Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)

Univerisity of Technology Sydney

Power System Operation and Protection - (48583) - Spring 2016
Assignment No. 3

Christopher Earnshaw - 11713233

Faculty of Engineering and IT - Electrical

Abstract To write a research paper that can address the

industrial practices, or design procedures, or recent
developments, or future trends for Wide Area Monitoring
Systems (WAMS). The research paper is for an audience of
senior engineers. The paper will outline the overall topic of
research, and then focus on what is considered to be unique or
interesting aspects of the topic. Concluding with a consideration
of future trends and their likely impact on current engineering
practice.

INTRODUCTION

The typical power system is comprised of a number of

generators that will use inputs such as coal, gas, oil,
sun and wind that are then converted into electrical
power. Nowadays a high number of these generators will
produce alternating voltages and currents (AC) that are
then transmitted over long distances to be used for a
variety of applications and loads. When considering the
financial and economic aspects of power transmission, it
is important to transmit power at higher voltages so that a
wide variety of transmission line losses can be
effectively minimised. In order to attain the outcome of
minimised losses; the voltages are transformed at various
stages of the transmission process (which also generates
another loss when transformed, albeit small). This ability to
handle power by the transformers is a result of the
product of current and voltage. This relationship will
allow higher voltages to be transmitted that have a much
smaller current, which is ideal when considering the
minimisation of long transmission line losses. Physically
speaking, an important consideration is that a large
majority of the high voltage transmission lines are
employed via overhead transmission over long
geographical distances. This is an optimal approach due
to the ease of construction, cost and maintenance of
overhead transmission. However in certain areas of the
country, it is more aesthetically appeasing to have power
transmitted via underground transmission lines. When
considering Australia, the household voltage is 240 Volts

at 50 Hertz, and the usual transmission line voltage

extends up to a range of 500kV-800kV. These differing
levels of voltage are obtained by a number of stages
between the generation and load, (i.e transmission, subtransmission and distribution services). It is also highly
important to note, that the actual power handling
capacity of the system needs to be approximately 1020% above the expected load of the system, so that
ample security can be afforded when required. The
typical power network also has a number of cross
connections, so that in the event of a fault, one particular
system can be shut down for inspection/ maintenance,
and the other sections can fill the shortfall in supply to
the load. With all of these factors and components to
consider, this research paper will explore how the entire
power network is monitored, managed and controlled
over a wide area. This research paper will also consider
additional insight into the future of power network
management, and how the power network needs to adapt
and/or be modified, to meet a variety of requirements by
the users and changing trends/technology.
I. Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS)
Fundamental Theory
A well run power network must be able to readily
provide power to the end user on demand, in an efficient,
timely and secure manner. However due to the fact that
loads are constantly changing, and may vary rapidly at
different times of the day/year, the power network must
be able to offer enough generation of power to meet
these needs. The operators of the power system must be
able to access timely information in order to exercise
control over any portion of the system. In order to
achieve this, a Wide Area Monitoring System (WAMS)
is implemented. The power network is broken down into
geographical areas known as grids that will cover
certain areas, for example; Sydney basin. An Energy

Management Control Centre (EMCC) is established to

control a particular gird or generation centre, with a
number of EMCCs dotted around the country in this
fashion. These EMCCs implement controls over their
allocated grid, so that they can manage, respond to and
mitigate any of the following examples:

Faults that may occur in the system

Man-Made Faults
Generation of power (day to day operation)
Load Balancing and Delivery
Natural Disaster Management
Maintenance and Construction

So in order for the EMCC to be adequately prepared to

handle any of the listed constraints that may arise from
time to time, it is imperative that the grid operators can
respond, control and be educated quickly, depending on
the severity of the listed examples. They achieve this by
implementing measurement units at various stages of the
grid at recurrent intervals, in order to grasp the estimated
voltage of the system and network flow. The naming
convention for this approach is called the State
Estimation, and will be explored at various stages of
this research paper. This innate requirement is also used
to achieve precise and correct power delivery to the end
user, without interruption or delay at any time of the day;
this approach is called Load Tracking. In recent times
the measurement techniques stated earlier, can be
tracked and captured instantly with the use of the Global
Positioning System (GPS), utilising a highly effective
technique called Synchrophasors technology.
Synchrophasors
AC voltages and currents operate in a sinusoidal fashion;
this operation determines the frequency of a system. As
mentioned previously, Australia uses a 50 Hz frequency
at 240 volts; the figure below graphically demonstrates
this sine wave:

