals 1-173 “The following is an excerpt from FCC Title 47, Section 15.203: 15.203 Antenna Requirement “An intentional radiator shall be designed to ensure that no antenna other than that furnished by ‘he responsible party shall be used with the device. The use of a permanenity ‘attached antenna or ofan antenna that uses a unique coupling tothe intentional radiator shall be considered Oconto comply with the provisions of this section. The manufacturer may desig the unit so Sree screen replace a broken antenna, but the use ofa standard antenna jack oF ‘electrical aaa recon is prohibited. This requirement doesnot apply to carrier current devices © seine operated under the provisions of §15.211, §15.213, $18.217, $18.219, oF $15.21. ooo tuts requirement does not apply to imentional radiators that mst be professionally earned, such as perimeter protection systems, some field disturbance sensors. oF to other iretathenal radiators. Any other intentional radiators must be measured at the installation site poco dance with $15 31(d). However, the installer shall be responsible for ensuring that the proper antenna is employed so that the limits in this part are not exceeded, Tae Implement “114 Implementing Cisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (UWNE) v2.0, ©2017 Cisco Systems, ine. FCC Example int-to-muttipoint Maximum of 38-d8m EIRP 30-d8m maximum transmitter power with 6-dBi maximum gain of antenna and cable combination ‘A1:1 ratio between the maximum power and maximum gain Reduce transmit power below maximum of 30 d8m by 1 dBmand increase maximum antenna and cable system gain by 1 dBi Point-to-point + Maximum of 36-d8m EIRP + 30-d8m maximum transmitterpower with 6-dBi gain of antenna and ‘cable combination * FCC allows exceeding the 36-d8m EIRP in point-to-point installations, using the 3:1 ratio rule + Reduce transmit power below maximum of 30 dBmby 1 dBmand increase maximum antenna and cable system gain by 3 dBi ‘The figure illustrates the FCC standards to which Cisco Aironet products adhere. The following. is an excerpt from FCC Title 47, Section 15.247 (8) The maximum peak ouput power of the intentional radiator shall not exceed the following — (1) (I) For frequency hopping systems operating in the 2400-2483.5 MHz or 5725-5850 MHz band and for all direct sequence systems: 1 watt. — (3) ..if transmitting antennas of directional gain greater than 6 dBi are used, the peak ‘output power from the intentional radiator shall be reduced below the stated values in paragraphs (b)(1) or (b)(2) of this section, as appropriate, by the amount in dB that the directional gain of the antenna exceeds 6 dBi. Systems operating in the 2400-2483.5 MHz band that are used exclusively for fixed, point-to-point operations may employ transmitting antennas with directional gain greater than 6 dBi provided the maximum peak output power of the imtentional radiator is reduced by 1 dB for every 3 dB that the directional gain of the antenna exceeds 6 dBi {©2011 Cisco Systems, ne ‘Wirsless Fundamentals 1-118 2.4-GHz EIRP Ouiput Rules: FCC E (Conit.) Point-to-Multtipoint Maia aged LN PT FCC maximum 30 48m 6dBi 368m Ciscomaximum 20 48m 16081 364Bm ‘The above values reflect the 1:1 rule a ee ‘The above values reflect the 3:1 rule. ‘The figure illustrates the decibel referenced to | milliwatt (dBm) ratings for the various output levels that ate available with Cisco Aironet wireless equipment. The figure also shows the EIRP that results when the AP is used with a 6 decibel referenced to isotropic antenna (dBi) patch antenna, ‘The maximum EIRP that the FCC allows for a Part 15 2.4-GHz device in the United States is 36 dBm. The standards are different for specific point-to-point systems. However, this course focuses on WLANS, which are considered point-to-multipoint solutions. As a result, the ‘maximum BIRP that is allowed must not exceed 36 dBm, and the maximum gain on an antenna ‘must not exceed 16 dBi (for the United States) unless installed by a professional ‘The FCC rules enforce that, for point-to-point links, if the antenna is more than 6 dBi, each additional gain of 3 dBi must be compensated by a 1-dB decrease in transmitter power. For example, if the maximum allowed Tx power is 30 dBm with a 6-dBi antenna, then using a 36- 4Bi antenna (which is 30-dB more than 6 dBi) implies that the transmit power must be reduced 10 dBm. This reduction respects the rule because each additional 3 dB in antenna gain effectively implies a 1-B decrease in transmitter power. For point-to-multipoint links, each additional gain of 1 dBi on the antenna must be compensated by a 1-dB decrease in transmitter power. Note ‘The highest-gain antenna that is approved by Cisco for 2.4 GHz Is the 21-4Bi parabolic antenna, 1-116 Implementing Gisco Unified Wireless Networking Essentials (IUWNE) v2.0 ‘© 2011 Cisco Systems, Inc. European Telecommunication Standards Institute This topic reviews the ETSI rules. 