BIRTH OF STRING THEORY

Introduction

String theory is not simply a theory that has emerged within the last decade. This theory has

quite an extensive history that has shown periods of promise and dismal times, as well. Because

string theory has been developed along with many of the other prominent ideas of the last

century, including the Standard Model and quantum mechanics, it has been obscured to the

general public for the most part. Now let’s delve into a fascinating look into the birth of string

theory.

Kaluza - Klein Theory

Kaluza, while studying Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, pondered about the

consequences of adding a fifth dimension to the accepted four dimensions.

The seeds for string theory in the second half of the twentieth century and beyond were

planted in 1919 by Theodor Kaluza, who was working at the University of Konigsberg. Kaluza,

while studying Einstein’s Theory of General Relativity, pondered about the consequences of

adding a fifth dimension to the accepted four dimensions (three spatial dimensions and one time

dimension). When Kaluza included the extra dimension, he discovered that this situation allowed

for the unification of gravity and electromagnetism. This was a very significant breakthrough at

such an early period; however, when Kaluza submitted his findings to Einstein in 1919, Einstein

eventually began to ignore Kaluza’s theory. Although Einstein said, “at first glance I like your

theory enormously,” the simple fact that there was no need or reason for this fifth dimension

ultimately led to its unimportance for many years.

Later, in 1926, Swedish mathematician Oskar Klein confirmed Kaluza’s work by formulating a

quantum theory with Kaluza’s findings. Klein realized that the universe has both “extended” and

“curled-up” dimensions. That is, while we can easily seem and detect the extended dimensions,

some dimensions are curled-up into such a tiny structure that it is not detectable. Today,

Kaluza-Klein theories are defined as those that involve more than four dimensions. Kaluza and
Klein’s work was generally disregarded for a long period of time because new forces were being

discovered. This meant that the Kaluza-Klein Theory had to be amended for each of these new

forces by adding another dimension. Finally, physicists have determined that eleven dimensions

are needed to incorporate all of the forces within the Kaluza-Klein Theory. Interestingly, M-

theory, which is the most modern and comprehensive version of string theory, demands exactly

eleven dimensions. Although the Kaluza-Klein Theory did not prove to actually unite General

Relativty and electromagnetism, this theory is still applicable to today’s latest research.

Early Rise

String theory was introduced during the 1960s as a means of working with the strong nuclear

force and hadrons, which are particles that are affected by the strong nuclear forces such as

neutrons and protons. Despite the initial excitement and work done for about five years

hereafter, the field of quantum chromodynamics appeared to deal with this situation better.

Then, in 1971, string theory incorporated supersymmetry, and this merger resulted in the

creation of superstrings that can exist in ten dimensions. After that, the entire focus of string

theory shifted when physicists moved away from the strong force and hadrons and focused

instead on quantum gravity. At this point, the modern-day promise of string theory arose

because string theory could now be developed to incorporate quantum mechanics and the

previously bothersome force of gravity and the corresponding particle – the graviton.

First Revolution

By the end of 1985, there was not one, but rather, five separate string theories that each

involved ten dimensions. Interestingly, each of the five theories seemed to be accurate.

The “first revolution” in string theory occurred in 1984 when the theory was proclaimed to be

free from anomalies. The work of Green and Schwarz allowed for this significant declaration.

However, by the end of 1985, there was not one, but rather, five separate string theories that

each involved ten dimensions. Interestingly, each of the five theories seemed to be accurate.

This posed as a significant concern until 1994.

Second Revolution

In 1994, the “second revolution” in string theory was born with the work of Seiberg and

Professor Edward Witten. They said that these multiple theories, which also included an

additional eleven dimensional theory, were simply different versions of the same theory.Known

as “M-theory,” this all-in-one theory accounts for the other theories with duality

transformations, which somehow connect the different theories together. These two

revolutions have brought us to modern day and the excitement of string theory.

TYPES OF STRINGS

Introduction

As there are several versions of string theory, there are also different types of strings. These

structures, which are incredibly small, are thought to be the most fundamental structures of

matter. Physicists believe that strings of atoms and quarks were thought to be the smallest

structures and discovered to not actually the most fundamental structures, then can’t there be

a structure smaller than a string? Can there always be a smaller structure then the one we

know? To find out, we must first understand the types of strings.

Open Strings

Open strings are simply one-dimensional structures that have two endpoints. Thus, an open

string can be thought of as a line that has the capability of moving flexibly. These open strings

can create an array of vibrational patterns.