Figure 1 Graphical representation of a sine wave

The sinusoid can be expressed as follows

mathematically:

Where X denotes the RMS value of the sinusoid. The

Phasor of the target line voltage is usually determined by
taking samples of a sinusoid over a time period, which is
also known as a Data Window that is generally taken
over one period of the sinusoid at a
bus/terminal/substation. The GPS Satellite is fitted with
appropriate sensors, so that the satellite can transmit 1
data pulse per second (pps) that will accurately measure
the target transmission line, via measuring units that are
placed at appropriate locations within the power
network. The figure below provides a basic
understanding of this concept:

Figure 2 WAMS Satellite configuration

In this example the red sinusoid represents a substation

voltage measured at t = 0, is captured at an instant of
1pps by the GPS satellite receiver. The green sinusoid
represents another substation voltage measured also at t
= 0, and is captured at the same instance of 1pps. Both
red and green synchrophasors can now be graphically
put together in order to show the relative voltage phase
magnitude and phase angles, at the same instance of
capture. The synchrophasors can be accurately captured
on all of the grid network busses that exist within the
system. This then allows the EMCC to form an accurate
representation of what is happening to the voltage or
current within the system. The use of a sample rate of
1pps, also allows the operator to refresh the phasor
diagram display frequently and allow accurate tracking
of the systems voltage/current whenever it may be
required. The operation of the synchrophasor system is
graphically displayed overleaf in block format:

Figure 3 Baisc Synchrophasor monitoring and control

Sequential Measurement
When discussing the AC power network, it is important
to remember that the makeup of the network consists of
a number of three phase sources and loads. When the
three phases are balanced, this is considered to be the
normal operating condition, and will become unbalanced
when a fault or disturbance in the network occurs. These
unbalances in the system will usually only last
momentarily before the system continues with its usual
operation. However when the three phase voltage and
currents suffer from an acute bout of unbalancing, the
negative and zero components come into focus of
analysis. Under normal operating conditions the
unbalanced fault presents a problem, in the form of small
levels of zero and negative sequence voltage. Due to the
fact that a majority of power network problems are
handled in positive quantities, we measure
synchrophasor values from the positive sequence voltage
and current. We can achieve this by measuring the
individual synchrophasor phasor voltage and current,
denoted by
. So that we can progress onto
calculating the positive synchrophasor sequence as:

Measurement Units
A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is installed at
appropriate points within the power network in order to
measure the Synchrophasors. The currents and voltages
that exist within the power system network are
transformed to measurable levels by the systems
instrument transformers. The filter component of the
PMU removes the critically induced voltages and
currents, in addition to removing high frequencies that
would otherwise cause aliasing errors in the sample data.
The GPS receiver that provides the GPS with the 1pps is
divided into desired sampling rates via the phase-locked
clock built into the GPS unit. The most frequent type of

sampling rate will occur between 12 samples/per cycle

of the power frequency, and extend to higher sampling
rates into the kilohertz. The component that will handle
the conversion between the phase samples into the
synchrophasor is known as the phase processor. The
phase processor takes the synchrophasor values and will
convert it into a positive sequence synchrophasor
measurement; this positive measurement is then allotted
an internal time stamp for providing a collected stream
of transmission data to the synchrophasor output. The
rate of collected samples is purely dependent on the
users requirements and the type of report that is
required.
WAMS Architecture
The figure below graphically demonstrates the higher
level structure of the WAMS architecture:

Figure 4 Basic graphical representaion of WAMS

architectire

The WAMS architecture consists of multiple PMUs that

are usually individually installed in all of the network
substations from the previous section, this is then
connected to the Phase Data Connectors (PDC).This
ensures that there is a network-wide phasor data set
available for all grids and networks, accessible by all the
differing geographical EMCCs. With the PMU located
within the substation, the most up to date data is
therefore made available, only with the exception of
multiple connected PMUs, that need to then be streamed
via the PDC. With the PDC being connected to a Local
Area Network (LAN), the data can then be sent to the
regional EMCC for analysis via the Wide Area Network
(WAN). Then the regional PDCs can collate the data
from the lower sections and devices by matching it with
the generated time stamps. From here, the data stream of
the WAN can connect the multiple PMUs so they can
then manage multiple inputs and data transfers. The PDC
may also remove corrupted and/or unnecessary data from

