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2
. A des.i-gnaaaon systen was then devised, ktlerein the first digit inaicates the raxinum canber j.:r t of chorC. t'he second d.igit indicates the locaiion of naxj:nmr ca,nber
in lenalls of the chord length, and t}le last two dj,gits inAnca.ie the maximur.l thickness of the airfoil as a tr=rcentage cf tlre chord length. For exanrple, NACA 241-2 indj-cates a 12? thlck airfoil with 2? rnaximur camber l0cated at 40t of chorc. l,tote
thal the naxj:nun tirickness of this airfoj-l, as j-n al-l of the 4 and 5 digit airfoils
( turbulent )
i is at 30? of chord, as deterndned by the gerieral t_hickness distrib-_
ution formula givea belcnn:. with this systsn in place, an orderly fanily of airfoils
was ccnstructec alrd tested, with various thicknesses, canber levers, and chord.wlse position of raxjmr"nn canrber. other va:iables that eiere tested, not incl-uded in
t"!re designation systqn, included conditj,ons of "stardard roughness',. si:nulaled split
flaps deflected 60 degrees, and Reynolds nurbers of 3, 6. and 9 nrillion.
The first step was to desigp a ca-reful-ly spcified rhickness distribution. The
|':AcA researchers noaed frcm earlier tests that ihe best airfoil-s, such as the Gernran
Go ttingen *398 and tie l.] .s. clark y, had the cnximum tbj-ckness at 30g of chord.
Accordrngly, the thickness distributlon for the 4 digit serj,es was sefected to corespond closely lo that for those wing sections, and is given by the fo.l1c'\ring equatj"on:
t t =*
(.2s69
x\ -.126 x -.351
x2 + .2843 xl
-.:ois
x1
B- liACA,?-dicir Airfoils. Fo]-lc'\ring the 4-di9i! airfoil r.rork, }.{AsA conducted a test
program i.:r the early 1930's to see j-f zero pitching rTn:rents coul,d be acbj-eved on
canbered ar:foils by using lead:-ng edge droop al-one, rather Lhan using a convent:i"onal camber schedule. ( Read Addendum *1 below. "Understind.:irg ei-rfoils,', for a d.iscussion of the relationshi"p betueen C1, d. and en in canbered a.d tutca,,nbered airfoils). zero p-itching nsnents on ca.nbered airfoils had been achieved earJier by
refleci.ng the airfoil trailing edge, as on the M-6 and 2R11,2 ai:foi1s, bui this
rthod has :he d-isadvantage of reducing the na:<irnLrn rift toefficient, T'ire ns, test
airfoils, using leading edge droop al,one, becalre knourr as the ,'S-digit" ser.ies.
In doing these tests. NACA shared the general fascinatj"cn of t!:at era for zero
pitching nsnent arrfoils, without critically evaluati-ng the need for t-t.j,s feature,
and without q,rantifying the effssts of dj-fferences in airfoil cln on ajrcraft perfonnance.
The only airfoils of any conseguence i-n th-is series are th 230)c{ airfoils,
represented by the ubiquitous 230f2 airfoil, r,irrch is 12* t-!dck, and has l.BtC
leadirg edge droop forward of the 15t chord posiiion. The ai-rfoil- has no other camber. and tire rean line is perfeeCly straight frcxn ,l_5C to the trail,ing edge.
The tii-ckness d:rst-ributi-on for ai-l of the 5digit airfoi-ls ( 0012 etc ) is the sane
as for all" of lhe 4digit airfo.|ls. The saqe faulty LIACA nethcd of ccrnbining tlr-i-ck*
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4
industry, especially considering the fact that these aj-rp.Lanes are in a Reynokls nunrber range that is especial.ly favorable for lanrinar flow aj-rfoirs. Furthernpre, the
constant velocity rnean lines devetoped by I'lAcA for these airfoil-s includes one
(a=0.5 nean lj-ne) that produces lc'qler pitching ntrrrents tlrough forward loading, with
no drag penalty. a well-proven technique that was used in the prior (turbuleni)
airfoils. Ttris mean line is designed to hold constant pressure ( therefore constant
verocity) back to only 50t of chord, which is the practical lilrlt for larninar flo.r
anyway, and then it tapers the J-oading linearly to zero at the trailing edge. For
anyone acquainted with the t{AcA airfoil design methods, and wirring to derive their
onrn airfoirs, ttris seerns to offer the "best of both r"orlds", that is, low Gn as wel,r
as ro^r drag corpared to the publisbed "base line" 6-series airfoi.l-s, v,'l-rich have
relatively high On due to nid-loading. In fact, Cessna did just that, by deriving
and using the unpublished I'lAcA 64Mr5(a=0.5) for the root.. ;nd the ,rnputri=n.a naca
64A412(a=0.5) for the tip, of the Model 2L0 ,,Centurion', wing.
spite of the potentiat l:erforrnance jmprovernent that could be nade by using
lanirnr flo* wings. they have never gained wide acceptance in the cA fierd. I'rost
snarl light planes continue to use the 4-digit and s-digit turbutent airfoils, and
the great nrajority of light twins, and even ccrmuter transports, use tl,e obsotete
and dangerous 5-digit airfoils, a horrible mis-nntch considering the consequences
of sharp-stall airfoils in an engine-out situation, The I.lAcA 6-ieries airfoils are
often avoided, since they have gained a reputation of being "kilrer airfoils. with
sharP stall characteristics and 1ow naximum lift coefficients, as r.,eII as re]atively
high pitching nErnent cofficients. Read on. and you wi.rl see that this unfortunate
situation has nothing at alr to do with the fact that these airfoirs are lanrinar
flovrtype airfoils. IiACA sinply scre$ed up.
3.
CA AIRFOIL DE1/EI.oPMNIT
A. ordinate ccrnltrination
5
B.
Lines. Eigure 3 sha^is the wide variety of rnean rines that have been used in
llAcA'/MsA airfoils. from extre{nsLy forvrard-l.oaded ones (230pr) to aft-loaded ones
(cAw-r'-2). l'lost of the popular llAcA 4-digit airfoils use npderatery forward-Loaded nean ]ines (x4xx-see figure 1) with naximum carnber at 40t of cho;d, since it was
kaown prior to 1930 that ion{ard loading produces lcw pitching nsrent coefficients,
and this had been established in general telms as a deiirable airfoiL charasteristic.
In splte of this, only 5 of t}le 52 6-series airfoil-s listed on figure I have forward
loaded nEan lines (a=0.5,0.6), while a1r the rest have tl:e exaccly rr_id_loaded (a=I)
nean }ine. !'lhy the contrad.iction? Srnply because these aj-rfoils are n'erely test airfoi-rs, not designed for actua-l- ai-rplane use. onry enough fon,Tard-]oaded airfoils
(five) rrrere incl-uded in ttre test program to confirm the effeses of that variable.
F\.:rther, the reLative inForbanc of the alrfoil pitchi,ng nE rent coefficient (en) co(rF
ryred to the drag coeffj.cient (cd) has never been studied nor guantified by NACA or
NASA- Horv can one intelligentty desigrn airfo.j-ls wj-thout knc,v,ring this relationshipu
For exanple figure 6 shorrs tiree airfoils with various crrnbinations of drag co"ific'
ient and rnrrent
coefficient. Holi inportant is it to have lorr on, relative to @? rs
it al-1-irportant, or just a nicetyz Do he need zelo qn?
ans\"r these guestions, ,,.E investigated the drag that is caused by airfoil On,
-Tb.
and- derived
a formula ( figure 8) for calcuLating this ',tr:m arag,,, or drag associated
with trirniring out the airfoi] pitching nErEnt, ior a typi.calty ;onfigured light p1ane.
hltren tri:n drag is added to the airfoj-l seqEj-on drag,
arrivl at a icorrected,, drag
cefficient, Cd', which can nc'$r be used directl-y for 'nleccnparing candidate airfoils
for a given application.
the problen arises due to the fact that the center of pressure of cambered-eriefly,
airfoil-s npves aft frcrn the c/4 position as the angle of attaci decreases- see
figure 7- This causes an. aircraft nosedown pitching nc.rint at higher speeds that
must be rea*ed b1r negative Iift in tie horizontal tail. Remqnber that Lhe aj-rcraft
cG rnust stay at or near the c,/4 position for satisfacLory r-or-speed pitch stai:irity.
But the negatj-ve li,ft in the taiL causes induced drag. e-lso, tne wing must nole gener_
ate an add-rtionaf incrsrent of lj-ft equal to the taii doern-Ioad, sin6e the sunrnatj,on
of vertical forces on the airplane must be zero. Ttlis additional increnrent
of wing
l-ift also creates an incre{rent of induced drag. Add these tr,,D additional drag
inciernents (wing and tail) togetber, and r,,e have trim drag. l.totlce frcrn figure g tlat the
trim drag coefficient for the very high-on }{AsA GAw iirtoil= is approiirnateJ,y 20 drag
cunts at cruise for an application having a design rift coefficient of 0,2. when
this is added to the section &ag coefficient of 53 drag cunts, re obtain a corrected drag coefficient of 73 drag counts. This renders the t.{AsA GA!,1 airfoiLs unsatisfactory, or at least verlr disappointj-ng, for this type of application.
As a result of analyses Like this, rde have concluded tfrat forward loading is
necessity for general aviation airfoi-ls. Hoirever, it is not necessary to go to the a
ridicu.Lous extrenE of the ill-advised 5-digit airfoil test progran {;airt6its f,rrri.,g
the nExrmum camber unusuaIy far for^rard" ). In short. it is- noi necessary to have
zelo qlt, nor is it necessary to reduce on to the point !^'l)ere other vital perfonrnnce
characteristics of the airfoil. are curprcndsed. rhe IrAcA S-digj-t airfoil,s' achj-eved
Gn, by! the price pa.id ( sharp stau) is unacceptabl-e. th&efore the S-digit air1"t9
foiLs should not be used,
therefore,
have selectd the IiACA (a=0.5) nean line to be the basis for the
'.,eof only
universal family_
four canrber profiles for alI of the "GA,, airfoils, turb_
urent as 'nell as laminar frovr type. The a=.5 nean line, h'hen substituted
ln the NACA
64-2I2C airfoil. produces 64-212(a=.5)C. Figure 2 shorr"s that this results in a wider
larLilar bu!\9t srightr,y higher naximum lift clefficient with flaps, and nnst impor'
tantry' a 20t reducLion
of pitcNng nrnent coefficient, with no oiher penalty.
The next step is to contror the i-nitiar slope of the r'l3an line, an irportant
parirEter for good slorspeed perfornEnce, Ttris was ccrpl,etely nr-issed in the ltAcA
work..aLthough scne later IIASA airfoils have lead"ing edge droop, h'hich corrects ttlis
oversi-ght. I{e have found t}rat the initial slope should ne a nLin:mum of 12 degrees
for any airfoil, thus our GA-2 nean line inccrlnrates .3* drop, and the GA_3 rnean
line has .2t leading edge droop- see Appendix ir. ne effeceiv;ess of the drmp
l"'lean
6
can be seen in the perfornance of airfoiL C.A j7- .2, which has a much softer stall-,
even wider laminar bucket, Io/r On, and yet higher Clmax with flaps, with no drag
penalty. as shcl'Ir on figure 2. For this reason, all cA airfoi.l-s can be described as
ar
pitching nsnent, soft-stal-l- airfoils". In fact, rTt3re]-y by selecting a GA airan aircraft designer can be assu-red tlEt the pitching nsnent coefficient has
been held as lc",r as practical, short of degrading other perforrnance features of the
airfoil, thus for the rna jority of cases a trim drag analysis is not required. Horever, in ext.:rslE cases, such as a very high perfornance application with the design
l-ift coefficj,ent less than .15, a fornal ':ri.lrr drag anatysrs may be advj.sable.
Fort. ard loading has one possible disadvantage, descrj-bed on figure 10. Since
forHard loadj.ng increases the velocity ratio slightly in the forward half of the airfoil canpared to nrid-foading, the critical Mach nunber fo! these airfoi-l-s is degraded
slightly. Ho\^rever, this occurs in the 580 MPH range, far above our needs, hence this
"
lc'e/
foi.I,
is of no concern to us.
C. Thickness Distributions. For our ce arrfoils. only ninor changes have been made
to ffibutions.
The cA thicknes; distributions are listed in
Appendix I belcr,/. For the turbul-ent airfoils (cA 30), the GA 30A015 shape is identicaf to NACA 0015. Hot^rever, this strape has a slightLy convex, or "boat-tailed" afterbcdy, rrtrich is rather unusual. Therefore, we have generated an alternate tu-rbulent
shape, GA 30-01,5. with a strai.ght afterbcdy, that reduces the prof.ile drag frcrn 75
drag counts Lo 72 drag counts, with no structural disadvantage. One concern here, hov,lever' is the change in the tlaj,ling edge angle, h'hich affects aiLeron effecti-venesssee figure 9. Since the trailing edge angl-e is reduced in cA 30-015, the controleffectiveness nny be slightl-y }ess tlnn wj-th GA 30A015. Hs,Eve.r, the trailing edge
angLe rsrlains generous. Further, there are better '.Eys to get effecLive ai-J-erons,
such as naking "fat" or even "crowned" ailerons, which can then be used with the
cA 30-)oor airfoils.
