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Journal of Chemical Engineering of Japan, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 214223, 2010
Keywords: Biodiesel Production Process, Low-Value Oils, Crude Palm Oil, Crude Jatropha Oil, Used Frying
Oil
Various low-value oils, namely, crude palm oil (CPO), crude jatropha oil (CJO), and used frying oil
(UFO), were investigated by comparing them as feed oils used in biodiesel (BD) production, with the
objective of clarifying the effects of various factors that influence the feed oil characteristics on the
required feed pretreatment (FP), operating conditions in transesterification, and the obtained biodiesel
yield and purity. First, the low-value oils were characterized in terms of fatty acid compositions and the
contents of undesirable impurities. All the feed oils contained mainly C 16 and C18 fatty acid chains, and
the content of C16 in CPO was higher than the contents of C 16 in the other feed oils. The highest contents
of impurities, namely, a phospholipid, free fatty acid (FFA), and water were found in CJO. Then, the
feed oils were pretreated under various conditions and subsequently transesterified to convert triglycerides
to BD in the methyl ester form. The BD productivity and quality could be improved by proper feed
pretreatment; deacidification and dehydration were particularly effective. Alkali deacidification is not
appropriate for treating CJO since significant oil loss was observed during neutralization of FFA in
deacidification. Lastly, the pretreated oils whose impurity contents were sufficiently low were
transesterified under varying operating conditions. CPO gave a relatively lower yield but higher purity
than the other oils because of the higher C16 content in the feed oil, which had a negative effect on yield
but increased the purity in the BD product. For all feed oils, the purity of the obtained BD met the
standard for BD purity, and the transesterification yields were improved by carrying out the appropriate FP, as well as adjusting the amounts of alcohol and catalyst in transesterification according to the
type of feed oil. The obtained results can be applied to select the appropriate feed oils and maximize BD
productivity in the BD production from various low-value oils.
Introduction
Biodiesel is one of the most popular alternative
fuels in the energy business because of its biodegradability, low sulfur content, high cetane number, etc.
(Vicente et al., 2004). Moreover, since the biodiesel
system is carbon neutral, the introduction of this
system can dramatically reduce carbon emission. However, although biodiesel was commercialized more than
ten years ago, its market share is still insufficient for it
to substitute of petroleum-based diesel fuel. This is
mainly due to two constraints: the high cost of biodiesel
production, especially that of oil for feedstock, as concluded in a previous study (Krawczyk, 1996; Connemann
and Fisher, 1998) in which the cost of feed oil constituted approximately 7095% of the total biodiesel production cost, and the insufficient supply of feed oil for
Received on May 22, 2009; accepted on October 22, 2009.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to
R. Egashira (E-mail address: regashir@ide.titech.ac.jp).
Partly presented at the 72nd Annual Meeting of the Society of
Chemical Engineers, Japan at Kyoto, March, 2007.
214
Table 1
Remarks
Origin
Mass fraction of myristic acid (C14:0), xMy,0 []
Mass fraction of palmitic acid (C16:0), xPa,0 []
Mass fraction of stearic acid (C18:0), x S,0 []
Mass fraction of oleic acid (C18:1), x O,0 []
Mass fraction of linoleic acid (C18:2), xL,0 []
Average molar mass of triglyceride [gmol1]
Average molar mass of free fatty acid [gmol1]
Mass fraction of phosphorus, xP,0 []
Acid value [mg-KOHg-oil 1]
Mass fraction of free fatty acid, xFFA,0 []
Mass fraction of water, xW,0 []
Edible
High production scale
Low price
Inedible
Drought-resistant
Perennial
Growable in poor soil
Costless
Malaysia
Thailand
Japana
0.11
0.35
0.046
0.42
0.17
853
272
(0.011b)
(0.44 b)
(0.045 b)
(0.39 b)
(0.10 b)
(840b)
(267b)
9.0 106
11
0.051
0.0047
0
0.10
0.14
0.43
0.26
875
279
(0.014c)
(0.16c)
(0.097c)
(0.41c)
(0.32c)
(866 c)
(276 c)
40 106
22
0.11
0.023
0
0.077
0.040
0.34
0.54
875
279
(0.0023d)
(0.12d)
(0.038d)
(0.31d)
(0.51d)
(866d)
(276d)
8.9 106
1.2
0.0062
0.0072
application of various low-value oils to biodiesel production by comparing these factors and their effects.
This would result in the appropriate selection of feed
oils to maximize biodiesel productivity. First, the typical low-value oils were characterized in terms of fatty
acid composition and the contents of undesirable impurities, which were the two main factors used for identifying low-value oils. Then, these oils were pretreated
under various conditions and subsequently transesterified
to investigate the influences of impurities on the required pretreatment and the corresponding biodiesel
purities and yields. Finally, the feed oils in which a
sufficient amount of the impurities were removed by
pretreatment were transesterified under varying operation conditions; then, the various oils and the effects
of the above-mentioned conditions on the production
performance were compared.