the stream so that the phasor reports are up to date and

are accurate.
The LAN and WAN tend to be connected with
fiber optic cabling so that high rates of communication
can be realised. In many cases, the WAN is on a private
network for security and reliability purposes. Where the
distance is too far for fiber optic cabling, substitutes such
as short range microwave transmission may be
permissible, or telephone lines also. However for a
successful implementation of the WAMS it is usually the
case where a reliable and dedicated form of
communication is already in place.
WAMS State Estimation
Considering the measurement of power flow on the
transmission lines, the power throughput into the bus
terminals and the moderation of voltage magnitudes, it is
supposed that the system is Static when being scanned
or Polled by WAMS equipment due to snapshots of
time only. However the system will also need an
estimate of the current operation to postulate a system of
states in order to exhibit the movement of actual power,
as in practice the system is not static. Subject to the
specific measuring device, the scan of the system will be
determined by the processing speed of the instrumental
measuring equipment.
The State of the system must then be
calculated in general terms, this is achieved by taking the
positive sequence voltages at the busses that are
available to the PMU directly. These measurements will
render a series of complex numbers, comprising both
real and imaginary, magnitudes and angles. The resultant
calculations allow for the operators to utilize software to
embrace an accurate picture when polling the power
system. So we begin by analysing the complex voltage
component of an arbitrary three phase network, at bus
with an angle of and a magnitude of , which is
equated as follows:

In order to measure the complex power as well as

injections of power into the system, the real power from
the arbitrary bus to bus combined with a series
impedance of
must be calculated. Furthermore, we
also consider the shunt admittance at bus comprising
:

From here we infer the following:

and
In general terms, the desired measurement of the PMU
purely depends on the state where the complex
component voltage is at angle , so we may also infer
the following:

However when considering the normal measurement

operation, an error component
is assumed to have a
zero mean value, which is independent and combined
with a diagonal covariance matrix :

In order to calculate the minimized weighted difference

estimate of the variance in the actual measurements, we
separate the calculated measurement values as an
individual function of and . Now the weights of the
covariances become inverted, and will add more weight
to acquiring better measurement data and offset lower
quality measurements:

This will render the following identity:

Expressing this new identity in a Taylor expansion about

the last iterate of
:

We note that is the matrix of the first partial derivative

of the element with respect to all the components of ,
which is then calculated at . So now we can postulate
hypothetically that:
and

Where
and
are the respective angles of the series
admittance of the subject shunt branch.

Returning to the notion of a one-step iteration, we render

the following:

The matrix is denoted as a meagre equation to ,

which is normally applied when solving Jacobian
Determinants of a load flow problem. Also with the
matrix denoting a large and similar meagre equation,
normally applied to solving Gaussian elimination
problems. With this arrangement we can then organize
any subsequent measurements into active and reactive
power. The likes of which are then used to simplify our
equation further modelling a Fast Decoupled Load
Flow. When considering the active or real power
(subscript note R), or purely the reactive power
(subscript note A), we infer the following identities:

With the states expressed in angles, and voltages

expressed in magnitudes, we render the following:

From here we can assert a postulation that based on the

diagonal block of matrix , the fast decoupled load flow
has a minor magnitude in its voltage of approximately 1.
Furthermore the approximation in matrix can then be
determined with the angle equal to zero. The voltage
magnitude is also then set equal to zero, so that we can
equate the cost of each individual (single) iteration. With
this under consideration, we can then apply a small
number of measurements of the angle against the prior
equation. We use this approach as it has a number of
compensations that introduce symmetry to the
calculative process.
The PMU also has a function that allows it to
explore the measurement of current in the transmission
line, which can then be used to calculate the Bus
voltages on any adjacent Buses, should the system be
configured as such. Due to the time difference of the
measurements in voltage and current, time tags are not
utilised for this process, as the PMU will become out of
sync with the desired measurements and will delay the
process significantly over a large number of samples.