For the GA 35 and GA 37 larninar shapes. no changes were nEde to the }IACA 63
alld 64 series shapes. which are conservatj.ve, utilita.rj.an l-arni,nar sections, having
wide lamrnar buckets. Thj-s alloers airplanes with these thickness distrlbutions to operate over a wj-de range of flight conditaons, while still renaini-ng "in the bucket".
This feature results in a profile drag penalty of perhaps on],y one or tr,ro dfag counts
carpared to sqne other so-calJ-ed "superior, lore-drag " lam:-nar thickness distributj,ons that have been develo@ since, ard the drag penalty is a snrall- price to pay
for the wider bucket on the c"l-assic t'lACA shapes .
For the GA 40-015 shape, r,E use the NACA 65-015 tiickness distribution as is, Tae
profil,e drag coefficient of this shape is also slightly higher than recent NASA ,'slar3"
shapes, but tbe drag bucket is crrrrespondingly wider, for olErational flexibj_llty.
For the cA 40A015 shap, we have carefully avoided the }IACA 65A015 shape, which
has a poorl-y designed, straight afterbody (high drag ) and should not be used, W1th
the point of nraxirm:m thickness ncved aft to the 403 chord position, the design of the
pressure recovery section krc.rEs critical, and a straight afterbody is no longer
suitabLe, due to the unaccaptable drag penalty. Accordingly, l,ve settl-ed on a reduced
cusp shape by ncdifying the I'IACA 65-015 to fj-]] in approxlnately one-half of the cusp.
This gives the deslred strucEural and control effectiveness advantages of a true nocusp shape, with a drag penalty of .Iess than 2 drag counts.
ttotice that the basic thickness distribution for the c"1 thi-ckness distributions
j-s I5S thick, and then the 12t and 18* thicknesses a-re scaled proportionately up
or dorn frorn the 15t thick shape. this is a departure frcrn the NACA schen-- for their
landnar thj-ckness distributions, wherein unique syrnretrical shapes have been calculated and published for eacb thickness, and these shapes are not guj-te exact nruJ-tiples
of each other. The difference is very srnal,J-, ho^'ever, and does not affect a-irfoil
perforTnance, therefore ue have ignored it to si.nplify the process of generating fanil,res of airfoils.
llotice tiat the ninjmun sestj-on thickness offered j-n "cA Airfoils" is 12?, for
$e do not reconrend the use of wing sections thinner than this for any application,
even for racing airplanes. In fact, the optjmrn airfoiL thickness rega.rding lift to
ratio is probably closer to 13? or l4B thick, for any airfoil systern. Sirply
put, you lose nr3re than you gaj-n by using wing sections t-hinner than l2t thick.
For tail sections. synnEtri-ca.l- shapes such as NACA 0009 or I.IACA 63A009 are ccrmonly used. Ordinates for these shapes are l-isted in standard I.IACA tabLes ( reference I)' or they may be scaled dcrrn frcrn the corresponding C,A thickness dj.stribution.
D. ordinate Tables. Notice frcrn figure I tlEt the NACA "ordinate tables" are rnerely
a-fGrino of-test sanples tJ:lat r,prt included in IIACA' s wind tunnel tests , and are
thus incfipl"ete. In contrast, the GA airfoil ordinate tables. Appendix III| are a
ccnplete matnx of 96 airfoj.ls, in four series, tiro styles (with and without cusps),
four camber LeveLs, and tlree thicknesses, offering the designer a ccmplete "cook
book" of airfoils fron \,tdch to choose,
MSA's official position i-s that a ccnprehensive catalog or " cookbook" of airfoil-s is not necessary, and suggests that a unigue airfoil- should be custorn-designed
for each and every nan airplane, one that "exacely fits the specificati-on for the ne\.r
airplane", otherwise ttle lErforlnance of the nevr airplane will be ccnprqltised. This
is, of ccurse I nonsense. there j.s no single, unique solution to a particular airfoi-]
design problern, since there are so rlany value judgenents. intangibles, and perfonnance tlade-offs invofved. For exanPLe, hc,r "soft" is "soft". for a soft-stall airfoil?
Therefore, there will always be a need for a good catalog of airfoils, if for no
other reason than to serve as a standard to ccrnpare custcnFdesigned airfoils against.
FlrCher, airplane designers are by-and-J.arge not airfoil designers, and ia^culd rather
select frcrn a good catalog of standardized designs rather th,an take a chance on a
custcm airfoil.
NACATS thj-nking. evident frcrn reading reference L, was that "custcrn" I{ACA airfoj-ls could be s)mthesized using l{ACA's data and nethods. In other hDrds, IIACA assund
tlnt a designer coul-d select a particular thickness distribution and a camber profile
frcrn tlle text and then ccrnbine thern by the I'IACA rethod, to obtaj,n the desired custcrn
airfoil, just ' as cessna did for the !'todeL 210 wing desigm. This is probabry t-trc reason
that I.IACA was content to publish test data a1one, rather tllan to publish actual- catalogs of airplane arrfoi.l-s. Hot,rever, to thus s)mthesize custam NACA airfoi-1s is a
dauntj-ng task, beyond the capabiJ-ity (or pa.tience ) of the average designer'. Further r
due to the nfstakes and onissions in the NACA work, the airfoils vDuld still be less
than ideal. For example, Cessna,s airfoils for the lbdel 210, r,,trile a step in the
rj-ght direction, do not contain leading edge droop, and the ordinates are ccrnbined
incorrectly. which is both rronic and unfortunate. liorse yet. on rrlf,st other airplanes,
Lhe test airfoils r,rere used directly. warts ard al}, because of t{ACA's nrista.}<en assumtion that designers r^rould slmthesize "good" airfoil-s frcm the test data.
The GA ordinate tables are arranged with the ,,cusp', tlpe airfoil-s at the top
of each page, ajld the corresFonding "no cusp" airfoi]-s at the bottcn of the page.
The ordj-nate schedules generally follora the NACA forrnat, hov,ever an additionai statj-on
llas been added at .25tc, to herp define the leading edge. unlike the !,IACA airfoils.
GA airfoil.s do not have a tlrue reading edge radius, and the readj-ng edge is j-nstead
a curve defined by a series of discrete points.
co],uru''s #2 and Jl3 of the ordinate tables are the thickness distribution (symnEtrical shape ) and tbe nean rine, respectivery, frcrn which the tirree airfoj,rs 1n
each table are fornred. corunm #2 and +3 are listed for reference only. they are aLso
usable for forrn-ing airfoils with th.icknesses other than the three li;ted in ttre table.
The Procedure for this is to scal,e col-umn *2 frcrn I5t to the desired thickness, then
add col-unn *3 to obtain the desired aj-rfoil,
E. Aerodvnandc Characteristics of winq Sections. The aerodynaninc characterj-stics of
each l-2t thick arld L5t thi.ck "no cusp" type cA wing section, as detern[ned by the
"EPpler" prcgran, are given in Appendr-x rV. for Relmolds nunbers of 2 Irtillion and 6
ndLlion, corresponding approx-i:rateJ-y to stal1 conditions and cruise conditions respectively for tlpical light airplanes. The characteristics of the 188 thick wing
sections are not shcrrn, but they are approxjrately the sarne as the 15t thick segtions,
witn 2lr drag counts addltiona] profile drag. See fign:re 15. sjnr-ilar]y, the characteristics of the "cusp" t)pe sesLions are not sho^rn, horever: they are approxirnately
the sare as the "no-cusp" shapes, wi,th 2 drag counts less drag. Sree figure 14.
drag
o-ng
8
Tbe characteristics at Reynolds nurnbers other than 2 miU-ion and 6 rRil-Ii-on rIEy
be estuated by interpolation and extrapolation. and by reference to figu-re 17.
The data in Appendix IV j-s for the snDoth condition onJ.y. Pigure 18 shovrs the
effect of surface roughness on the perforrnance of a tlpical GA airfoil, 37A31-5. The
prjjnary perf orrnance degradation is ]-oss of lajrlnar f J-o,r', causing a substantial increase in profile drag, and there is also scan-- Loss of nraxirm:rn 1j-ft coefficient as
wel-l-. Ttre data r-s for roughness conditj-on !=4, b'trich is approxirnately equj-valent to
the NACA " stEndald rouglmess" condition used in their tests. According to reference
I' this is eguivalent to a wing ",,e11 contanrinated with bugs". Ho+rever, the concensus
is that the ''standard rouglmess" lrrposed in the I{ACA tests is unusually severe, and
is not likely to be encounlered in actual alrcraft service. F\rrther, due to the superj-or leading edge shape of the cA airfoils, the perfonnance degradation of GA airfoils
due to surface rouglness is proba-b1y not as severe as with llACA airfoLls.
TLre perforrnance data in .\ppendix IV is for wings without f1aps, A]though rnuch
experinentat raork has been done in wind tunnels with high-lift devices (see reference
If chapter 8), there is no readj-l-y available ccmputer program ttlat can accuratel"y
predict airfoii- section perfornence with flaps, due to the ccrnplicated flc,ld patterns
in the flap systsn. AccordingJ.y, very littl-e data is presented herein for GA wings
with flaps, except for figure 2, which illustrates the principLe that cA a.irfoi]-s
have significantLy better fl-ap effectiveness, that j-s, increase of nraximum lift coefficient with a given flap system, due to the cumulative effect of the cA jjrproverpnts, than thei! IIACA counterpart. airfoils. However:, raE offer the folloering as a
"ruLe of thunb" for estiratj-ng the naxj:num sestion l.ift coefficient achievabl,e with
flaps, for cA airfoj-ls. For large, ,,e11 desi-gned f1aps, the greatest expectable factor of jrprovenEnt in section Clnax for sinple flaps is 1.5. for slotted flaps 2.0,
and for Fc&vler flaps is 2,5, thus, for a cA airfoil with a no-fIap C]JrEx of 1.6, the
Clrex with sirrple flaps coul-d be as higb as 2.4, slotted flaps as high as 3.2, and
Fo/rler fl,aps as high as 4.0. ltese are section (2 dilrensional ) coefficients, and
appropriate reduction must be made for ttrree-dinensional effests. AIso, they a.re the
estirnated nnxirnum values for the best fl.rp systens, whereas existing production flap
systers probably fal1 seII shorL of these nunbers.
4.
Figure lI presents the matrix of the GA airfoils in this book, arri offers scflE
guidelines for selection of [Erticular airfoils for given applications.
A. Effect of Series. Figure 13 shc'vts the general performance differences betrren
the tulbulent GA 30 series and the laninar cA 35, 37, and 40 series. The GA 30
airfoils are tie rrc)st @nservative, and are atrPropriate for l-or-po\^rered, cub type
airplanes. GA 35 ai-rfoil-s are I'entry level" Larmnar flor airfoils, and are suitable
for airplanes .Like the thorp T-18, at least when nndestly Fc ^rered as in the original desi.grn. GA 37 airfoils are general, purtrDse lanLinar florr' airfoils, to be used on
a wide lange of ajrplanes. cA 40 airfoils are for onl"y ttle nDst soplListicated, high
perfoFMnce designs, such as the Glassair or White Lightning, where rninjmr.un drag
at high speed is a strong reguirenent. they reguire the rcst accuracy in nEnufacture to reafize their lc^d drag potential. ALso, the lanr-inar buckets on the cA 40
airfoils are the narroast of a-11 the C,A series, so the wing mrst be designed carefu11y to insure tlEt tie airplane is olnrating witlr-in the laninar bucket Lrnder alf
light cuditions.
B. Effect of Cusps. Figrr:re 14 sho{rg the effest. of afterbcdy susps ofl airfoil perfornance. Although both "cusp" ard "no-cusp" airfoiLs are presented herein, for tbe
great majority of applications tlle "no-cusp" airfoils are preferred. Ttre main reason
is to irrprove aileron effectiveness, as liel-I as to si:rplify fa.brication. the t)pical drag i-ncrease (.0002) is usually insignificant. For appU,cations such as sailpl-anes and mtor-saj.1ers, r.here nLinirm-un drag is ijrportant, and especially with thicker airfoils, the "cusp" type a:-rfoils can be used. Ho\aever, with the "cusp" t)?e
airfoils, specj.al "fat" aileron designs ttBt trave increased trailing edge angfes
f
should be used,
I
C. Effect of Canber. Fiqure .I5 shoe/s the effect of different camber levels on
GA airfoiL perforlnance - Of c-ourse. the main reason for using camber in the first
pl-ace is to increase Clnax, but the resulting increase in On reduces top speed.
thus, it is a trade-off, and only as nuch carnber should be used as necessary to
nEet the design reguire(ents. See Addendun #l for a discussion of the effects of
increased On due to camber. In any event, l-arge, effestive flaps are the key to hi-gh
aircraft lElforrnance, for they Fernlit the use of 1c{.Er cambered sections and reduced wing alea r ard tlds results in higher top speed. Accordingly I a good airplane design shouLd star! with the fl-aps, and then tJIe rest of the airplane shoutd
be designed around the flaps. tn general, the tcffer camber levels are used with higher powered airplanes ard/or with large, effective flaps, while the higher carnber
IeveLs are used with rrcdestly pcrwered alrpLanes, o! witi snaller or no f.Laps.
Consideration nulst also be given to the design (cruise) Iift coefficient of the airplane to make sure tftirt the bottcm edge of the lami.nar bucket is bel,ckl the Cldesign.
'
For exanple,
referring to figure 15, lf the design l_ift cEefficient is .25, the
cA 37A415 coufd be used, but not the 37A61-5. this concern is especially irrPortant
with thinner ( lztthick) ai-rfoiJ-s.