Closed Strings

Closed strings are one-dimensional structures that lack endpoints; therefore, equating them

with flexible circles. These closed strings are typically the traditional representation of

strings.
Heterotic Strings

Heterotic strings are a combination between bosonic strings and superstrings. Bosonic strings

occupy twenty-six dimensions, while superstrings occupy ten dimensions. So, counterclockwise

vibrational patterns of heterotic strings deal with twenty-six dimensions, while clockwise

vibrational patterns deal with ten dimensions. This interesting fact ultimately means that

sixteen dimensions have to be condensed into circular lattices or circle-like packages.

TYPES OF STRING THEORIES

Introduction

“String theory” is a general term that has been manipulated through time and, in fact,

represents numerous theories. The string theory introduced in the 1960s is certainly not as

involved by the term today. Additions, such as supersymmetry and the research of noted

physicists, have shaped string theory from its early beginnings.

Bosonic String Theory

The late 1960s witnessed the birth of string theory through the work of Gabriele Veneziano, a

research fellow at CERN (European Organization of Particle Physics Research). This original

version of string theory is now known as “bosonic string theory” and involved twenty-six

spacetime dimensions. The naming of this theory is due to its use of only bosonic particles. This

meant that the theory was lacking fermions and could not be a grand unification theory. More

troubling than this, though, was the prediction of a “tachyon,” which was a particle whose mass

was actually negative. This implication deemed the entire theory illogical.

Superstring Theory

Superstring theory or supersymmetric string theory added to the previous version of string

theory by incorporating supersymmetry and realizing that bosonic patterns and fermionic

patterns came in pairs. That is, there was “symmetry” between the bosonic and fermionic
patterns. Superstring theory caught on in 1980s; however, there was one significant problem.

Superstring theory can actually be represented by five different theories. How could the one

so-called theory of everything come in five different theories? The five theories - Type I

theory, Type IIA theory, Type IIB theory, Heterotic type O(32), and Heterotic type E8 X E8

theory – are quite similar, though they differ in the minor intricacies of the theories. Each of

these theories has ten dimensions (nine space dimensions and one time dimension)!

Type

Type I string theory includes both open and closed strings. Additionally, the type I theory

states that both orientations are equal. This theory resembles type IIB theory except for the

lack of open loops in the type IIB theory.

Type

IIA

In this theory, the clockwise and counterclockwise vibrations of the strings are opposite. Here,

opposite refers to an idea requiring complex mathematics. Another way of describing this idea

is stating that particles involved with this theory spin in different directions.

Type

IIB

The opposite in nature of the type IIA theory, the type IIB string theory has clockwise and

counterclockwise vibrations that are the same. Similarly, the spin of the particles is identical in

this theory.

HeteroticStringTheory

Heterotic string theory is very interesting because it combines bosonic strings, which need

twenty-six dimensions, and supersymmetry, which involves ten dimensions. This combination

results due to the vibrational patterns. Counterclockwise vibrational patters occupy twenty-six

dimensions, while clockwise vibrational patterns occupy ten dimensions. This means that the

additional sixteen dimensions are somehow condensed into a circular shape. Because there are
two shapes that this circular structure can take, heterotic type O(32) [HO] and heterotic type

E8 X E8 [HE] theory emerged to account for these two possibilities.

M-Theory

The “M” in “M-theory” is not known to stand for anything certainly, though many venture

guesses.

M-Theory was developed as a result of the “second superstring revolution” in 1995. First

introduced by Professor Edward Witten in a stunning lecture at the University of Southern

California, M-theory unites the five different superstring theories and supergravity into one

single theory. M-theory demands eleven dimensions (ten space dimensions and one time

dimension) , and this added dimension that was previously overlooked allows for the combination

of all of the five theories. In addition, M-theory involves a completely new host of concepts

that captivate the mind. Features, such as vibrating two-dimensional membranes, “three-branes”

(three-dimensional structures), and a myriad of other complex ideas, have surfaced after

Professor Witten’s use of dualities with string theory. Dualities, which are theoretical models

that can show the similarity between seemingly dissimilar concepts in physics, were used by

Professor Witten to show the same underlying theory. M-theory is still relatively

underdeveloped and requires more research. Part of the intrigue of M-theory comes from the

name itself. The “M” in “M-theory” is not known to stand for anything certainly, though many

venture guesses (“mystery,” “membrane,” etc…).

DIMENSIONS AND STRINGS

Introduction

These new theories that have been presented involve more than the typical four dimensions.

Ten and even eleven dimensions have emerged. So, what are these extra dimensions and in what

form do they exist?

Current Four Dimensions

Sensory experiences give us information about a 3-dimensional world that includes width,

height, and length (or depth). We all can comprehend these three dimensions simply by moving

in our 3-d world. Einstein claimed that there was also a fourth dimension: time. Much like we can

move in a 3-dimensional world, we also move through time (forwards and backwards). These four

dimensions present a world with three space dimensions and one time dimension.