Calibration of Instrument Transformers (PMU

Estimators)

Figure 5 Example of an array of CT & PT connections

Referring to Figure 5, we note the differing set up of the

Current Transformers (CT), which may also be a
Current-Voltage Transformer depending on the design,
whereby both are expected to have a ratio correction
factor. The Power Transformer (PT) is also shown at a
critical junction in the setup of the simplified network,
the PT has been proven time and again to have a high
degree of accuracy of ratio correction when combined
with a PMU. So we can infer a basic formula for a PMUestimator in order to explain the calibration of a power
system:

Where denotes the diagonal matrix of the ratio

correction, denotes the measurement state and
denotes the complex bus voltage. Of which is to be
determined in the estimation process. It is evident when
taking sample measurements, there are a number of
unknown variables for both and . To work around
this, the ratio correction factor is set to 1 so that a voltage
measurement may be acquired correctly at the initial
stages of commissioning. Only taking one measurement
at the commissioning stage is not enough, so the process
is repeated a number of times to average out the
distribution of measurements and improve accuracy.
The PMU-estimator must also be able to account
for all possible states to be considered worthy of
measuring the ratio correction factors. Hence test
samples are taken over a one day period to allow
investigation of the performance of the PMU-estimator,
prior to final commissioning. When testing the PMUestimator, a number of observations will be made to

assess the performance of the PMU-estimator, and are as

follows:

When conducting the test sample acquisition

over the one day period, the ratio correction
factors of the PT need to be at a constant level.
From the design of a standard PT, there are 12
pre-programmed operating conditions. Under
which the PT must be able to satisfy an accurate
estimate of the ratio correction factor of the PT.
This is crucial if the PT is to be calibrated
correctly; the CTs and CVTs will then operate
accurately as well.
At a minimum, one PT needs to be configured
properly and working in an accurate manner, so
that the commissioning of other PTs may use
this as a reference for their own ratio correction
factor set up.
The overall system state equation model needs to
be accurately calculated in order to determine
the overall system impedance matrix.

II. Wide Area Monitoring Protection and

Control (WAMPC)
Protection
For the normal operation of the WAMS network, there
are a number of Adaptive Step scenarios to be covered
(i.e. Loss-of-Field). Under normal operation, a
microprocessor controlled relay will allow a remote
operator to change settings as required to meet different
protective needs. The idea of Adaptive step protection
must be considered in the WAMS so that there can be an
instantaneous response to an unexpected change in the
systems normal operation. Adaptive step protection is
evident when the PMU operates under abnormal
conditions, and will have a number of automatic
adjustment functions to the systems protection under
these unexpected conditions.
Reliability and Security
When discussing reliability and security of protective
relays, the usual approach is to design a WAMS for
reliability over security. However trade-offs arise
frequently, namely when a relay dispatches a trip signal
to a circuit breaker, when it should otherwise not be
warranted. The inverse scenario may also occur where a
protective relay will not dispatch a trip signal, when it

should otherwise be warranted. The following Figure

shows a concept that can overcome these issues:

Figure 6 Voting concept for multiple relay protection

In order to combat either issue, it was supposed that

there should be 3 protective relays in total (opposed to
just 1 protective relay) installed within the individual
PMU. So that when a trip signal is required to be
dispatched to the circuit breaker, the 2 additional relays
may also adjudicate the process. In this voting fashion
the system now requires two thirds of the relays to detect
the same change in normal operation (or a fault). There
are also a number of other security methods for system
protection by relay (not explored in this research paper).
Monitoring and Relay Control
Whilst the protective relay settings are usually left until
the commissioning stage of the WAMS, they are still
open and subject to review on a pre-determined period,
as directed by the network providers procedural policies
or the designing engineer. The designing of the systems
protective relays are usually made on load
assumptions/usage, and as such they are rarely re-visited
to be re-configured manually. As the operating
conditions of the power network change and shift in
differing directions however, the relay settings will then
become outdated. This will increase the chances of a
False Trip signal being generated by the protective
relays. Modern day PMUs can be utilized to provide the
WAMS operators with programmable tracking of the
network behaviour. They can also provide a suite of realtime alarms, alerts and features to drill down to a certain
protective relays operation to then be acted on
accordingly. This approach is especially prudent to
implement when distance protection is required for the
power system. After an incident occurs, the PMU can
also provide a detailed report to the operator so that they
may change/alter settings as required.