1.
Experimental
215
Table 2
Effects of impurities, fatty acid composition, and operating factors on biodiesel production
Effect
a-1.
a-2.
a-3.
a-4.
a-5.
a-6.
Phospholipid
Free fatty acid
Water
Fatty acid carbon chain length
Alcohol amount for transesterification
Alkaline-catalyst amount for transesterification
Effect
b-3, c-4
b-3, c-4, c-5
c-1, c-2, c-3
Effect
c-1.
c-2.
c-3.
c-4.
c-5.
c-6.
c-7.
216
Table 3
Phospholipid solubilization
Mass ratio of H3PO4a relative to oil []
Temperature [K]
0.001
343
H3PO4 neutralization
Mole ratio of NaOHb relative to added H3PO4 []
Washing
Mass ratio of deionized waterc relative to oil []
0.03
1.15
353
0.083
Washing
Mass ratio of deionized waterc relative to deacidified oil [g]
0.15
50;
Mass of oil after dephosphorization, FDP;
Mass of oil after deacidification, FDA
(proper quantity)
uct were determined by analyses using a gas chromatograph (G-3000, Hitachi Ltd.) with a 30 m 0.25 mm i.d.
capillary column coated with a 0.25 m thick layer of
5% diphenyl95% dimethylpolysiloxane (TC-5, GL Science Inc.) and a flame ionization detector equipped with
chromato-integrator (D-2500, Hitachi Ltd.). In the case
of feed oil analysis, the triglycerides in the feed oil
should first be converted into the methyl ester form
(Umezawa et al., 1997) to enable analysis by using the
gas chromatograph. From these compositions, the average molar masses of the free fatty acid and triglyceride could be calculated.
The phosphorus content in the oil was determined
by using an inductively coupled plasma spectrometer
(SPS7800 Series, Seiko Instruments Inc.); the acid
217
Table 4
Transesterification
Feed oil
0.2
(proper quantity)
(5)
YOA,DH = FDH/F0
(6)
YOA,TE = [FTE/(F1/FDH)]/F0
(7)
= Y OA,DHY TE
(8)
Y DP = FDP/F0
(1)
Y DA = FDA/FDP
(2)
Y DH = FDH/FDA
(3)
Y TE = FTE/F1
(4)
(9)
where the mass fractions of the respective methyl esters in the product are xMy,TE, xPa,TE, xS,TE, xO,TE, and x L,TE.
The yield of methyl esters in TE, Y ME,TE, and the overall yield after TE, YOA,ME,TE, were determined as
YME,TE
= xME,TEYTE
YOA,ME,TE = xME,TEYOA,TE
(10)
(11)
Table 5
DP, DH
DP, DA
DA, DH
DP, DA, DH
Dephosphorization
Y DP []
0.88
0.86
0.89
1 (0.88)
0.73 (0.63)
0.73 (0.73)
0.74 (0.66)
Dehydration
x P,DH []
x FFA,DH []
x W,DH []
Y DH (Y OA,DH) []
5.8 106
0.054
0.0008
0.94 (0.83)
2.7 106
0.0010
0.0125
1 (0.63)
6.7 106
0.0010
0.0008
0.94 (0.69)
2.6 106
0.0010
0.0009
0.96 (0.63)
4.1 106
0.0398
0.00030
0.85 (0.70)
0.84
0.71 (0.59)
2.4 106
0.0011
0.015
0.87 (0.55)
0.92
0.80 (0.51)
4.3 106
0.0010
0.00030
0.97 (0.67)
0.99
0.96 (0.66)
2.4 106
0.0010
0.00030
0.96 (0.61)
1
0.96 (0.61)
DP, DH
DP, DA
DA, DH
DP, DA, DH
Dephosphorization
Y DP []
0.79
0.75
0.75
1 (0.79)
0.60 (0.45)
0.65 (0.65)
0.60 (0.45)
Dehydration
x P,DH []
x FFA,DH []
x W,DH []
Y DH (Y OA,DH) []
9.4 106
0.12
0.0009
0.95 (0.75)
3.1 106
0.0013
0.0185
1 (0.45)
13 106
0.0013
0.0008
0.94 (0.61)
2.9 106
0.0014
0.0009
0.91 (0.41)
0 (0)
0 (0)
2.7 106
0.0011
0.015
0.93 (0.42)
0.98
0.91 (0.41)
11 106
0.0011
0.0003
0.98 (0.60)
0.99
0.97 (0.59)
2.5 106
0.0011
0.0003
1 (0.41)
0.99
0.99 (0.41)
40 106 (=xP,0)
0.11 (=x FFA,0)
0.023 (=xW,0)
1 (1)
x FFA,TE []
x W,TE []
0 (0)
Y TE (Y OA,TE) []
x ME,TE []
0 (0)
Y ME,TE (Y OA,ME,TE) []
Table 5
(continued)
DP, DH
DP, DA
DA, DH
DP, DA, DH
Dephosphorization
YDP []
0.90
0.89
0.90
0.96 (0.86)
0.96 (0.96)
0.95 (0.86)
Dehydration
xP,DH []
xFFA,DH []
xW,DH []
YDH (Y OA,DH) []
5.7 106
0.0073
0.0008
0.96 (0.86)
2.6 106
0.0011
0.011
1 (0.86)
6.2 106
