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OSCILLATIONS
15.1. Simple Harmonic Motion
Any motion that repeats itself at regular intervals is called harmonic motion. A particle
experiences a simple harmonics motion if its displacement from the origin as function
of time is given by
where xm, [omega] and [phi] are constants, independent of time. The quantity xm is called
the amplitude of the motion and is the maximum displacement of the mass. The timevarying quantity ([omega]t + [phi]) is called the phase of the motion and [phi] is called
the phase constant. The phase constant is determined by the initial conditions. The
angular frequency [omega] is a characteristic of the system, and does not depend on the
initial conditions. The unit of angular frequency is rad/s. The period T of the motion is
defined as the time required to complete one oscillation. Therefore, the displacement x(t)
must return to its initial value after one period
x(t) = x(t + T)
This is equivalent to
The number of oscillations carried out per second is called the frequency of the
oscillation. The symbol for frequency is [nu] and its unit is the Hertz (Hz):
1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1 s-1
The period T and the frequency [nu] are related as follows
The velocity of an object carrying out simple harmonic motion can be calculated easily
The positive quantity [omega] xm is called the velocity amplitude and is the maximum
velocity of the object. Note that the phase of the velocity and displacement differ by
90deg.. This means that the velocity is greatest when the displacement is zero and vice
versa. The acceleration of an object carrying out simple harmonic motion is given by
The positive quantity [omega]2 xm is the acceleration amplitude am. Using the expression
for x(t), the expression for a(t) can be rewritten as
This shows that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement, but opposite in sign.
The force acting on the mass can be calculated using Newton's second law
This equation of force is similar to the force exerted by a spring (Hooke's law)
F=-kx
Comparing these last two equations we conclude that
k = m [omega]2
and
" Simple harmonic motion is the motion executed by a particle of mass m, subject to
a force F that is proportional to the displacement of the particle, but opposite in
sign. "
The system shown in Figure 15.1 forms a simple harmonic oscillator. It will oscillate with
an angular frequency [omega] given by
The total mechanical energy of the simple harmonic oscillator consist of potential and
kinetic energy. The potential energy of the system is given by
where [kappa] is a constant that depends on the properties of the suspension wire (its
length, diameter and material). For a given torque we can calculate the angular
acceleration a
or
Comparing this equation with the relation between the linear acceleration and the linear
displacement of an object, we conclude that
where s is the displacement of the mass along the arc. Again we conclude that the
restoring force is proportional to the displacement, and of opposite sign. The motion
is therefore that of a harmonic oscillator. The acceleration of the mass is related to the
displacement s
where h is the distance between the rotation axis and the center of gravity. In the limit of
small angles, this torque can be rewritten as
The angular acceleration a of the pendulum is related to the torque [tau] and the rotational
inertia I
This is again the equation for harmonic motion with an angular frequency given by
Note that the simple pendulum is a special case of the physical pendulum: h = L and I =
m L2. The period of the oscillation is then given by
Note: The equations of motion that describe harmonic motion all have the following
form:
This can be shown easily by differentiating x(t) twice with respect to time
and
The simple harmonic motion is a special case in which the amplitudes A and B are equal.
In that case, x(t) can be rewritten as
This equation describes a simple harmonic motion with an angular frequency equal to
[omega].
Example: Problem 33P
Two springs are attached to a block of mass m and to fixed supports as shown in Figure
15.4. Show that the frequency of oscillation on the frictionless surface is given by
When spring 1 is extended by x, spring 2 is compressed by the same distance. The total
force acting on the mass is the sum of the forces exerted by these two springs. Note that
both forces are always pointing in the same direction.
This is similar to the equation of motion of a simple harmonic oscillator. This equation
can be rewritten as
or
This equation implies that if spring 1 is stretched (x1 > 0) the force exerted by spring 1 on
spring 2 is pointed in the negative direction. The force exerted by spring 2 on spring 1 is
given by
This equation implies that if spring 2 is stretched (x2 > 0) the force exerted by spring 2 on
spring 1 is pointed in the positive direction. Applying Newton's third law we conclude
that
and therefore
F1 is the only force acting on the mass, and F1 is equal to k1 x1. The previous relation can
now be used to express the force F1 in terms of the displacement x:
We conclude that two springs, with spring constant k1 and k2 and joined in the way shown
in Figure 15.5, act like a single spring with spring constant k, where k is given by
In this formula, b is called the damping constant. Substituting the expression for the
force in terms of the acceleration we obtain the following differential equation
The general solution of this differential equation will have the form
We see that the amplitude of the motion gradually decreases over time. This is also true
for the kinetic energy of the oscillator. At any point the mechanical energy of the
oscillator can be calculated using the expression for x(t):
The angular frequency [omega] is related to the spring constant k and mass m in the
following manner
The mechanical energy lost during these 4 oscillation can also be easily calculated
Suppose an external force F(t) is applied to this system. The external force has an
amplitude m F0 and an angular frequency [omega]. The equation of motion describing the
system is now given by
The steady state (the state of the system after any transient effects have died down)
response of the system will be precisely at the driving frequency. Otherwise the relative
phase between force an response would change with time. Thus, the steady-state
response of a harmonic oscillator is at the driving frequency [omega] and not at the
natural frequency [omega]0.
The general solution of the equation of motion is
This equation can only be satisfied if the coefficients of cos([omega]t) and sin([omega]t)
are zero. This implies that
and
In general A != 0 and [omega] != [omega]0. The first condition than shows that
The amplitude of the oscillation of the system gets very large if [omega] approaches
[omega]0. The system is said to be in resonance when this happens.