Regulation of Backup Zones

Due to the need for a solution to resolve and
minimise/eliminate losses that occur in the transmission
line, the design engineer will utilize distance relays to
cover the complete transmission line, which can then be
broken down into individual zones of protection. The
following figure provides insight into the breakdown of
each protective zone:

Figure 7 Example of protective zones of a transmission line

Zone 1 & 2 will provide protection for the whole

transmission line, with zone 3 providing a backup
protection for any neighbouring transmission lines.
Combined together, the three protective zones are
usually assigned different relay operating times, with
Zone 1 having the most rapid operating time. Zone 2
having relay operating times between
and
.
Zone 3 has the slowest relay operating time of around 1
second.
This staggering of operating times, allows for
the effective coordination of relays with respect to any
neighbouring lines, to then operate when a fault occurs.
A cascading effect of the relays tripping too early, from
Zone 1 through to Zone 3 can also occur when there are
load excursions. With at least one PMU situated in each
protective zone, there can be adequate control and
monitoring of each individual section that may
experience faults/errors. Backup zones are also
comprised of protective relays usually located within
Zone 3, and are highly sensitive around times of system
disturbances, so that they may be more attuned to a fault
that was not picked up by the initial protective relays.
Load Shielding
A vast majority of modern power networks utilise underfrequency-load-shielding, this enables the power system
to Shed a certain amount of its excess load in order to
match the required load with adequate generation. By
using load-shedding the operators can alter the frequency
of the system to counteract the load miss-match that
occurs, as well as to counter load islanding. When
attempting to anticipate the level of load miss-match, the
operator must rapidly determine an estimate of

appropriate excess load. The operator can then shed the

excess load before the system begins to island and the
islanded frequency fluctuates. A typical power network
will consist of Tie Lines, which are applied to the
system at various generators/ generation busses to
determine/control the load-shedding requirements. This
arrangement is then used to accurately balance the
network load with the network generation. These tie
lines are also connected to the WAMS architecture, so
that it can monitor the fluctuations in frequency/flows.
With the monitoring of the tie line flow, the WAMS can
therefore make an accurate determination of the
impending load-generation imbalance that may exist
within the system. This will then aid the operator in their
determinations of the correct amount of load to shed.
Corrective Actions
Within the WAMS architecture, System Integrity
Protection Schemes (SIPS) exist so that any delay with a
relaying action may be corrected, and add another layer
of overall protection to any of the sections listed
previously. The SIPS is not usually active constantly, but
provisions within the WAMS will trigger an activation
condition for the SIPS to operate. Such as a large
disruption to the power flow, whereby the SIPS control
system would drop a certain amount of load/generation,
when the relay control system is removed on a parallel
line configuration. In certain scenarios where the SIPS
are configured correctly, their design can enhance the
overall operation of the PMU. With the addition of PMU
data the SIPS can be actively engaged within the
management tree, so that the system operators can add
another layer of control and management to the power
network.
III. Wide Area Monitoring Protection and
Control in the Future
Impacts of WAMS in the Future
The advantages of having a WAMS integrated into a
power network are many, so when considering the
impact of technological changes on current WAMS it is
important to remember that current practices of today
will most likely become obsolete in the future. Only to
be replaced by more up to date methods and techniques
applicable to the time and technology. As mentioned
previously the PMU are the building blocks of the
WAMS architecture and functionality. Application
software and Data centres that collect and store
information of the various PMUs, can be implemented
into the overall structure of analytical control of the
power system. This information will only enhance the

capability of power network operators to assess the need

for specific improvements and augmentations to the
existing WAMS.
The specifics of utilising a Data collector, is for
when the synchrophasor information needs to be
collected and stored for analysis and matched against a
number of transmission protocols. The transmission
protocols include IEEE 37.118, IEEE 1344, as well as
phasor data concentration protocols. It is anticipated in
the near future that a super Data collector will be
implemented in the various grids across the county,
utilising fiber optic cabling for fast transmission of
collected information from a variety of distant PMUs.
As soon as the super Data collector is connected into the
WAMS control architecture, WAMS control applications
will then be run in a more effective and fast manner.
When considering the challenges of capturing this vast
quantity of data raised by these two scenarios, extraction
technologies and methodologies will need to be
developed to find a primary solution to the problem.
Development of such a solution is currently in its
beginnings, with further research and collaboration
across a number of different engineering disciplines
required.
One facet of PMU technology yet to be explored
in this research paper is the constantly advancing pace of
better technology to perform the role of the PMU.
Traditionally the PMU was fitted to a broad area and
limited in scope by technological constraints for
monitoring. However with more advanced
manufacturing methods and processor technology, a
modern PMU can effectively be adapted to suit either a
small area or a large with both advantages and
disadvantages for both. Supervisory control and data
acquisition (SCADA) technology also provides another
layer of monitoring and control above the PMU but
below the State estimation control system. SCADA can
provide a regional snapshot of a local grid/network that
aids in the optimisation of the PMU, meaning that all
PMUs can be targeted to provide a more unique purpose
within the WAMS architecture.
Real-Time Calculation of State Models
Since the inception of power system state estimation in
the 1960s, there has always been a need for an effective,
efficient and timely system to provide a high degree of
control. As this research paper has explored previously,
through the use of estimators, a systems voltage and
current can be accurately predicated and then matched to
the actual output. When commonly dealing with nonlinear least square method (similar to robotics
technology), the power systems designers can estimate