0.0011
0.0008
0.97 (0.93)
2.6 106
0.0011
0.0008
0.95 (0.82)
4.2 106
0.0015
0.0002
0.87 (0.75)
0.98
0.85 (0.73)
2.3 106
0
0.015
0.91 (0.78)
0.99
0.91 (0.78)
4.8 106
0.0010
0.0002
1 (0.92)
0.99
0.99 (0.92)
2.3 106
0.0010
0.0002
1 (0.82)
1
0.99 (0.81)
220
Fig. 1
Effects of alcohol (methanol) and catalyst (NaOH) ratios relative to the feed oil in transesterification (ral and Rcat,
respectively) on biodiesel yields, YTE and Y OA,TE: (a) crude palm oil (CPO); (b) crude jatropha oil (CJO); (c) used
frying oil (UFO)
Fig. 2
Effects of alcohol (methanol) and catalyst (NaOH) ratios relative to feed oil in transesterification (ral and Rcat, respectively) on the methyl ester purity in biodiesel product, x ME,TE: (a) crude palm oil (CPO); (b) crude jatropha oil (CJO);
(c) used frying oil (UFO)
Fig. 3
Effects of alcohol (methanol) and catalyst (NaOH) ratios relative to feed oil in transesterification (ral and Rcat, respectively) on methyl ester yields, Y ME,TE and Y OA,ME,TE: (a) crude palm oil (CPO); (b) crude jatropha oil (CJO); (c) used
frying oil (UFO)
Conclusion
222
C16 and C18 chains were the two main fatty acid
groups in the low-value oils studied. The content of
C16 in crude palm oil was higher than the contents in
crude jatropha oil and used frying oil. A phospholipid,
free fatty acid, and water were studied as the main
impurities, and their highest contents were found in
crude jatropha oil. The fatty acid compositions and
impurity contents in the feed oils were two main factors that influenced the required feed pretreatment,
operating conditions in transesterification, and
biodiesel yield and purity. Feed pretreatment was successfully carried out to remove the impurities from the
feed oils; in particular, deacidification as well as dehydration were effective pretreatments to improve the
biodiesel productivity and achieve the biodiesel quality standard. Alkali deacidification is not suitable for
oils that contain a large amount of free fatty acid, such
as crude jatropha oil, because the oil loss in feed pretreatment increased with the free fatty acid content in
the oils. The yield and purity in the case of crude palm
oil were lower and higher than those in the case of the
other oils, respectively, since the yield decreased and
purity increased with increasing C16 content in the feed
oil. The yield and purity would be improved by adjusting the operating conditions, such as the amounts
of alcohol and catalyst, appropriately for each oil type.
These techniques and obtained results were useful for
the selection of the feed oils and maximization of
biodiesel productivity when the various kinds of lowvalue oils were utilized in a biodiesel production system.
Acknowledgment
We would like to thank Someya Shouten, Ltd., Sumida, Tokyo,
for providing used frying oil.
Nomenclature
F
=
R cat
=
=
r al
xi
=
Y
=
=
YOA
mass of oil
mass ratio of catalyst relative to oil
molar ratio of alcohol relative to oil
mass fraction of component i
yield of oil in operation
overall yield of oil
<Subscript>
0
=
1
=
al
=
cat
=
DA
=
DH
=
DP
=
FFA
=
i
=
L
=
ME
=
My
=
O
=
OA
=
P
=
Pa
=
S
=
TE
=
W
=
[g]
[]
[]
[]
[]
[]
Literature Cited
Alcantara, R., J. Amores, L. Canoira, E. Fidalgo, M. J. Franco and
A. Navarro; Catalytic Production of Biodiesel from Soy-Bean
Oil, Used Frying Oil and Tallow, Biomass Bioenergy, 18, 515
527 (2000)
Azam, M. M., W. Amtul and N. M. Nahar; Prospects and Potential
of Fatty Acid Methyl Esters of Some Non-Traditional Seed Oils
223