D. Effect of Ttrickness. wing B thickness is prinrarily a structural consj-deration,
sare perforrnanc. lifferences due to thickness - As stated
@
above, the tiinner ai-rfoils have narrc,hEr laniinar buckets, thus shou.Ld be used cautiously' nrreherncre, the starl tends t be ress soft with the thinner airfoils. in
spite of
thickness is so srall, the nrin n-rn arrfoil ttrickness to be used for npst laflLinar
flcrvr apprications is l5t. see Adderdun *2 for a discussion of the effects 6f using
airfoiLs that are too thin, especial].y at tie wing tips.
E. Effect of Reynolds Nunber. the design Relmolds nunber can affest the choice of
notice t-Llat the lam-nar bucket narrc'vrs
For exars)le, frcrn figure 17
considerably at fligher Reynolds nunbers, since l-arninar flol is tErder to ach-ieve as
Re)nolds nunber increases. Iherefore, for tdgher Reynolds nr.rnlcer applications, thicker airfoils and/or lover canbered airfoils nay be nec.essary to insure that tie airplane is operating within the bucket at top sFed. @nversely, at 1*/ Rqmolds ntmr
bers, cljnax drops off considerably, thus additional camber, andlor addi tj-onal thickness, and,/or nore wing area ftry be neded ccfipared to a tligher Re)mol-ds nunber apPlication, for the safiE take-off/Iandi-ng sIEd. For exarpl-e, the BD-5 has a stal1 Reynolds nunber of Less than 1 miuion, and uses a DJACA 64-212 airfoil for the r@t
sestion- a terribLe choice for such a lor Relmol-ds nwnber, resultj-ng il nany needl-ess fataL accidents. ltle ajJfoil should have been thj-cker, or ftcre llighly cambered.
or better yet- both. See Mdendwn #4 beL*r for a re-profiling schenE for BD-S wings.
For very Lc'u/ Reynolds nr.mber applications, less than I/2 tnillion, such as in
sailplanes. a phencnenon kncnn as " larrinar separation br:bbles " follcrqEd by turbuLent
re-attachfiEnt near the erxi of the laminar run, may occur, on the top anVor the
bottdn surface, j-f the curvature of the wing surface is too great at that Foint,
this results j.n increased drag. Any nEthod to reduce the curvatule of the wing surface at that point will help, hcr^reve! the usual fji j-s to use " turbulator talEs "
span-wise slightly foruard of the separation point to "trip" the flo* to normal
attached turbul-ent flov'r, avoidr,ng the separation. Ttris subject is beyond the scope
of this book, ard is nornally not a problern for @ airfoils, ltdch are forrerard
Ioaded and thus iEve littfe camber in the afterbody, and tiis reduces the curvature on the a-irfoil surfaces in the afterbody ccnpared to other sailplane aj-rfoils,
For this reason, "no-cusp" shaFes are better than "cusp" tlpe shapes regarding laninar
separation bubbles. Afso. tlre laninar separation bubbl-e problm is nagrnified as the
point of rna:cirm-rn airfoil thickness is noved farther aft, that is, beyond .40C, in
r^hich case radical cusps are regui:ed for satisfactory pressure recovery, and this
leads to separatj.on. "@" airfoils, especially the no-cusP shapes, do not have this
problem, for there a-re no GA airfoil-s with linax beyond .40c.
airfoil-.
10
1n sunna;-y, there ajre tvJo ways to address the lamj.nar separation bubble problant
at lor^, Relmolds nunbers. Tl're first }]ay is to try to prevent t}Ie separation frqn occuring in ttre first place. with the basic airfoil shape. This requ.ires thin, lctw cambered. a:-rfoi]-s, wr-th ltnax forward of -40c, utith no cusps. Hoi",ever, this is not Practical for sailplanes, for exanple, so the alternate solution is to 90 ahead and use
the needed thiak, high-canberd shapes with long laln-inar mns and shorts (cusp t)pe )
pressure rec-overy secLions, and tben force the transition to turbufent flctut witi turbulator tapes located top and bottcrn near the end of the Lanrinar nrn, to keep the
flc'vi attached. Ttre drag of tJIe turbufator tapes is less than the drag that vnuld
otherw.ise occur frcm the laminar separation bubbles ' so everl,one is happy ror exceedingly Io.J Relmolds numbels, such as with very slow, indoor, small
rubber bancl po"ered nndel-s . the f lc'vr is I00t l-anr-inar. Ib irprove l=rforflEnce. a
trip wire is often placed spanwise in fron! of the leading edge, to make sure that
the flctor over the enti-re rring is turbulent.
As a double-check, note that the fourch digit in the "GA" airfoi.l designation
(as in the NACA designation systsn for the 5-series airfoils) indicates ttle approxjrnate design lift coefficient of the airfoiL section, in tentis. tllat is, either .2,
-3, .4, or .6. Ttrus. i-n our exanple v/ith tie cA 37A315 airfoi], the approxirrnte
design lift c-oefficient of this airfoil is .3, so this apl=ars to fi.t \del1 enough
wit.l- the desigrn lift cceffici-ent needed for tjtat pa-rticul-ar airplane, that is, 0.25.
If these numbers do not have an approxjrate rnatch, the canber selection is probably
not suitEble for tJ.e application, or the estlnated cruising speed of the airplane rnay
be opt]Jru,stj-c.
6.
the ccnputer program used to generate the Predj-cted performance data of APpend1x 1y is tni: eppfer program "profil", published in Fortran in reference 5' and
adapted tor perional 6c.teut. use (itS-DOS ) by referenc 6. Ttris is a sfuple program'
and does not iterate on itre tunOary tayer, thus it gives accu.rate results for only
rrclldesigned airfoiLs such as ,,GA" ai-rfoils, that have slrpoth, contj,nuous nean
U5es, roi porly desigrned ai-rfoiLs witi discontinuj.ties in the n6an line, such as
t]le !,IACA Z3-OIZ aj.rfoif ; it gives inaccurate results, especially for Clrlax ' because
11
it cannot fol.Lod the ccnplicated effests of premature setE-ration bubbles at higher
angles of attick ccrnrpn in those aj-rfoiJ,s. But htro wants to use poorly-designed
airfoils
any/y?
A cqrParison of cdrputer resu]ts and wind tunnel data for a t!?ical airfoi]-,
NACA 64-215, j.s shcr,fi on figure 2j. Note Chat the accurasy of the cdrputer data is
guite good, all tfrings considered, and is a credit to Dr. Eppler. The program
appea-rs to be especiarl-y accurate i-n predicting laninar/turbulent phencmena, separation bubbles, etc. Ho^rever, the program aplEars to overstate drag by at ]east 109,
ard to overstate, lift by about 53,
The rrst disagreenrent appears
to be in ttle pitching nrnent coefficient, btrich tbe program overstates by at least
30t.
For thi-s reason, as absolute data, t}le ccnputer results shouLd be used cautiousLy. Ho\rEver, for ccnparative purposes, such as shqn'n
on figure 2, the program is exc.]Ient.
The program appears to be cal"ibrated for best accuracy for airfoil thi-cknesses
of about L5t. ltre program shqrs a considerab.l-e loss of Cljnax for thinner (12t tnick )
airfoifs, ard a gain of cJ.lrEx for tldcker (18t thick ) airfoils, as shc,vrn by figu.re
16. Ttris does not agree with wind tunnel data, v,hich tlpically shows negU,gi-ble
differencs of cl,rnax as a function of airfoil thickness. Dr. Eppler cffrents on this
iI his book. reference (9), and suggests that, due to the lijn-itaLions of wind tunnel
testing, especr-a]-l-y the change in the ratio of aijfoif cross-section area to the
tunnel tlEoat size witi different ailfoil thicknesses, Ferhaps his qxrputer dat! is
fipre accurate than wird tr.mnel data. In any event, lrE suggest that \r,hen ccf{Ering
the perfornence of different airfoils with the cc(puter prcgram, one shoul-d use
the sanE airfoil- tldckness for both airfoils being c.crpared,
the Eppler prcgram has a routine for sirurlating the !=rforrnance of an aj-rfoi1
witi sjrpl-e flaps. Ho,$ever, tlre predicbed performanc is wildly opti-rdstic crcnpared
to wind tunnel data, because the program of necessi-ty, wfien the flap chord and defl,eqtion are inputted, drav,,s a ccnpletely new, idealized airfoil tlrat is unrealistically snEothed so that the nenesis of the prcglan ( prenature flc'gr separation )
will not occur. Furtherlrl3re, tlle program caffiot begix to sjmulate the cffplicated
flo\^' patterns of npre elaborate flap systens such as sl-otted and F* er flaps. Ttrus,
rile did not spend nu:ch tirrE with the flap routine in this prcgram. In spite of this
shortcurfng, ho$ver, the flap routine is valuable for predicting relative differences
of flap trerfornunce betrcen sj:nilar airfoils, as shGln on figure Z, Another use for
the flap routine is to predist On vs clnax for a given
flap systern. In other
rnords, if a sirple flap systen yields a Clnax of 3.0 b}/ the prograrn, then the repDntd
On will be reasonably acsurate for a flap systern with tbat CLlnax, even though it nay
take a clonsiderably nDre elaborate flap confi,guration to achieve thatclnax in prachice.
The Eppler program al-so does not incl,ude any correction for ctfi[)ressibility
effects. treaLing the airflorr as bei-ng inccnpressible. Ilover. this effect is so
nlinor as to be insignificant, for the flight regi.res of typical-,light general aviation
air planes. For exanple, the tdlng ]oading of a Piper cub, 1*/ft', yields an aEerage
pressure dj.fference of only 7 */ft-/L44 = .05 psi betr"Een the top and bottcrn surfaces, Ccc$Ered to the atjrDspherj.c pressure of 14.7 psia, this arEunts to a pressure
difference of only 0.3t, For higher perfonrEnce airplanes, such as a Bonanza with a
wing loading of 20 */ft', ttre difference is sLill Iess than 1?. thus, the assrnption
12
Several- yea.rs ago Dr. Eppler brought out an "ifiproved" version of hj,s program.
Ho\^/ever, the ner^, program seems to understate section drag, and also reports lalninar
bucket width as j-ncreasing with an increase in Reynolds number, htrich is not the case.
F\.Ether, the resuLts appear to be overly sensitive to data point (ordinate) accuracy,
thus I still favor the old program.
Eoth prcgrarns include routines for desigrn of airfoils by the nrcdern, one-step
calculated, and then
" inverse" rethod, whereby idealized velocity dj-agrams are first
airfoil top and bottcm surface ordinates are ca.l-sul,ated frcm the velocity data. That
is OK, but the Fossibil-ity exists of "creating a nonster", such as the very recent
NASA NLF(I)-OII5F alrfoi], discussed in Addendun No. 5 bel-or^r. lbis is less likely
to lEppen witb the "classic" nEthod used by },lAcA and "cA Airfoils". In any event,
neither the airplane, the wind tunnel, nor the ccrnputer kncrds or cares htlich ntiod
was used to design the airfoil, and the final perfonrEnce figures a-re the only thing
that caunts. Thus both nEthods are valid. Any airfoil, even if hand-sketched, can be
broken dov'rn into a symrEtrical thickness distribution and a camber profile (nean
Iine). and much can be learned about the airfoil- by inspeccing and analizj-ng these
tllo ccmponents sepajately.
7
RE\.{CRK
As noted earj,ier , all of the NACA airfoils have Iffr nose prof i1es. due to the
faulty NACA design nethods -The result j"s poor slcvr-speed Perfonnance, i-n rEny cases.
me niCe 4-digit ( turbufent ) and NA6A 6-series ( laminar) airfoils can be irproved by
adding a leading edge cuff to the airfoil, which drops the center of the leading
edge ipproxirmtaly tt to 1? of chord length. The rpthod for designing these "drooped
leiOing- eages,,, shq,n-r on figwe 25 for the !{ACA 64-212 airfoil, is to design a neur
nean line iorward of 10SC to obtain at feast 12 degrees of initial nrean line slope,
necessary for a soft stalI. Then, usj.ng the existing toP surface and the revised nean
Iine, r,,e calculate the ordinates for the bottcm surface.
Ttre perfornrance analysis for this cuffed alrfoil shclts a draratic jnprovenpnt
in ttre stall ccrnpared tso the original 64-212, as r.vell- as a slightly wider lan.inar
bucket- see figure 26. A-Iso shorvn is the perforrnance of an uPIEr sulface nbdification
proFosed by Hicks et aL at NASA Ans. Ttlis cutes the sharp staff ' but it also reverts
the airfoil to a turbuLent sectsion, causing hj-gh drag ' The perfornunce of the GA
37-212 is also sholvn, for ccnpari son.
This cuff nndification should be used only as a "guick fix" on existing wings,
not for ne$, constructsion- use a GA airfoil instead. A.Iso ' it does not \'tork on the
NACA s-digit airfoils, like the ?3012' which already llave too much leadj-ng edge
droop, and a different stall nrechanism, than the 4-digi-t and 6-series airfoils. See
Addendum #3 belov;.
8. }4ISEIJANMUS AIASC AIRFOIIS
!,iitb the cun-ing of the slEce age, NACA'S naflE was changed to NASA, and the agency's responsibiiities were e4xnded !o include national space Projects as r"eII as
the old-line aeronautj.ca.l, Prolests. Ttre total budget is currently about 14 bi]lion
do.llars yearly, of whi-ch about 1.2 billion is refated tg "aeronautics" projects, a
fairly cpnstant arpunt yearLy. Ho$Ever, over the past Several decades, '.Jork related
to @nera1 Avj,ation projects has dwindled to nearly zero, due to "budget restlaints",
in NASA,S hDrds. Ttre only general aviation airfo.il r.ork, for exanple, has been the
sporadic release of several randcrn airfoils. These have usual-ly been the brain-children of particul-ar NASA individuals, rather than any c,oncerted effort, and have been
disappointmmts.