Six Dimensions

The notion of any extra dimension to the four known dimensions was conceived by the Polish

mathematician Theodor Kaluza in 1919. Kaluza thought that extra spatial dimensions would allow

for the integration between general relativity and James Clerk Maxwell’s electromagnetic

theory. Supported by Swedish mathematician Oskar Klein in the 1920s, these extra dimensions

were actually minute, curled-up dimensions that could not be detected due to their extremely

small size. These two mathematicians said that within the common three extended dimensions

(that we are familiar with) are additional dimensions in tightly curled structures. One possible

structure that could envelop six extra dimensions is the Calabi-Yau shape, which was created by

Eugenio Calabi and Shing-Tung Yau.

 A calabi-yau structure that theoretically contains six dimensions

This structure is much like a tightly wound ball that surrounds six dimensions. This six-

dimensional structure with the three spatial dimensions and the one time dimension results in

the ten-dimensional world. Modern string theory requires these extra dimensions for

mathematical purposes. Each of the five superstring theories requires a total of ten

dimensions- nine spatial dimensions and one time dimension.

One More Dimension

Are there infinite dimensions simply curled up into smaller and smaller structures?

M-theory, which attempts to unify the five theories, requires one more spatial dimension than

the five individual string theories. This new dimension was actually overlooked in past work

because the calculations done were only estimations; this mathematical error blinded physicists

from seeing this extra dimension. As new dimensions have been found, it begs the question as to

whether there are only eleven dimensions? Are there infinite dimensions simply curled up into

smaller and smaller structures?

Branes

The word “brane“ is derived from “membrane“, a 2-dimensional surface on which objects can

move. Branes are essentially the same because the either one or both of the endings of an open

string are moving on them. The image below shows the configuration called a Dirichlet-

Boundary-Condition.
 Two strings bound on a D 2-Brane.

But in contrast to a traditional membrane, branes can have between negative one and ten

dimensions. To distinguish between the number of dimensions involved, branes are written as

‘Dp-brane,’ where p is an integer that represents the number of dimensions. Some of these

dimensions even have special qualities. Maybe you were wondering about a brane that contains a

negative one dimension. This is a brane that is fixed in both time and space and is called a “d

-instanton.: If p equals zero, then all spatial coordinates are fixed; thus, this structure is called

a “D-particle.” A D1-brane is then consequently called a “d-string.” A D9-brane is not spatially

fixed (neither in time nor in space) because it fills the spatial dimensions completely. For this

reason, a string bound to a D9-brane can move around freely in space. This condition is called a

Neumann boundary condition.

STRING INTERACTIONS

Introduction

If these one-dimensional strings really comprise the entire structure of the universe, they

must certainly be able to move and interact in a variety of formats. Although there are many

complicated arrangements of and between strings, only the most fundamental movements are

shown due to the vast and theoretically never-ending number of possibilities.

Basic String Interaction

A string can sporadically separate into two separate strings.

Because strings are assumed to be the most fundamental structures known, their vibrations and

oscillations determine what type of particle they comprise. For example, a certain type of

vibration indicates that the string is part of a photon, electron, etc… Since strings theoretically

exists everywhere, they are bound to collide into each other at some point. This collision can

often result in the combination of two separate strings into one string. Conversely, a string can

sporadically separate into two separate strings. Conceptually, the notion of strings moving
through space and interacting with other strings illustrates the string as a sheet or a tube

based on the type of string involved. With open strings, which may be depicted as simple lines,

the image produced as the string travels through space is a sheet. With closed strings, which

appear as circular or elliptical objects, the image that results when the string travels through

space is a tube. Thus, many illustrations of string interactions show strings as sheets or tubes,

rather than simply thread-like strings.

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Introduction

Because researchers are continually pushing forward the boundary of our understanding, this

section allows to investigate the most recent experiments being done and new information being

collected. These events pertain new findings on string theory or any of the current

interpretations within the scientific community.

Signs Pointing to String Theory in Big Bang Aftermath

Although the chances of detecting strings is minimal, the simple hope of verifying string

theory experimentally is truly exciting.

Studies on the Big Bang, which was the colossal explosion approximately 13.7 billion years ago

that created the universe, indicate that data collected on the aftermath of the Big Bang may

provide a way to test string theory. String theory has been thought to not be testable (due to

the minute scale on which it is based) and has raised concern amid the scientific community,
which has questioned whether string theory is a scientific theory or simply a philosophy.

Richard Easter, the assistant professor of physics at Yale University, states that “Big Bang, the

most powerful event in the history of the Universe, we see the energies needed to reveal the

subtle signs of string theory.” The Big Bang afterglow still envelops the entire universe and

holds clues to the first moments of time. Physicists plan to detect strings by enlarging and

observing pictures that illustrate this Big Bang afterglow and determining whether any

disturbances or alterations in the afterglow are due to string theory. Although the chances of

detecting strings is minimal, the simple hope of verifying string theory experimentally is truly

exciting.