2.4-GHz EIRP ¢ ules: ETSI Example ETS! stipulates a maximum of 20 dBm EIRP on oint-to- multipoint and point-to-point installations; also stipulates 17-d8m maximum transmitter power with 3-dBi gain attributed to antenna and cable combination. + Professional installers are allowed to increase the gain of an antenna and cable system if the transmitter power is reduced below 17 dBm in a 1:1 ratio, + Reduce transmit power below maximum of 17 dBmby 1 dBmand increase antenna and cable system gain by 1 dBi ‘The figure illustrates the ETSI standards to which Cisco Aironet products adhere. The following is an excerpt from the document ETSI EN 300 328-1 V1.2.2 (2000-07): 5.2 Transmitter parameter limits — 5.2.1 Effective radiated power The effective radiated power is defined as the total power of the transmitter and is calculated according to the procedure given in subclause 7.2.1. The effective radiated power shall be equal to or less than ~10 dBw (100 mW) EIRP. This limit shall apply for any combination of power level and intended antenna assembly: — 5.2.2 Peak Power Density ‘The peak power density is defined as the highest instantaneous level of power in Watts per Hertz generated by the transmitter within the power envelope. For equipment using FHSS ‘modulation, the power density shall be limited to 10 dBw (100 mW) per 100 kHz EIRP. For equipment using other types of modulation, the peak power shall be limited to -20 dBw (10 mW) per MHz EIRP. ‘S2017 Cisco Systems, Ine Wireless Fundamentals 1-117 2.4-GHz E Example (Cont) IRP Output Rules: ET ae cia Governing body 1745 Cisco dipole 178m ‘antennas Reduced Tx power 154m Reduced Tx power 13¢8m Reduced Tx power 748m Reduced Tx power 008m Governing bodies with 20-dBm ceiling on EIRP: ETSI, France, Singapore, Israel, Mexico Point-to-Multipeintand Pointto-Point ee ee fig ee ey 38 2248) 58 781 13481 20a The above values reflect the 1:1 rule. 20 dm 19248m 20am 20am 208m 208m The EIRP of a transmitter is the power that the transmitter would appear to have if it were an isotropic radiator (if the antenna radiated equally in all directions). By virtue of the gain of a radio antenna (or dish), a bea formed that preferably transmits the energy in one direction, ‘The power levels for some countries that use the ETSI regulatory domain vary widely. ‘The output of the radio is measured in decibel referenced to | milliwatt. The figure lists these ratings for the various output levels that are available with Cisco Aironet wireless equipment and the EIRP that results when various antennas are used, ‘The maximum EIRP that is allowed for a 2.4-GHz device in France, Singapore, Israel, and Mexico and by ETSI is 20 dBm. The standards are different for specific However, this course focuses on WLANS, which are considered to be point-to-multipoint solutions, so the maximum EIRP that is allowed must not exceed 20 dBm, and the maximum gain on an antenna must not exceed 20 dBi. int-to-point systems, 1-116 [Implementing Cisoo United Wireless Networking Essentas (UWNE) v20, (© 2011 Cisco Systems, Ine. 802.11d Amendment World-Mode 802.11d 802.11dis a ratified IEEE amendment. ‘World mode is a Cisco implementation of the 802.114. ‘World mode defines for a country: Allowed channels Allowed powerlevel ranges 802.11dallows the operation of a WLAN client radio in multiple regulatory domains. ‘The 802.11d amendment allows you to send regulatory domain information to your client, which can then adapt to those regulations. Because various regulations around the globe vary, based on power levels and channel use, providing one product that can be used in all locations becomes difficult. For example, a device that is set up for use in the United States (using the North American regulatory domain) might not be permitted in the United Kingdom (where ETSI regulations are in place) because of power-level differences. A U.K. device might not be usable in the United States because the extra two channels that are available in the product are prohibited by the North American regulatory domain. This fact hinders mobility and portability (two key benefits of WLANs). Globetroiters that move from country to country need to carry various cards that are based on specific regulatory domains. Even more problematic, a global company must order, stock, and ship different products, based on the locations in which its users are working, But what happens when the radio device is embedded inside the computer? How do you physically change the radio from one domain to another? One option is to require users to set the frequency and power parameters for the location in which they work. Unfortunately, most regulatory agencies fear that users will not do this task properly, and therefore itis not permitted in most locations, A second choice is to set the radio parameters to the lowest common denominator for the majority of the regulatory domains. Consider, for example, a 2.4-GHz implementation. You can. set the maximum power to 30 milliwatts (mW, or 15 dBm). With a 2.2-dBi dipole, this setting keeps the EIRP to less than 20 dBm (the EIRP limit of ETSI), meets the 10-mW/MHz Japanese limit, and is well below North American limits. For the channel selection, permit only the U.S. channels where all 11 are usable (most ETSI countries and Japan). This solution excludes only 1 few countries that have limited channel operation, However, this approach also limits the flexibility of the WLAN systems, reducing channel capabilities in ETSI countries and Japan, as, ‘well as reducing the range (because of lower power) in North American domains. ‘©2011 isco Systems, ine ‘Wireless Fundamentals 1-119

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