poor detection estimation that is derived from a high

quantity of redundant measurements that are available.
When considering the state estimation of the networks
performance, the synchrophasor method described
earlier is the best approach to estimation. With this
method being widely accepted since its inception in the
early 1980s, the technology available to map the
positive sequence measurements of a systems voltage
and current has been improved greatly. By including the
phase measurements to the estimation model for the
PMU, the process has been improved somewhat.
When looking to the future of the state
estimation method(s), new modelling techniques and
data capture methods will be employed to combine both
the linear and non-linear models together, by utilising
better instrumentation equipment with better algorithms
that can handle the complexity of the known calibration
data. Amongst the many available avenues of better state
estimation, is to pursue a hybrid model that can
incorporate PMU and SCADA estimation and
observation modelling to build a better picture of the
network. With this approach and the interfacing of better
software techniques, the network model parameters can
be readily updated, so that the state estimation can be
more accurate with no delay and in real time.
Disturbance Monitoring in WAMS
When considering the varied amounts of possible
network disturbances explored in this research paper, we
must also consider the following propagation noise
effects:

The loss of synchronicity as a result of angle

instability.
Instability in voltages leading to a collapse of
section voltage.
Cascading tripping of protective relays.
Dynamic line loading leading to incoherent line
restoration.
Instability of oscillations leading to independent
local area oscillations.
Over and under frequency of the permissible
network frequency.

So by using the WAMS of the future, these problems

will become easier to manage and implement more
effective solutions. The future of WAMS for the
managing of propagation of noise will give way to better
early warning systems in order to prevent blackouts and
reduce the impact of cascading effects.
When considering the larger scale disturbances,
the problems that lead to a fault will usually develop

over time as opposed to an instantaneous change on a

smaller scale. However the dynamics of the disturbances
that will affect the power network in question, will
reduce any time window between a fault and reaction
from the WAMS, from a number of minutes down to
milliseconds. In most current day fault scenarios the
corrective steps to be taken of identifying the problem to
the corrective action, rely on a number of coordinated
activities within the WAMS architecture. Under current
arrangements there is also a delay in acquiring the
required disturbance data combined with unavailability
of coverage for certain sections of the network.
As technology improves the complete state of
the power network will require real-time sampling of the
various WAMS components in their current state for
disturbance identification. As this can be difficult to
accomplish under current technology, the possibility of
overcoming this flaw is possible in the future. A number
of options being explored are researching improvements
into: load-shedding, out-of-step-relaying, fault clearing,
fast valving, generation dropping and dynamic breaking
to name a few. We note that as a disturbance progresses
within a power network, the state of the overall system
declines and worsens markedly. Preventative measures
are therefore only available when the WAMS generates
an alert to the operator to be actioned.
When considering most power networks, they
will have their own unique methods for dealing with
such a decline in the state of the system. With a set of
detailed emergency procedures drawn up already, these
are usually a heuristic procedure, as is most common and
adaptable to each individual network. However when the
protective area is on a large geographical scale, it
becomes increasingly difficult to enact an emergency
control scheme based on a given set of rigid guidelines.
Such is the need for a distance/ wide area protective
relay to not only be accurate, but adequate to the
networks parameters for an improvement in the
management of disturbances, that also needs to be
developed to counter the tyranny of distance.
The PMUs are also used to acquire the power
systems dynamic frequency and as mentioned
previously, they are installed at critical junctures of the
network. Recently a settings-free algorithm was
presented to handle the particular issue of being able to
accurately determine the fault location of an overhead
transmission line, based solely on the synchronized
measurements of the networks voltage and current (Z.M
Radojevic, B. Kovacevic, G. Preston, V. Terzija et. al).
The algorithm utilises a fast communications channel, in
order to communicate between two synchronized
intelligent electronic devices (IEDs) installed at the line