A. N;\SA GAI,t-j- . In l-974, the NASA GA!.J-I and GAVFz "Whitc6nb" airfoils ( later designated
15(I)-041-3) vere released. Ttrese airfoil-s are characterized by a large
EtlFb'qffi
Ieadrng edge radius. and a slab-shaped profite having the maximum thickness at .40c.
this pioduies a long Iaminar run, at the expense of lanr.inar bucket width. The leadrng
of about .75tC, npre than it neds to give the airfoil its soft stalf
edge has a droop
chiracceristic. Ttre 1c'vr profile drag i-s enhanced by the pronounced cusp in the afier-
13
body, and the blunt trailing edge, The brorst feature by far, hcturever, is the aftloaded camber profj-Ie- an outrageous nListake for an airfoil that was touted to be
a general avj-ation panacea. This gives the airfoil a pitching rTDrnent coeffic.rent
three tijnes as high as it neds !o be for the alrpunt of canber in the airfoil-, and
this produces very high Lrjr drag, rendering the airfoil unsuitabLe for genera.l aviation use, In effect, the airfoil has t'nlo notches of flap perrnanently buil-t into rt.
Unbelievably, NASA chose this airfoj-l for their "ATLIT" project, described belo'v.
Figure 27 sholas the bizarre press release concerning the NASA "ATLIT" (Mvanced
TechnoLogy Light 1\,rin ) project in 1974, r"trlch turned out to be a disaster, perfornance-wise. The project was dccrned to failure frcrn the beginningdue to the seLection
of the hj,gh-Gn NASA GAvl-I airfoil for the wing. the predicted perfornEnce figures
\^rere no doubt calculated without regard to the high On of the airfoil. a rna jor blunder. The spoj.lers for rol.l- controL \rere also unsatisfactory, experiencing control
reversal at ]ow and mediurn deflections. Nothing new was Learned by using a Longer
sPan. tapered wing- these effects had been kno\^'n for decades. This merely contaminated the data, making it impossible to ccnpare to the base-l-ine ( factory ) airplane.
I'IASA \das so ernbarrassed by the poor perfornnnce of this airplane that the pro]ect
engineer never even bothered to hrite a final report on the projecc, but he got proncted any,ray. He no, has a top position at NASA Langley. In retrospect, I.iA.sA forgot
that their function is to c.onduct basic aeronautical R&D, not to "shcwr the industry
that they are \,rrong, and this is the proper way to build a GA 1i9ht twin". Ttris is
an example of hhat can happen if R&D is not rnarket driven, bub is directed by irresponsible bureaucrats. Ttre airplane was bougbt back by piper for salvage of engines.
instrulTEnts, etc, and \aras then sold to a technicar school for students to drill- hores
in it. with the proviso t-tlat it never fly again.
Figure 28 shc'v/s the lA\Si\ !'A'ILIT' airplane during wind tunnel tests at NASA l-angJ-ey. this j.s g!
npney.
The cAli.l airfoil was also used on the Beech Skipper and the Piper Tcmahawk,
wj,th dj,sappointing resul,ts on both airplanes, parcicularly at high speed.
A ccnnnn revrork for this airfoil is to fill in the bottcrn side cusp, as shcun
on figure 6. This reduces the aft loading scmewhat. reducing Gn and trim drag, but
the airfoil refiEins a rrr-ish-nash.
B. MSA NLF(1)-02I5F Airfoil. This airfoil, due to Scnrers, and descriH in Reference
oilg'inaTlt as a sailplane airfoil. thus it has too much carnber in it
T was a$nfor typical porrered airplane applications. Accordingly, the trailing edge must. be
reflexed approxjrraCely l0 degrees as shc'vn on figure 29, for powered airplanes, Even
with the reflex, high aileron hinge rrnents (stiff ailerons ) renEin, so a ccnrncn rer^prk is to make the ailerons and f laps f lat-bottqned, as shc^,,'n on f i.gure 29 , to
salvage Che airfoil. Of course, the better solution to the problen j.s sjrply to design an airfoil witl- less camber in it in the first place.
Anothe! strange feature of this airfoil is the canber "diP'
.60C, as shc'vzn
on fj-gure 3. This is an attefipt to move the trans.itj-on point aft, "a
extendj-ng the larninar run to reduce profi.Ie drag, which it does. Hcrvrever, the fallacy here is that the
negative carnber at .60C causes negative lift, and this causes nore ( induced ) drag
than is saved by the extended larninar run, reducing overall- airfoil efficiency.
Al-1 in all, MCA,/NA9C has never reached a concensus as to the best shape for carnber
profiles for general avj,ation airfoils, See the "GA" camber profiles in A5pendix II
for a conparison,
C. I{ASA NLF(1)-04I4F Airfoil. this airfoil, figure 30, due to viken, was envisioned
as a very lo* drag lamjnar flovr airfoil for high-pornrered, high perforrEnce general
aviation airplanes. the Foint of rnaxinum thickness on the airfoj-l is at .45C, and the
nraximum camber, c.entrally loaded, is approxirnately 2.53c. This makes the airfoil
ccnpa.rable to the }IACA 65-414 airfoil , Unlike the }IACA airfoil, hodever, the t\T,F airfoil has enough J.eading edge droop, approxjrrately .353C, to give the airfoil decent
slc'vr speed perforfiEnce.
Realizing that the price pa..id for locating the nraxi:rn:m thickness so far aft is
a very nafrc'e, l-arninar b:cket, NASA fliSht tested the airfoil on a Cessna 2I0 with
14
narro^' chord (I2tC) "cruise fl,aps", reflexed upr,rards approxunately 7 degrees at cruise,
and adjustable. Thj-s was an effort to shift the faminar bucket verEically as needed,
to keep tbe airplane "in the bucket" under varj,ous flight conditlons, tirat is' at
valious typical vights and speeds encounterd in aircraft service. lttis Proved to be
difficult and jrpractical. and the net wlng drag turned out to be nlf,re than anticipated. The scheme was t]"ug considered to be unsatisfactory for the intended application. This is an example of a "single design point" airfoil.
ltotice frdn figure 30 that the -7 degree cruise flap setting, necessary to reduce
the rnaximum carnber frcnr 2\\C to IEC for Cruise. cleates a region of negative carnber
at .85C. This causes a dlag penalty, simil-ar to what hE have seen prevj'ously fron
ref)-exrng the tlailing edge of the NLF(1)-02L5 airfoil ( ccrnblned with the canber dj-P
at .60C). reducing the efficiency of the airfoil. As before, the better choice would
be to desj,gn the airfoil witlr less canrber (NLF(1)-02I4), to keep tJ-e airfoil clean at
cruise- in short, a conventioal design approach. Ho^Iever, the airfoil ltoufd still be
a single point design. Accordj.ngfy, our concLusion is tllat the point of maximum airfoiL thickness should be no further aft chan .40ct for typical general aviation app-
Iications .
This airfoil has been nEdified. however, by Team Nsrxesis ' and j,s being used sucapplication' a
cessfully on the Nernesis Formula I racer. this is a very special
the
airfoil is unour
concLusion
that
point"
and
thj-s
suPporEs
airplane,
"single
satisfactory for mcst general, aviat.ion aPplications.
It is interesting to note that I'JASA's Cessna 210 flight test progran for this
airfoil, repofted in liAsA Tl,1 85788, was simi.Iar to the Poorly designed "ATLIT" flight
test progran descrj-bed above. On the Cessna 2I0, the span Iras increased frdn 39 ftto 42ft, nraking it :mpossible to ccnpare the perfonnance of the nelJ airfoil to tire
"base line" airfoil. ltre inescapable conclusion is that NASA was here again trying to
shov,/ that they can design airplanes better than the priroe rnanufaceurer, ratber than
bej-ng satrsfied with doing Iegitirnate research r\,ork. At }east, in both cases, llAsA
proved hc)\d not to build a general avj-atiun airplane, and this j.s lvorth sonething-
I guess.
9. REIATED SIjBJECTS
A. Blunt Ttailing Edqes. Al-I GA airfoils r,ave LEen desigmed with sharp traibng
edges, for uniformrty. Hor,rever, sharp-edged airfoils, on wings and control surfaces,
'.Drk bet'te! if they are cut off as sguare as possible at approx1rnately 998 of chord.
Ttre reason for this is that the trailing edges have finite trailing edge angles,
and this causes the flow to selErate before reaching the t.raiJ-ing edge anyway. So
you might as weLl cut it off. Ttre airfoil will stilL acts as if it ',ere I00t 1ong,
B. Flyinc Winq Airplanes. Due to the lack of a tail, flying wj-ng airplanes must use
zero-o'o airfoils, thus GA airfoils are not suitabl-e. nlrttrer, due to pitch stability
concerns. flaps cannot be used on flying wings. Ttrus, due to these tr.rc design constraints, the perforrrnce of any flying wing airplane wiU be nrediocre ccmpared to
E. leadinq Edqe Devices, such as slots and slats. th1n airfoils, and other airfoj-ls
15
that are subject to leadlng edge separation, can benefit frsn these devices. GA aj-redge separation
foils, hc,wevlr. ajre soft-stall- airfo1ls, htlich n*ans that lead-ing
jfiprovement.
Ttlere are
offer
much
is not a problern, hence slots and slatsS cannot
nDVe
out fldn t]1e
that
novable
slats
case
of
tv,o exceplions, honEver. First, in the
the insrmply
frcm
wil-l
result
lift
;rrea
rrDre
I
leading edge and increase the wing
(nose
positive
up)
a
sl-ats
contribute
edge
Secondly. leading
crease of iing
"r.u.
large
pitchj"ng
nEnent
due
to
negative
l-arge
the
offset
pitching
-traiung nterrent that can help of tiese
edge
devices,
of
leading
advantages
edge flaps. In spite
tDtential
with C,e airioils, the prir.nry effort at lift aug[rEntation should be \,rith effective
trailing edge f1aps.
F. Case Study, Rutan Canards, Figure 3I sho\ns that Rutan used fhe GAwt-l airfoil scaled
\^rith its high Gn,
E 6TA{-rhick"==-?6;-6-ari-Eze. Ttre cAw-l airfoil, however,
to
contributing
travel,
Pitch stabi-lity Probhas a considerable center of pressule
Ioaded ( 1q"er
a
forward
Rutan
chose
terns. Accord.ingly, for the successor l-ong-Eze,
j:nprove
pitch
The
Long-Eze
Ho^'ever
stabil-ity.
Gn, Io,.rer c.P. tjcavel ) airfoil to
'
wing, the
lightly
loaded
nain
1ar9e,
with
such
a
vrby?
airfoil is a turbufent airfoifwing.
I
donrt
have
an
flonr
stall
laminar
soft
Gn,
be
a
fs"r
natural choice Seenls tso
ans!',er to t].is puzzle.
16
Postscript
As stated in the Introductsion above, tJre original NACA airfoils \,{ere never intended for astual airplane use, and, according.Ly, "GA Airfoils" has been eritten
to address this need. tn retrospect, one must ask why NASA, in the forty-odd years
since the NACA airfoil uork was done, has rnade no effort sJmilar to "cA Aarfoifs"?
Hovr fiuch valuable tjne and effort. has been lost, and hc,vr nnny precious lives have
been needlessly wasted, because llA.SA failed to address this problernz They certainly must have recognized the need, so why dj-dn't they acc? vitry did they fail to put
an end to the lrlaLh that the I,IACA airfoifs were astual airplane airfoils, and why
didn't they admit that l,IAcA's mistakes and crnissions needed correctlon?
It is trard to think of arr ans$er to these questions without beccnring cynical '
one possible explanation is ttlat NASA doesn't knctu hc'v/ !o do the job. TtEt is hard
to believe, ho,i/ever, in vielr of the astroncndcal budget tllat l.IAsA is bl-essed wi-th
each year to pay for talent and facilities.
Another possible er<planation is that, by the innEdlate Fost-I4MI era, the United
states had achieved undisputed rrcrld-wide suprsnacy in aviation affairs, in spite
of the "good advice" frcrn NACA, and we enjoy this nLmber one position to this day.
Accordrngly, NASA could have felt that there was little ned to do additional aviation
R&D hDrk, nor to reviev the old lrork, so they "lested on their oars", So then the
question arises, lrhy wasn't f,lASA's furding cut off at that point? And why has their
funding continued yearl-y to ttris day? After al-I, the agency was set up origj-nalJ-y
to subsid.ize an infant industry, which aeronautics r,ras in the 1920's. But U.S. aviation is no\^r not only a matu.re industqr, but it enjoys a runarrday position of $,orld
suprsrEcy ! To c.ontinue to subsidize this industry with federal funds, at the expense
of starving deserving infant industries of the I990's, rnakes no sense h'hatever.
zurthenrcre, a nore basi-c, philosophical concern exists, In a free society, one
must al\./ays be on guard against excessive centraL planning, in rhich decisions regardj-ng all-ocation of productj-on resources are nade by bureauclatic guesstinEtes,
rather ttran econcrn-ic realities. R&D !$crk is a legitinate production expense. and falls
in this sarE category, and rnrst be hel-d in check by the realj.ties of rnarket econcrnics For this reason, r{re must always be suspicious of gove!:rurEnt R&D as opposd to prj-vate
seccor R&D. Since the U.S. aviation industry is ncrvr undoubrtedly nlatu-re, they are
unguestionably able to do their ovm R&D 'aork, in the norrnal course of their business.