The "Pentaquark"

Quarks have never been found alone due to the immense strength of the strong force...

The Penta- what? Yes, the pentaquark, or 5-quark formation, has been discovered.. Quarks,

which were formerly only known to come in two and three quark combinations, are the

fundamental components of elementary particles. In fact, quarks have never been found alone

due to the immense strength of the strong force that is actually magnified so greatly that

quarks combine with other quarks upon the moment that they are even moved slightly. After

thirty years of speculation and the first signs coming in 2002, Takashi Nakano of Osaka

University with support from Jefferson Lab in Virginia announced the discovery of this novel

structure. This new discovery greatly widens our field of perception and clearly opens door to

future breakthroughs and investigations.

Fuzzballs

Quantum physics states that information can never be eliminated.

Using mathematics and string theory, physicists at Ohio State University have proposed that

black holes aren’t simply elegant juggernauts, but instead are fuzzballs. This new view of black

holes comes from the belief that black holes contain a myriad of strings that contribute to the

fuzzy structure. Black holes have long been a source of awe and amazement due to their

supposed capabilities. British physicist Stephen Hawking’s work with black holes created the so-

called "information paradox." This paradox exists because Hawking said that all information was

completely lost once a black hole evaporates (after continually emitting the eponymous "Hawking

radiation"); however, quantum physics states that information can never be eliminated, as in

Hawking’s case. Surprisingly, after thirty years, Hawking has recanted his previous findings and

now believes that black holes do permit information to leave. Mr. Samir Mathur and his

colleagues at Ohio State University say that a black hole is comprised of a massive grouping of

strings that stretch to provide the size and power of a black hole. Also, these physicists have

noted that black holes can now be traced back to their origins, thus illustrating that

information can exist.

A Way of Testing the String Theory

Although string theory is quite difficult to prove as result of the miniscule size of the strings
themselves, researchers are now trying to determine the existence of strings by examining the
gravitational imprints that have resulted from the birth of the universe and current
gravitational waves. These physicists are relying on the data collected by their three-step
experiment with stages entitled LIGO I, LIGO II, and the satellite LISA. Despite the fact that
gravitational waves have never been collected or detected before, physicists are hoping that
this extensive experiment will pick up gravitational waves. They believe that cosmic strings
“crack” and then release gravitational waves, which can potentially be detected by LIGO. There
are many other facets to this detailed experiment, and physicists are hoping to find clues that
will help convince the scientific community and the public about the validity of string theory.
 FLAWS IN THE THEORY

Introduction

While string theory certainly shows legitimate promise in its viability and being the ultimate

unification theory, there are, as always, roadblocks challenge the movement for categorical

support of string theory. Despite the numerous criticisms of string theory, the real problems

lie inherently in the heart of string theory itself. Is string theory simply a philosophy or is it a

scientific theory?

Physics or Philosophy

Opponents claim that string theory is just a philosophy or theoretical belief that lacks

justifiable proof through experimentation.

The primarily problem associated with string theory is that it cannot be experimentally tested

due to the minute scale at which strings interact and are visible (approximately 10 ^(–35)

meters or Planck length). Although scientists have tried to indirectly test for strings by

examining any variations in gravitational waves (these have not been detected previously) or the

Big Bang’s afterglow, they have never successfully viewed or determined the existence of

strings. This fact becomes even graver when scientists say that strings will never be visible.

Expectedly, this monumental problem with string theory has raised questions: the foremost

being whether string theory can even be considered a scientific theory. Opponents claim that

string theory is just a philosophy or theoretical belief that lacks justifiable proof through

experimentation. As mentioned earlier, the good news for believers of string theory is that

recent experiments and studies aim to detect strings indirectly and thus prove the accuracy of

string theory.
11 Dimensions?

Nobody, not even its creator Professor Edward Witten really knows about what is going on in

these eleven dimensions.

M-theory, which attempts to unify the five separate supersymmetry theories by using dualities,

serves as a source of intrigue and skepticism. M-theory requires eleven dimensions (ten space

dimensions and one time dimension) and incorporates numerous novel structures, such as two-

dimensional membranes. Unfortunately, nobody is certain about the exact features of this

eleven-dimensional space. Nobody, not even its creator Professor Edward Witten really knows

about what is going on in these eleven dimensions. Are there only strings, only membranes, a

combination of both, or even more structures involved? This nebulous understanding, say many

physicists, is a result of the mathematical incapability to express this whole new world. Some

physicists claim that newly developed mathematics in the future will provide the answers. Only

time will tell.