terminals. Work into the exploration of expanding this to

multiple line terminals is underway, with the
development of technology to handle this requirement.
Load Modelling Estimation
It is paramount that under current and future WAMS, the
power delivery system must contain reliable parameters
and system models, so that there can be an accurate
simulation of the systems operation. The planning of
these provisions needs to be exact and precise in nature,
so that each component of the WAMS can be controlled
in a vigorous manner. Considering that there is a vast
array of components that makeup a WAMS and power
network, each with their own unique operating
characteristics, each interacting differently makes the
task of formulating the exact model parameters difficult
in nature. So by being able to precisely identify and
correct potential errors in the network, accurate state
modelling is of a paramount concern. Through the
recording and logging of different events effect on the
system model through the PMU, the dynamic events may
be taken offline. This is in stark difference to the
reactions of the system models that are agitated with the
same disturbances. So when the differences in events are
confronted, the system model parameters are modified so
that a high correlation can be reached (V. V. Terzjia, H. J
Koglin et. al).
The foremost concern for the power network
operator is that whenever a disturbance occurs, there is a
need for load recovery following the disturbance. This
will tend to inadvertently increase the reactive power
that is consumed by the user, and will subsequently lead
to a reduction in the measured/available voltage in the
power system. Hence the need for a reliable, realistic and
accurate load model to be utilised for load calculation.
By calling on up to date measurement data from a
number of PMUs, it can be deduced that an accurate
estimate of the static load and dynamic load model
parameters may be produced. By combining a nonlinear estimator, the problems surrounding the dynamic
load model parameters can be solved with a genetic
algorithm to assist.
Developing Preeminent PMU Strategies
Whilst there are a number of coordinated strategies to
develop and deploy Smart-Grid technologies, there are
a magnitude of competing interests and stakeholders,
with each party/idea assuming a vastly different ideal
approach. Under an idyllic setting, a power networks
PMUs would be capable of supporting a vast array of
different functions with endless applications. However
due to the complicated nature of the network itself a

number of these ideas will never be possible/realised.

With a vast number of possible solutions and
enhancements to current WAMS components/operations,
there are still a number of unproven technologies that
may or may not come to the fore-front of WAMS
technology and current power system operations. By
combining industry and academic expertise, there may
be a number of suitable applications that may indeed
improve and enhance current WAMS capability. With
advancements in telecommunications and measurement
instrumentation, the reader would be able to speculate
boundlessly on the possibilities that research into this
area may unearth. A number of established and verified
applications to be developed thus far have proven to be
relatively inexpensive and highly effective.
One area for further consideration, as mentioned
previously would be the development of the hybrid
model combining the PMU data/operation with the
SCADA system. With this approach stakeholders may be
able to fully grasp an accurate and direct state
measurement based state estimator. However with this
approach, there may not be a workable approach to
implementation for the foreseeable future, as the industry
appears to be headed in the direction of implementing
PMUs for monitoring networks, hence the diminished
need for redundancy. One area of particular interest that
is due shortly for implementation is the voltage stability
and monitoring control, coordinated with the distributed
generation. This will ensure that the PMU
assisted/hybrid model is still a viable alternative to the
current implementation.
IV. Conclusion
To conclude this research paper, the reader has been
provided with a background, detailed insight, protective
measures and future trends of the WAMS subject matter.
Whilst there are more details that could not be covered
due to the need for brevity, the reader will find ample
documented resources on the topics discussed online.
Whilst the iterative steps detailed within this research
paper contain a large quantity of theory, the applications
of which may differ from grid to grid and state to state.
However the research papers author undertook a vast
amount of research, and came across a lot of WAMS
resources and policies that were general and similar in
nature. So this reinforces the idea that a vast majority of
practices and technologies are very similar in nature
across the country. The most important aspect of this
research paper was the fact that the author discovered a
lot of new information/knowledge that he did not know
before, but has spurred him onto drilling down deeper

into the subject matter, upon the completion of the

Power System Operation and Protection subject.
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