For this reason, the
aviation R&D budget of NASA should be terninated ifinediately.
And let's not be rlLisl-ead b,y those vrho !,Duld argue that it is necessar!. to continue
NASA's aviation R&D to insure tllat ttle U.S. aviation industry rnaintains its position
of leadership. That is a specious argrLrrEnt, and ignores the reatities of li:rdted
federal funds. ltard choices have to be made j-n washington, but fortunately this is
an easy one. llreher. Let's not confuse the i-ssue by clairning that tIASA's rdork is
vital for nati.ona.I defense. Ttre rnilitary can cronduct thei-r crvn R&D, under their q'm
budget. Accountability for governrEnt spending insists on th-is.
l,lo one will be hurt j-f the NAS|C aviation R&D shop is closed, and the U.S. Taxpa.yer wi-l1 be eteFraLly grateful. In fact. nor is a good tijrE to terninate this Federal jobs prcgram. the currently bocning air transport i-ndustry can easily absorb
the "out-placed" 1=rsonnel resul-ting fron "dosm-sizing" f.lASA. Now is the tjjle to act.
Aviation R&D should be rnarket-driven bry Adam $nith's "invisible hand" of free enterprise, not subject. to politics and bureaucratic r^trjms.
17
LIST OF REFERE}JCES
l. Abbott, I.H.,
of wing sections,
the
EAA
b@kstore,
3.
Epp1er, R., "science and Technology of l.ovJ Speed and l4otorless Fli.ght" '
conference hrbLication +2085, Ms,A Langley R.c., 1979.
Prouty, R.w., "Helicopter Aerodynamics".
Eppler, R., and Scnprs, D., ''A ccrnputer Program for the Design and
Analysis of l.ow speed Airfoil-s", !&qsA N80-29254, NASA Iangley R.C., 1980.
Sawyer, R.D., 'A Program for Designing and Analyzing Airfoils, Airfoil II".
Airware. P.o. Box 295, Canton Cf 06019, 1985.
Saners. D., "Design arld ExperijTEntal Results for a Flapped Natural Lanrinar
Flo,r Airfoil for General Aviation Applications, |IASA 1P #1865, NASA langley R.C. , June 1981.
Holmes, et al- , "t'latllral Lann-inar Flold ExperjjrEnts on i'4odern AirPlane Surf aces", l.lASA 'IP #2256, NA,SA Iingfey R.C. , June 1984.
Eppler, R.. "Alrfoi] Design and Data', u. of stuttgart, springer-verlag
NASA
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
NYC, 1990.
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KII'FOX
SPEEDSTER
itA
Wirh a look relrriniscenl ofrhe.rcing fil:ine\ oftlre.l(l s. the Killbx Spcedslers{ruls itstlrff. Fl\'orah[:
acrodynl].nlc churacleri\ficr ard an fi{l hf Rot!t c) l: rigin3 l:j\. it lol perfunnance. Chssic looks ud
leadin! edge.ngrreeing xllo*\ il top sleed oi 5lintes ir\ rornxl rtlll \peed. oilerinf ntarimunr
eiljcjcncy and sllcl-\'. The Specdstcr refre\cnls aarl spo pe bnnrncc ;rnd lnluL :r, .r prirc r'rrr r.rrr
lflorrl. Worid renown lerobaljc pilorJinr F.! klin dcnto rtralcd thc Spe.dster xl O\hKosh 9l ard
srve ll rale reriews, crlljng il".'\ lrcrl jiltjr llj$hne. I $dnl onel '
3OJ-i,tz-
?e,acen]
GA 30ll-315 airf,oil on lhe Peliean < ll" > and wo arc vcry happy l:ith
Jcan-Iicnf Lepage,
P.ling^
Presidont
soN{\Rl
FLETCHER BURNS REPORTS
From lhe Soneror Newslefer
ll.
JAt/ tqss'
hh
31 fr3t5
f t&uR l1
?1 t
!t
{+
l'!5rlf Sibaetf
415 Ribtett Lane
W,-lrninglon
198t8
however, Ken iell ihat in lhe long run it would be betler for
him lo invest his etions in a new wing so in October oi 1993
and
Sefore
85MPH
Cruise speed
90
Top speed
6tr65
Stall speed-no flaps
St3ll speed-w/rlaps and power 50'55
Rat ol
5m
climb(FPM)
After
100MPH
11o
45
35
"betterl"
{t1
T//////{//////////"/,i/.{f{{/,/722727t121T2fl,777717121711V./zl%7774&7277721Vk
flAs.(A'
p{{t tqq,
CONTACT!
r'.'.
lssue 2s pase 17
ltLlu(x
LU
35
Aircrrft
follows:
Ct = wing lift
coefficient
of lifi,
p=
mass dcnsity
of
standard air =
pounds
fcEt
V = airspeed, fectlsccond
C = wing MAC (avcragc chord),
fcer
is
somctimcs known
as
Notc that thc pitching momcnt (in wind tunncl tcsts) could be mcasurcd about any
refcrencc point, but for conveniencc and standardization the quaner-chord point
(C/4) is used. A ncgativc pitching moment is nosc dowl. Ccnter of Prcssurc =
CI.=Cl4-[Csr/Cr(C)].
Thc flow coDdition (Rcynolds number = Rn) for cach wind tunncl tcst is mcasured
and cootrollcd. Although Rn can bc dctermincd cxactly, for practical purposcs it can
be approximated as follows:
Rn = 90ffi (MPH) (wing chord, ft)
Thus, an airplanc with a 4 ft. wing chord flying at 100 MPH has a Rcynolds number of
approrimately 3.6 x 106 (3.6 million), somctimcs writtcn as 3.6E6. As wing chord and
spccd decrcase, so does Rn, and performance drops slightly. Pcrformancc drops
rapidly bclow
R-n=5E5.
Test rcsults are usually givcn for wings with iDfiDitc aspect ratios. No significalt
crror is introduccd down to an aspect ratio of abour 7, bclow which thc data should bc
adjustcd in accordance with proccdurcs found in standard lcxt books.
Usc
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A
^JALYSIS
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A I RFIII L- i i.
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VELOCITY DISTRIBUTIONS FOR THE AEOVE ANGLES OF
CHORD LINE
, r_)(:){)a_){:}
5E -. Ar5
858 ..8r-)g
A57 .856
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I nurler I Drta - 2-?6-19!A
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ANGLE OF ATTACIT1 FELATM T0 THE trHORD LINE
SUT4HARY AIRFOIL1
: 2.79 DEGREES
* ALFHAO
INDICATES BLIBELE ANALOG LONGER THAN . {)f,{]
R = 6l:)O(l{)C){:} MU =.1
R = ?OCICIC)OO HU =:
_1_Cro DEGREES
=1S
TURET S SEP
CD
UF PEF
, 5{j45
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LEIIER .5865 . OO(IO . CrO?g
TOTAL CL = .142 CD
- . ol:t64
cM = -. ('529
ALF.HA =
, {II1 DEGREES
l
STURB
SEP
CD
UF'PER .517E1 S
. (ittf,7
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TOTAL cL = .25? CD
= . (i064
(1559
CH = -.
ALPHA = 1, O(r DEGREES
l STURE S SEP
CD
UFFER ,5f,49 . (){:)(l{:l , (:rcr4
t-OltEF .424(.t . C)C)(-r(r . C){)25
TOTAL CL = .362 CD = , ()a-t65
Ctl = -,{l=B?
(rr_r
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DEGREES
l STURE 5 SEF
CD
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TOTAL CL = .477 CD = . 0.-166
CM = -.('619
ALF'HA = f,. C)Cr DEGREES
1S TURB S SEP rJa_r46
CD
UF'PER ,565C' , Cr(,()C)
.
()ClC)Cr
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TOTAL CL = ,5AA_,CD
= . oa-t64
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ALFHA = 4,Cr{' DEGREES
r STURE S sEP
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.3777
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Cl4 = --8t744
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=
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oo45
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196
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_
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a4'3
41
ANGLE OF ATTACIi: RELATIVE TO THE CHORD LINE
SUMI,IARY AIRFOIL af,l5
= ?. :9 DEGREES
* ALFHA{I
INDICATES BUEELE ANALOG LONGE R THAN . (:,f,O
R = 6l:)(:)(:)0(-r( )
MU=3
R = 2(r{:)O(:,rf(j HU
ALPHA =
S TURE S
LONEF
TOTAL
CL
ALFHA = 1(J.
I c
UPPER
LOTJEF
TOTAL
ALPHA =
UF,F'ER
LOUIEF
TOTAL
CL
1.
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1
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I
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CL
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Page 44
IRST FLIGHT OF SENECA WITH MODIFIED WING SCHEDULED - National Aeronaulic: and
l$ad-EAtnin-istrarion will supervis the {irst flight ol a Piper Seneca next month modified with a
-Snew
wing design that promises major performance improvemeflt3. The wing assembly for the aircraft - designated as the NASA GAW-!.- is being built and installed on the aircraft 8t Piper's
Lakeland, Fla., facility. The low-speed airfoil features full-gan power flaps and spoilen for lateral
control. Wind tunnel tests with models have indicated that the netv airfoil will provide inqqelq! of
90 oer cgnt in range,80 ocr-,cent in the single+ngine-rate+f+limb, 30 oer-ce?t in maximum lift,
in cruise speed. Although the rving is being built by Piper
g9_gg. c_elt-tgup and
a;E installd on a Seneca, NASA spokesmen emphasired that the program is designed to provide a
more efficient wing for a wide range of generil aviation aircralt, not iust the Seneca. A full flight
resr program will be conducted at NASA's Langley, Va., research facility after initial flights are
completed in Florida.
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APPnDIX
I -
49
synretrical- shapes
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50
FoRmS
a - BAsrc THrcKt.]gsl
B.
PREFe-RR 1-,7
'fuo
Cus P
TF
symrEtrical shapes,
tc <ru Es
thick
s. otsTRtgullarJs
Y =
6A 30-o
158
rs
GA 35AOl5
(ueca ut aors)
6A 37nots
(NAcn 61 Ao rs)
CrA
4oAots
may be scaled
directfy
Frh T'L
APPNDIX rA
Feb 94
sta
0.00
Ord
0. o00
1.090
0. 25
0,50
o.75
L
2
1.856
2-367
3 .264
4,443
5.250
5.853
6.681
7,172
7.427
7 .502
7.436
.25
.50
5.00
7 .50
10.00
15.00
20.00
25. 00
30. o0
35.00
40,00
45.00
50.oo
55,00
60.00
6.976
6.518
6.
75.00
80,00
85.O0
90.00
95.00
100.00
rB
Feb
ie1
5.704
5.166
4.580
3.950
3.279
2 .566
1.810
1.008
o.158
65.OO
70. oo
APPENDTX
015
Distributions
63-015
ord
0. o00
o.a75
I .204
L452
I .874
2.610
3.648
4 .427
5.055
6 - 011
6 .693
7.L55
7.42I
7.500
7 .346
7.O99
.665
6.108
5.453
6
.72I
3.934
3.119
2.310
1.541
0.852
o.300
o.000
(GA 30A,
35-' 37-'
54-01-5
65-015
r.442
r.702
ord
0.000
0.865
1,208
1.456
.528
3.504
4 .240
4 .442
5.785
6.480
6 .945
7 .379
7.442
7.473
2
.224
6.810
6 .266
5.620
4.895
4.1,13
3 -296
2.472
L.677
0.950
0.346
0. ooo
94
0.00
.324
.245
3.959
2
3
s04
.223
5-
6.764
7 -396
7.49A
7 - 427
7 .168
6.720
6 . 1.18
5.403
4.600
3.744
2.858
L .977
1.144
o-42A
0.000
o -25
0.50
u. ta
1 .25
2.50
5.00
7.50
10.00
L5.oo
20.00
25.OO
30.00
35.OO
40.00
45.00
50. o0
55.00
60.00
65.00
70. o0
75. OO
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
ord
0.000
1.090
r .527
1,856
2 .367
3 .264
4 .443
5.250
5.853
6.581
7.172
7.427
7 ,502
7.440
7 .265
7.000
6.655
6 .240
5,755
5.190
4.540
3.817
3.053
2.290
L
.527
o.753
ord
0.000
0.a75
L .203
ord
o. o00
1.44S
0.855
1.l-93
1,436
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2.508
J.477
4 .202
1.844
2 .579
3.518
4
4.997
5.942
5.619
7.O91,
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7.435
7 .2L5
6.858
7
7
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5.820
5.L73
4,468
3.73I
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2.252
I .5L2
2
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r.815
I.L24
t_.356
I -702
2 -324
3 -245
3.959
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5.504
6 -223
6.764
4
7 -270
7.L52
7 .396
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7 .487
7,313
6.974
5 .5L7
5.956
5.311
7
4.
600
.847
3,084
2 .321
1.558
3
o.795
n - o??
40A)
ord
0.000
0.830
4 -799
5.732
6 .423
6.926
51
ord
0.000
o.830
L .724
1.356
I,Io Cusp
sta
40-)
7-
494
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7 .168
6 -720
6.118
5.403
4 .600
3.744
2.885
2.065
1.290
0.600
n. nnn
7
Ft6 T-3
APPENDIX
II -
Feb
l4ean
Lines
camber
canber
94
sta
GA-2
0.000
0.060
0.116
0.169
0. oo
o .25
0.50
o.75
r.25
o -263
0.450
o.715
o .892
1.023
L .244
I .420
2-50
5.00
7.50
L0.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
r .557
1.663
r.737
t-.780
40. o0
r.792
45.00
50.00
55.00
1.764
I .672
50. o0
65.00
70.00
75.00
80,00
85.00
90.00
95.00
.537
L.374
1,,189
0.991
o.793
0.595
0.396
0.198
lo0,00
o. o00
9- cAt oEA
?2. F.Le
Camber
GA-
o.000
0.063
camber
0. o82
0.1 52
0.L12
0.000
o.770
o.275
0.500
0.852
1. tL8
1.335
1.683
.2L3
0.323
o.570
o.970
o
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2.Q46
1
?.473
2.776
3.010
1- 958
2-r73
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2.457
2 .524
2
3.!75
J.Zb9
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2-L7a
3 .296
3.234
3.065
2.818
2
2
2
-947
1.685
t . 404
.5t9
2.180
L .8L7
1.454
1.090
o-727
o.363
o.000
1. L23
0.843
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0,281
o
o. ooo
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0. o00
o
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0.441
o.777
r .323
L.7A2
2-17A
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3.372
2
3 -7A6
4. t- 04
4 .329
4,458
4.494
4.410
4.L?9
3.843
3.435
2.973
2-474
1.982
L .487
0.991
0.496
o. ooo
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Camber
GA-4
o. t-20
A.nla*.
52
profiles)
trocr-@
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Fta
APPmDIX
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55
Feb
94
sta
30-015
ord
0.00
o .25
0.50
o.75
0.000
1.090
r.856
0.169
0.263
0.450
o.715
o.892
1.023
L-244
L .420
1.557
1.663
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3.268
4 .443
5 .250
5.853
6.681
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5.00
7 -50
10.00
L5, o0
7.I72
20 - oo
25.00
30.00
35.00
40. oo
45.00
50. o0
55.00
60.o0
7-
7
7
7
427
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7. O00
65. O0
70. o0
6.655
6 .240
5.755
5.190
4.540
100. o0
3.053
2 .290
L -527
o.?63
0.000
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
Feb
94
sta
0.00
3.81-7
015
Ord
o.000
t-. o90
o-50
o -75
L
2
.25
.50
5.
OO
7.50
10.oo
15.O0
20.00
25.00
30. o0
35.00
40.00
45.00
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
75.OO
80.00
85. O0
90. o0
95.00
100.00
GA- 2
0.000
0.060
2
2
Camber
L,856
2 .367
3 .268
4.443
5.250
5.853
6,681
7.172
7.427
7 .502
7.436
7 .254
6.976
6.618
6.191
R ?na
s.166
4.580
3,950
3,279
2-566
1.810
1.008
o. L58
0.1,16
r.737
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L.?92
L.764
L.672
1.537
L.374
1.189
0.991
o.793
0,595
0.396
0. r98
0.000
camber
GA- 2
0.000
0.060
0.116
0,169
0.263
0.450
0.715
0.892
1.023
L -244
1.420
1 .557
1,663
r -737
1.?80
1.792
I.764
L.672
! .537
L.374
1.1,89
0.991
o.793
0.595
0.396
0,198
o. o00
30-2L2
upper
o.000
o -9J2
1.338
1.654
2-L57
3. 064
4.269
5.O92
5.705
6.589
?.rsa
.499
.665
.689
.592
.392
7.088
6.664
6.L47
5.526
4.82L
4.045
3.235
2.427
1.618
0.808
0.000
7
7
7
7
?
lower
0.000
-0.812
-1,.106
-1.316
-l-.631
-2.164
-2.A39
-3.308
-3.659
-4.101
-4 . 318
-4,385
-4.339
-4.2r5
-4.O32
-3.808
-3.560
-3.320
-3.067
-2.774
-2.443
-2,063
-1 .649
-l -237
-O.426
-O - 412
0.000
3042r2
upper
0.000
0.932
1.338
r-.654
?.L57
3 .064
4.269
5.O92
5.705
6. s89
7.158
7 .499
7.565
7.6A6
7.583
7.373
7 .O5A
6.625
6. 100
5. so7
4.853
4. 151
3.415
2.64A
1.844
1,004
0.126
lower
0.o00
-0.81-2
-1,106
-1.316
-1,631.
-2.L64
-2 .839
-3.308
-3.659
-4.101
-4.318
-4.385
-4.339
-4 -2r2
-4 -O23
-3.7A9
-3.530
-3.281
-3 . 026
-2.759
-2-475
-2.L69
-1.830
-1,458
-L.O52
-o . 608
-0.126
30-21-8
30-215
upper
o.000
1.150
1.543
2,O25
2.630
3 .718
5. 158
6.L42
6.a76
7.925
8.592
8.984
9.165
9.L77
9.045
a.792
8.419
7.9L2
7.292
6.564
5.729
4.808
3,846
2.885
1.923
o.961
0.000
3
lower
0.000
-L.030
-1.411
-1.687
-2.1o4
-2.818
-3.724
-4.358
-4.830
-5.437
-5.752
-5 . 870
-5.839
-5.703
-5.485
-5.208
-4.891
-4.564
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-3.816
-3.351
-2.426
-2.260
-1 695
.
-1.131
-0.565
0.000
0A2 t-5
upper
0.000
1 .150
1.643
2.O25
2,630
3.71S
5.158
6 -t42
6.876
7.925
8.592
8.984
9,1.65
9.]-73
9. O34
I . 768
8.382
7.A63
7 ,24r
6. 540
5.769
4.94r
4.072
3.16L
2.206
1.206
o.158
upper
0.000
1.368
1.948
2.396
3.103
4.372
6.O47
7,r92
LO47
9.26L
10.026
t 0.469
10.665
10.665
10.498
10.192
9.750
9.160
8.443
7 .602
6.637
5.57r
4 -457
3.343
2.?2e
1.114
0.000
3
lower
0.000
-1.030
-1.411
-1.687
-2,1.04
-2.
Sl.8
-1 -7 2a
-4. 358
-4.830
-5.437
-5.752
-5.870
-5.839
-5.699
-5.47
-5 . 184
4
-4.854
-4.519
-4.16?
-3.792
-3.391
-2,959
-2.446
-L.97L
-1 .414
-0.81,0
-O.158
lower
0. o00
-L. ?44
-L,7L6
-2.058
-2.577
-3.472
- 4 .617
-5.408
-6. O01
-6,77i
-7 . L86
-7 ,355
-7 .339
-7.r9L
-6,938
-6.608
-6 .222
-5.816
-5.369
-4.854
-4,259
-3.589
-2.A7r
-2.153
-1.436
-0.718
0.000
0A218
upper
0. o00
1.368
1.948
2.396
3.103
4.372
6.O47
7.L92
a.o47
9.26L
10.026
10 .469
10.665
10.660
10.485
10.163
9.706
9.101
8.382
7.573
6.685
5.731
4.72a
3,674
2.568
1.408
0.190
lower
0,000
-r .244
-!.7L6
-2.0s8
-2 .577
-3.472
-4 - 617
-5.408
-6. 001
-6.773
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-7. 355
-7.339
-7 .LA6
-6.925
-6 .57
-6.178
-5.757
-5.308
-4 . A25
-4 .307
-3.749
-3.r42
-2.444
-I .77 6
-1. OL2
-0.190
Fta f,-3
56
Feb
96
sta
30-015
Ord
0.00
o.25
0.50
0.75
L
0.000
1.090
25.00
30.00
35.00
40.00
O0
50,00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
O0
85.
O0
O0
loo . o0
96
Sta
0.00
o .25
0.50
o.75
2.50
5.
7
OO
.50
10 . o0
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.o0
35.O0
40 . o0
45.O0
50. oo
55. OO
50.00
65.00
70.00
75.
OO
85.
OO
80.00
90.00
95.00
100.00
540
3.817
3.053
2 .290
90.00
Feb
0. oo0
5.190
4-
80.00
95.
-26a
.443
s.250
5.853
6,681
7.L72
7.42?
7 -502
7 .440
7 .265
7.000
6.555
6 .240
7.50
75.
o. ooo
OO
10. o0
15. O0
20. o0
45.
r-527
o.763
1.856
2 .367
2.50
5.
0.063
0.120
0.170
o.275
0.500
0.852
1.118
1.335
1.683
1.958
2.L73
2.340
2-457
2 .524
2-543
2 .499
2.364
2.L74
L .947
1.685
1.404
L.L23
0.843
0.562
0.281
| .527
.25
Camber
GA-3
0. o00
015
ord
o.000
1. O90
L .527
1.856
2 .367
3.268
4.443
5.250
5.853
6.581
7.172
7.427
7 .502
?.436
7 .254
6.976
6.618
6.191
5.704
5.165
4.580
3.950
3.279
2 .566
1.810
1.008
0. t 58
canber
GA-3
o.000
0. 063
0.120
0.170
o.275
0.500
o.852
1. t l-8
1.335
1.583
1.958
2.r73
?.340
2.457
2 .524
2-543
2.499
2.368
2.r74
L .947
t-.685
1.404
1.123
0.843
0.562
o.281
o.000
30-312
upper
0.000
0.935
I.342
1.655
2 -169
3.114
4 .406
5.318
6.Or7
7 .O2A
7 .696
8.115
a.J42
8,409
8.336
8.143
7.823
7.360
6 .782
6 . O99
5,3r7
4.458
3.565
2.675
r.7a4
0.891
0.000
3
lower
0.000
-0.809
-1.102
-1.3l-5
-1. .619
-2.!L4
-2,702
-3.082
-3,347
-3 .662
-3.7AO
-3.769
-3.662
-3.495
-3.288
-3.O57
-2 .425
-2.624
-2.426
-2.205
-r ,947
-1.650
-1.319
-0.989
-0.660
-O.329
0.000
0A31,2
upper
0. o00
0.935
r.342
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o.875
1.203
1.448
1.844
3.618
4.382
4 .997
5.942
6,619
7.O9r
7.344
7 .496
7 .435
6.858
6 ,347
5.820
5.L73
4.468
3.73L
2 .99L
2 .252
o.772
0.032
-777
L.323
t.7a2
2.178
2.844
3.372
3.746
4.104
4.329
4.458
4 .494
4.410
4.L79
3.843
3.435
2.973
2-478
r-942
I .447
0.991
0.496
0.000
camber
GA-6
0. o00
0.112
o
o
.207
.29I
o.44r
o.777
1.323
t -742
2.L74
2 .844
3.746
4.104
4 .329
4.458
4 .494
4.410
4.r79
3.843
3.435
2.973
2.478
1.982
L .447
0.991
0,496
o. o00
35-6t2
upper Iower
0.000 0.000
0.812 -O.588
1 . 170 -o.756
I-.461 -0.879
t-.943 -1.061
2.865 -1.311
4 -24L -1 .595
5 -324 -L.760
6.222 -1.866
7.653 -1,.965
8.726 -L.942
9.51O -1.938
10.041 -1.833
10.329 -L-67L
10.367 -1.451
LO.r73 -1.185
9.742 -o.922
9. 065 -O.70?
L205 -0.519
7.?r2 -O .342
6.r20 -0.174
4.973 -O.017
3.830 0.134
2.720 A -254
L.673 0.309
0.256
o -736
o. 000 0.000
3
5461 2
upper lower
o - oo0
0 .000
0.812 -0.588
t-.169 -O -755
I.449 -O.867
1.916 -L.034
2.A40 -L - 246
4.2L7 -L.57t
5.288 -r.724
6.176 -1. S20
7 .59A -1.910
8.667 -L.923
9.459 -1.887
10.011 -1.803
10. 326 -1 . 668
10 . 406 -1.490
10.266 -L.278
9 .896 -r -076
9.289 -0.931
8.499 -0.813
7.573 -0.703
6.547 -0.601
5.463 -0.507
4.375 -0.411
3 -289 -0.315
2.20r -0,219
1.11-4 -O.r22
0.026 -0. 026
35
-615
upper
0.000
o.987
1.411
1.7 53
2.319
3.3A7
4.97L
6.209
7.233
8.855
10 . 055
10.941
r,1.525
11.829
11.844
11.593
11.075
to.2a7
9.296
8.156
6.907
5.597
4.292
3 .028
1.843
o-796
o. 000
lower
0.000
-O -763
-O -997
-1.171
-1 .437
-1,.833
-2.325
-2.645
-2.877
-3.L67
-1.321
-3.369
-3.3L7
-3.171
-2.928
-2.605
-2.255
-\.929
-1.610
-1.286
-O.961
-0.641
-0. 328
-0.054
0.139
0. 196
0.000
354615
upper l-oeter
0.000 0.000
0.987 -O.763
1 .4LO -O.996
r.739 -r.L57
2.285 -1.403
3.356 -1 . 802
4.94L -2 .295
6.J.64 -2.600
7 -r75 -2.81,9
a.7a6 -3.098
9 .991 -3.247
LO.B77 -3.305
11.488 -3 . 280
11.825 -3.167
11
001
L1.709
LL.268
10-566
9.663
8.608
7.44r
6.209
4 -973
3.739
2.503
1.268
0.032
-1
01t
-2 ,7 2L
-2 - 448
-2 -204
-L.97?
-1.738
-1.495
-1.2s3
-1. O09
-O -765
-O,52L
-O .27 6
-0.032
35-618
upper Iower
0.000 0.000
L.162 -O.938
r.652 -1.238
2.O45 -1.463
2,695 -1.813
3 .909 -2.355
5.701 -3 .055
7 -O94 -3.530
8.244 -3.888
10.057 -4.369
11 .404 -4 . 660
L2.372 -4.800
13.009 -4.801
13.329 -4.67r
13.321 -4.405
13.O1-3 -4-O25
12.408 -3 . 588
11.509 -3.15L
10.387 -2 -707
9.100 -2 .230
7 .694 -l .7 48
6.22L -r .265
4.754 -0.790
3.336 -0.362
2.OL3 -0.031
o.856 0.135
o.000 0.000
35A618
upper lower
0. o00
0.000
1.162 -0.938
1.651 -L.237
2.O29 -r.447
2.654 -I .772
3 -A72 -2 . 318
5.665 -3.019
? .o40 -3 -476
a.174 -3.818
9.9?4 - 4 .2A6
1t-.315 -4.571_
12.295 -4.723
t2.965 -4.757
13 -324 -4.666
13.380 -4.464
L3.I52 -4.164
12.640 -3,820
11.843 -3.485
LO.A27 -3 .141
9.643 -2.773
8.335 -2.389
6.955 -1.999
5.571 -I - 607
4 .189 -1.215
2.805 -O-823
t.422 -0.430
0. 038 -o.038
Frt:l GL- to
Feb
94
sta
0.00
0,25
0,50
o,75
r ,25
2. s0
5. o0
7.50
l"0.oo
15. O0
20. o0
25.00
30,00
35,00
40.00
45.00
50.00
55.00
60.00
65.00
70.00
75 -OO
80.00
85-00
90. o0
95.00
100.00
Feb
64-01-5
ord
0.000
0.865
1.208
1.456
L.842
2 .528
3.504
4,240
4 .842
5.745
6,480
6.985
7
.3t9
7.482
7 -224
6.810
6 .266
5 .620
4,895
4.113
3 .296
2-472
I .6?7
0.950
0. 346
0.000
94
644015
Ord
o. o0
o .25
0.000
0.855
1.193
1,436
1.81s
2,508
3 .477
4 .202
4 .799
sta
0.50
o-75
2.50
5.
O0
7.50
10.00
15.00
20.o0
25.
O0
30.00
35.00
40. o0
45. O0
50.o0
55.00
60. o0
65.00
70. o0
75.OO
80,00
85.00
90. o0
95.00
100.00
6.42J
6 .926
7.270
7.463
7.447
7.313
6,974
6
.5r7
5.956
5.311
4,600
3 .847
2
-32r
1.558
0.795
o.032
camber
cA- 2
0.000
0,060
0.116
0.169
o .263
0.450
0 . 71,5
o .492
t-.023
L -244
1
.420
r .557
l, .663
1.
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1.780
r.792
r.764
L.672
! .537
L-3?4
1.
189
0.991
o,793
0.595
o.396
o.198
o.000
carnber
GA-2
0.000
0.060
0.116
0.169
0.263
0.450
0.715
o .492
1.O23
I .244
L .420
L .557
1.663
L .717
1.780
L.792
t.764
r.672
r.537
!.374
1.189
0.991
o.793
0.595
o.396
0.198
o-
oo0
37 -2I2
upper Iorter
0.000 0.000
o.752 -O.632
1.082 -0.8s0
1.334 -0.996
1.737 -L.2lL
2.472 -I.572
3 . 518 -2. O88
4.?a4 -2.500
4.A97 -2.45]5.A72 -3.384
6.604 -3.764
7 -r45 -4,031
7.518 -4 . r92
7 .723 -4.249
7 .758 -4.198
7.57L -3.9a7
7 .2L2 -3.684
6.685 -3.341,
6.033 -2.959
5.290 -2.542
4-479 -2.101
3.62A -1.646
2.77L -1 ,185
r.937 -O .7 47
1,156 -0.364
o.475 -O.O79
0. o00 0.000
37
A2L2
upper
0.000
o.744
1.070
1.318
1 . 71s
2.455
3.497
4-254
4.862
5.830
6.558
7.098
7 .47 9
7 .707
7 .770
7 .642
7 .346
6.886
6.302
5.523
4.859
4.069
3.260
2.452
I.642
0.834
o.
o26
37
-215
lower
upper
0. o00
o.925
L.324
L.625
2.105
2.97A
4.2r9
5.L32
5.865
7 .O29
7 .900
8.542
0. o00
-0.805
-L . O92
-l .287
-L.579
-2.O74
-2.749
-3.348
-3.81-9
-4.54L
-5.060
-5.428
8.982 -s.6s6
9.219
9 -253
9 . 016
8.574
7 .934
7 .L57
6.269
5.302
4.247
3.265
2.272
1.346
o.544
0.000
-5.745
-5,693
-5.432
-5.046
-4.594
-4.083
-3.52I
-2.924
-2.305
-L .67 9
-1..082
-0,554
-0.148
0.000
37 A2J,5
lower
0.000
-O -624
-0.838
-0 - 980
-1 .189
-1.556
-2.067
-2.470
-2 -8L6
-3.342
-3.718
-3 . 984
-4.153
-4.233
-4.21_O
-4,058
-3.81,8
-3.542
-3.228
-2.475
-2.49L
-2.O47
-r
-r.262
.67 4
-0.850
-0.438
-o.026
upper
0 .000
0,915
1.309
t.605
2-O78
2-958
4-r92
5. O94
5.422
6.976
7 -443
8.483
8.933
9. 200
9.267
9.105
a.742
8.189
7.493
6.685
5-7a9
4.838
3.877
2.9L6
t -954
0.993
0.032
lower
0.000
-0.795
-L -O77
-L.267
-1 . 552
-2.058
-2 -762
-3 .31-O
-3 .77 6
-4.488
-5. O03
-5 . 369
-5.607
-5.726
-5.707
-5.521
-5 .2L4
-4.845
-4,4L9
-3.937
-3.411
-2.856
-2.29I
-r.726
-1,.t 62
-O.597
-o.032
Jt-zL6
upper
0.000
1.098
1.566
1.916
2.473
3 .4A4
4,920
5.980
6,833
8.186
9.196
9 -939
10.446
10.715
LO.74A
10.4619.936
9.19r
8.281
7 .248
6.r25
4.946
3.759
2.607
1.536
0.613
0.000
37
63
lower
0,000
-O.974
-1,.334
-L.578
-l ,947
-2.584
-3.490
-4.196
-4.787
-5.698
-6 . f56
-6.825
-7 .I20
-7 -241
-7.1-88
-6.477
-6.408
-5 .847
-5 - 207
-4.500
-3 .7 47
-2.964
-2.r73
-r,4L7
-O.7 44
-O.2r7
0.000
A2rA
upper
0.000
1.086
1.548
r -492
2.44r
3.460
4.887
5.934
6.742
4.r22
9.L?A
9.868
t 0.387
10.693
10.764
10 . 568
r0.138
9.492
8.684
7.747
6.709
5,607
4.494
3.380
2.266
r.L52
0. 038
lower
0.000
-0.965
-1 - 316
-r.554
-1.915
-2.550
-3 .457
-4 - 150
-4.736
-5.634
-6.288
-6.754
-7 -O6L
-7 .2r9
-7 .204
-6,984
-6.610
-6.148
-5.61.0
-4.999
-4.331
-3 .625
-2. q08
-2-190
-L.47 4
-O.756
-o.038
Ftq ][-rr
64
Feb
96
Sta
0.00
o .25
0.50
o.75
1.25
2.50
64-015
ord
o. oo0
0.865
1..208
1.456
t .442
20.00
25.00
30.00
.524
3.504
4 .240
4 .442
5.785
6.480
6.985
7 .3L9
OO
7 - 4A2
5.
O0
7.50
10.00
15.
35.
O0
40.oo
45-00
50.00
55.00
60. o0
65. O0
70. o0
75.00
80. o0
85.00
90.o0
95-O0
100. o0
feb
.224
6.810
tr. ltrt)
5.620
7
4,895
4.113
3 .296
2.472
I .677
0,950
0. 346
0. o00
camber
GA- 3
0,000
0.063
0,120
0.170
o.275
o.500
0.852
1.118
t-.335
1.683
1.958
2.L73
2.340
2.45?
2 .524
2 .543
2.499
2.368
2.L78
r .94?
1.685
r-404
1.123
0.843
o.562
0.281
o. o00
96
644015
Carnber
GA- 3
o. o0
0. o00
0.000
o.063
o.120
sta
0.25
0.50
0.75
L .25
2.50
5.
OO
7 .50
10.o0
r.5 . o0
20, o0
25. O0
30.o0
35.O0
40.00
45-O0
50. o0
55. O0
50.00
65.00
70.00
75 -OO
80. o0
85.00
90, o0
95.00
100 . o0
ord
0.855
1.193
1.436
1 . 81.5
2.508
3
4
4
.477
.202
.799
5.732
6.423
6 .926
7 .270
7.463
7.447
7 .3L3
6,978
0.1 70
o.?75
0.500
o.852
1.118
r.335
5.956
1.683
1.958
2.L73
2 -340
2-457
2 .524
2 .543
2-499
2.368
2-778
5.31-1
L -947
.5L7
4,600
3.A47
3. O84
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1.558
o.795
0.032
2
1.685
1",404
1.123
o.843
o -562
0.281
o-
ooo
37
-3L2
upper
0.000
o.755
l-,086
1.335
L,749
2.522
3 .655
4.51-0
5.209
6.311
7.L42
7 -7 6L
8.195
8.443
8.502
a.322
7 .9 47
7.38L
6.674
5.863
4.975
4 .041
3. t- 01
2.ras
I.322
0 . 558
0.000
lower
0.000
-O.629
-o.846
-0.995
-1.199
-r -522
-1.951
-2.274
-2.539
-2.945
-3 -226
-3.415
-3.515
-3 . 529
-3.454
-3.236
-2.949
-2 .645
-2.318
-1.959
-1.605
-L.233
-o.855
-0.499
-0.198
0.004
0.000
37 A3L2
upper lower
0.000
0 .000
o.747 -0.621
L.07 4 -0.834
1.319 -O -979
r.727 -r.L77
2.506 -1 . 506
3.634 -1.930
4 - 480 -2 ,244
5.l-74 -2 . 504
6.269 -2 .903
7 .096 -3.180
7 .714 -3.368
8. 156 -3 .476
a -427 -3.513
8.514 -3.465
8.393 -3.307
8.081 -3.O83
7.542 -2.846
6.943 -2.587
6.196 -2.302
5. 365 -1 .995
4 -442 -L .67 4
3.590 -1.344
2-700 -1 .014
1.808 -0.684
o.9r7 -0. 355
o.026 -0. o26
37-315
upper
0.000
0.928
L.324
1.625
2.r17
3.028
4.356
5.358
6.L77
7 .46A
8.438
9.158
9.659
9.939
9.997
9.767
9,309
8.634
7 .79A
6 -442
5 -79A
4.700
3.595
2.520
1.512
o.6?7
0.000
lower
0,000
-0.802
-1. O88
-l-.286
-L567
-2 , O2a
-2.652
-3 .I22
-3 . 50?
-4,lO2
-4.522
-4.AL2
-4.979
-5.025
-4.949
-4 . 681
-4.311
-3.898
-3 .442
-2.944
-2.42A
-1.892
-1.349
-O.834
-0.388
-O.055
0.000
37A315
upper
0.000
o.918
1.313
1.606
2.090
3. O08
4.329
5.320
6.134
7 -4L5
8.381
9.099
9.510
9.920
10.011
9.856
9.477
8.885
8.1.34
7 -25a
6,285
5.251
4.207
3.164
2 .],20
1.076
0.032
Iower
0.000
-o.792
-1-073
-r.266
-1 . 540
-2. O08
-2.625
-3. O84
-3.464
-4.049
-4.465
-4.753
-4.930
-5.006
-4.963
-4.770
-4.479
-4.L49
-3.778
-3.364
-2.915
-2.443
-1.961
-!.474
-0 . 996
-0.514
-0. o32
37-318
upper
0 . o00
1.101
1.570
L9L7
2.4A5
3.534
5.057
6.206
7 .r45
8.625
9,734
10.555
11.123
1l-.435
II . 492
r1_.212
10,671
9.887
a,922
7 .A2L
6.62L
5.359
4. O89
2.855
L.702
0.596
o. o00
3
I o$ter
0.000
-A.975
-1.330
-L .577
-l-.935
-2 .534
-3.353
-3.970
-4.475
-5 -259
-5.818
-6.209
-6.443
-6.521
-6 .444
-6 . L26
-5 .67 3
-5.151
-4.566
-3.927
-3.251
-2.551-
-1.843
-1.169
-O.578
-0.134
0.
o00
7A3 18
upper
0.000
1.089
1..552
1.893
2.453
3.510
s.024
6. L60
7 .O94
8.561
9.666
10.484
l-1.054
11.413
1.1.508
11.319
10.873
10.1,88
9.325
8.320
7 .205
6,020
4.824
3.628
2.432
r.235
0. 038
lower
0.000
-O.963
-1.312
-1.553
-1.903
-2.510
-3 .320
-3 .924
-4.424
-5. 195
-5.750
-6.138
-6. 384
-6.499
-6,460
-6 .233
-5.875
-5.452
-4.969
-4 .426
-3.835
-3.212
-2.57A
-I .942
-1 . 308
-O -673
-o. 03I
Fta fl- t?
65
Feb 94
sta
64-01-5
ord
0.000
0.865
1.208
L.456
1 .842
2 .52e
3.504
4 .240
4.842
5.785
5.480
6.985
0. o0
0.25
0.50
o.75
1.25
2.50
5.00
7 -50
10.o0
r5. o0
20.00
25.00
30.00
7
7
35-OO
40.00
45. O0
50.00
.224
6.810
6 .266
5.620
7
65.00
70. o0
75.00
80.00
85.00
90.00
95.00
100. o0
94
sta
0.00
o .25
0.50
o.75
.482
7 -473
55. O0
60. o0
Feb
.3r9
50.00
55,00
60.00
65.
O0
70.00
75.00
80. o0
85.00
90.00
95.00
100.00
t.597
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0A61S
upper
0. o00
1.108
1,.556
1.918
2.443
3.566
6.533
7 -644
9.449
10.840
11.903
12.686
13.204
13 .455
13.406
13-O12
L2 -243
11.185
9.919
8.493
6.97I
5.444
3.965
2.539
1.216
0,000
Iovrer
0. o00
-0.884
-I.I42
-1.336
-1.60L
-2.OI2
-2.969
-3.288
-3.76\
-4.096
-4.331
-4.47A
-4.546
-4 .540
-4.418
-4.I92
-3 .885
-3.499
-3.049
-2.547
-2.015
-1.480
-0.991
-0.557
-O
.224
0. o00
Ftq ff-t9
LIFT AIRFOII,S
3 0- 015
canber
GA- 6
Ord
0. o00
o.000
HIGH
Feb 94
Sta
o.00
o .25
0.50
0.75
r .25
2 .50
5.00
7,50
10. o0
15. OO
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.
OO
40.00
45.00
50,00
55.00
60,00
65.00
70.00
75. OO
80.00
85.00
90.00
95. O0
100.00
Table l
1.090
1 .527
1".856
.367
1-264
4-
443
5.250
5.853
6.681-
7.L72
7-
427
7 -502
7.440
7 .255
7.000
6.655
6 .240
5.755
5. 190
4.540
3
-AL7
3.0s3
2 .290
r .527
o.763
0.000
O.LI2
.207
0.291
0.441
o.777
r .323
I -742
2.L74
2.844
3 -372
3.786
4.104
4.329
4.458
4.494
o
4.41-0
4
-r79
3.843
3-435
2.973
2.478
L.982
I .447
0.991
0.496
0. o00
30-61-3.5
upper
o.000
1.093
1 . 581
1.961
2.57L
3 - 7L8
5.322
6.507
7.446
8.857
9 -A27
LO - 470
l-o.856
11. O25
10.997
ao -794
10.400
9.795
9.O23
8.106
7 -O59
5.913
4.730
3.548
2.365
1.183
o. ooo
lower
0.000
-0 .469
-'t . 167
-L.3?9
-1.689
-2.L64
-2 .6? 6
-2.943
-3.090
-3.169
-3 .083
-2 .898
-2 -644
-2.367
-2.080
-1- 806
-1.580
-L .437
-L.337
-r.236
-1.1
13
-O.957
-O -766
-O .57 4
-0.383
-O.l-91
0.000
30-515
upper
0.000
L.202
L.734
2.L47
2.808
4.O45
5-766
7 .O32
8.031
9.525
10.544
l-r.213
11.606
L1 -7 69
Lt-723
11.494
11. 065
10.419
9 .598
8.625
7 .573
6.295
5.035
3.777
2.518
r.259
0.000
lower
0,000
-O.978
-1 . 320
-1.565
-t.926
-2.49L
-3 -120
-3.458
-1 .675
-3.837
-3.800
-3 .641
-3.398
-3 . 11r,
-2.807
-2 . 506
-2.245
-2.061
-)- -9r2
-r.755
-I .56?
-1.339
-1.071
-O.803
-0.536
-O -267
0.000
30-616.5
upper Iower
0.000 0.000
l-.311 -1.08?
1.887 -L.473
?(1
3.045
4.372
5.210
7 -557
a.615
10.193
11.261
11.956
12.356
t-2.513
12,450
12.L94
lL.73!
11.043
IO.L74
9.I44
7 .967
6.677
5. 340
4.006
2.67L
1.335
o.
ooo
-1
-2 . L63
-2.818
-3.564
-3.993
-4 .260
-4.505
-4.5L7
-4.384
-4. 148
-3 . 855
-3 .533
-3.206
-2.911
-2 .645
-2.488
-2 .27 4
-2.O2r
-r .7 2L
-t.376
-1.032
-0.689
-0.343
o. ooo
lirfoil
R=61'{
R=6M
cA30 -613.5
.0058
4415
NACA 4412
usA 35B
clark Y
NACA
71
III-6)
R=2H
r tao
3.62
I93I
.0073
-. r05
-.125
1931)
.0070
1'ra
r.'707
3. 14
,t*
(1923
.0071
--114
r .677
3.02
(1924
.0072
-. lll
1A))
3.07
20 .
deflecci.on=25 degrees
FIAUR
fi.|1
LA55r(
rCrF{-
LrFr A rRFatLS
72
NA CA 4 4I'
FlQvP, fl,--zo
APPENDIX
IV -
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Frt's'-10
93
lirf oils
Or, '' nverythj-ng you always wanted to knolr about airfoils but \,rere afraid to
ask'r, for fear of feeling stupid, perhaps. Donrt feel bad- there are scme confusing
aspecLs about airfoil perfonrErce, and a surprising nw cer of stupid airfoil design
mistakes have been rnade in the past by people who should have knoarr better. 9're will
point out a ferr of these, but the prirnary purtrEse of this artsicle is to "get back
to basics" so that you can better understand the nain causes and effests of subsonic
airfoiL trErfol:IrEnce,
SwrrEtrical Airf oil Perfornance. l,ie ' 1l start r./ith a sinpl-e case of b^'o syllnEtrical
uncambered ) airfoi.Is, I5s thj-ck, sho,.rn on figure 1. The first of these "basic thick"
ness foms", NACA 0015, is considered a "turbulent flor^r" shape, while the second,
lrAcA 5rtA0I5. developed later, is a "la$inar flovi" type shape. we dril,l a hole in each
of these at the guarter-chord Foint to receive an axle, and then nDunt then (one
at a tinE ) in a wind turlnel such that tbey are free to pivot on this ax1e, and then
bLcn on thern. The airfoil is then tested at various angl-es of attack (C ) frcrn zero
to about 18 or 20 degrees, plus and minus, in one degree j-ncrenents, and lift and
drag are recErded at each angle of attack. Lift and drag are easy to visualize, rneasured in pounds, aqtsj-ng at the pivot point. Lift is neasured perpndicular to the
air strean, and drag is nEasured parallel to the air stream. The }ift and drag values
at each angle of attack are nohr converted to dirrensionLess perfomance coefficients,
CJ- and cd, consi-dering t}Ie wing area, air density, and ai-r speed. lie nexts plot cl
versus Cd to obtain tne "Iift curves " sho,in on figure 3. the Cl vs Cd cr.rrve is
sFnrtrical about alfa = 0, r*rhere Cl- = 0, since the airfoil itself is s1'nnetrical.
the zero-lift drag is called "profile" cf " form" drag, and the total drag increases
as angle of attack increases, due to "induced" drag, or drag due to lift. As tie
angle of attack increases bq/orld about 15 degrees, the lift begins to decrease as
f 1ov, separation occurs on ttle top surface, @inrling at tie trailing edge. ttris
area of separated flonr progresses forward frcn ttle trailing edge as the angle of
attack increases, causing further loss of lift, and large increases of drag, untilthe airfoil evenlual-Iy "stalls".
i,ie are not finished with or:r !.rind turnel fieasurenEnts, ho^Jever. on scarE arrforls
the lift and drag are not exasll-y centered on the guarter-chold point, t}lat is, the
"center of pressure" may be sdrF distanc forward or aft of the guarter-chord point,
and tlre airfoil terds to rotate about the pivot point. For this reason, rrE [ust al,so
nrcunt a sprjng scale at the trailing edge of the airfoil (see figr:re 1) to neasure
the pitclling nrnent in foot-pounds about the quareer-chord point. A nosedorrrn
pitching tendency is, by convention, a negative pitchj-ng firctrent. !,ie nc'v, convert the
pitching roxrEnt sprillg scale reading tj:res .75c) at each angle of attack to a
di:rensionless croefficient, On, sirnilar to Cl and Cd, by considering the wing area,
air density, ai-r velocity, and also chord lengrttr. vihen r,,e plot the p.itching mcflEnt
coefficient curve, qn^ /d vs alfa (figure 3) for these tvro syrrrtrical airfoils, we
see tiat ttre On is zei6'for any angle of attack up to the sta].l point, ttEt is,
the center of l-ift center of pressure ) passes directly through the guarter-chord
point. Inded, the center of Iift for anv s}'nretrical airfoil. is always at the quarLer-chord point, regardless of tie angle of attack. ltrus, this point has special significance, r*rich is the reason tbat we picked it for the ncunting point for wind
tunnel tests in the first p],ace. the explarEtion for this phenc.rEnon is beyond the
scolE of this article, which is anotler my of saying tbat I don ' t kncr^, ra,hy it j-s .
Regaldless, the pitch-ing ncnent cefficient about the guarter-chord Foint for any
synrnstrical airfoil is always zero.
Ianiner F1crd. the next thing to look at j,s landnar f.l-or./. The ai-r alf aror.rnd us in
FnaturiFinraisturbed staie is laninar, that is, in layers. rf you ncve your
hand slor,ly in fron\ of you, holizontally, tie air renains in layers, and your hand
passes ttrrough snrcQy with mimmun drag, without disturbing the layers. Tlr-is is
knorn as " la,rLinar flor.r". If you rrpve your hand rapidly enough, or if your hald is
rough enough, tire flow over your hand wil-L "trip" to turbulent flor*, rrrhich has rpre
than twice as m uch drag as lanjrnr flow. Ttre reguirerent for .Larnj-nar flo\^' is that
the flcrvr over the surface should not be accelerated beyond cerbain lirn-its in any
d.irestion- fore and aft, sideways, or verticalLy- tlEt is, we need c\onstant velocj-ty
Underst.ndinq
94
If the flov/ has tripped to turbulent, \,vre need only to slct/
point
the acce.leratj-on lirlits are not exceeded, and the fLc'vr will
to
the
h'here
doh/n
once agaj-n revert jrnrEdiately to tanr-inar.
! se that the 64A015 shape has a region of lovr drag betvJeen -4 and +4 degrees angle of attack. this lo.r-drag region is knov,'n as the lanr-inar bucket. Beyond
I 4 deqrees, rr)St of the laninar flow is lost, and tl.e ftor over the entire wing
beocrrEs turbulent. Iaminar flovr is easiest to maintain near the front of the airfoil vtrrere tie pressure gradient is highest ( "ncst favorable" ) , and is hardest to
maintain beyond the thj-ckest part of the wing. Accordingly, t].e " Ia.runar" shapes
have been desigrned for constant velocity flov,r over the wing at cruise, and the thickest part of the wing llas been IIEved as far aft as prasticable, to maxjrize the ]-arninar run. The net resuLt is that the laninar section has approxirnately 20t less
drag at cnise tllan the ccnparable turbulent sestion, a sigrmficant FerforlrEnce
fl-op over the surface.
advantage.
ScnE recent
I{ACA
reference (A). The canber schedule for GA37A3I5 is a nr:dification of another nean
l-ine frcrn reference (A), and is especially designed for lanr-inar flctor. The maxjjrrlrn
canlcer in each ai-rfoil i-s about tl:le saIIE. Also. both ajrfoils are forwarded loaded,
that is, the maximrm camber is located forh,.ard of the airfoiJ- rnid-point. at a.bout
.40C.
The perfonnance curves for these tlrtc airfoils is shornn on figure 4. Cc.Tparing
with fi$Ee 3, the first thing we notice is that canber produces a sigmficant increase of naximum 1ift, with no change in crui-se drag. Second, tfie stafl becc.rEs
softer, that is, the top of t}le lift curve is flatter, and lift continues to be
developed at higher angles of attack than with the uncanbered airfoils. This is
prirnarily a function of the inj-tial slope of the rEan line ( slope at .25tC), an irnportant paraleter for good sloH-speed performance. this inj-tial nrgan line slope
has been optirlized at about 15 degrees ,rn a1l "GA' airfoiLs, correcting an unfortunate crnission in the NACA rrk. Ttre third thing that we notice is ttrat canrbering
Iifts the vrhole performance curve (Cl vs cd) vertically upmrds into a nrre usable
range of CI, with no increase irt drag. Airfoil perfornance is neaningless belo*
C1=.15, except for a few ve-ry high performance airplanes with extrenely high pcner
to v,eight ratj.os. AII other a.irplanes olErate above this point: for exajrPle, Irpst
Iight GA airplanes operate at cruise lift coeffj.cients betrreen c1=.2 and .4. I see
tiat our cambered aj-rfoil- perforrnance curves, and especial"Iy the lan-inar bucket.
are nohr centered vertlcally on ttre desigrn lift coefficient (C1=.3) instead of being
centered on Cf=0. thus the top edge of the larnina-r bucket is raised to nearly C1=.8,
i.f I into the cljjlib range. the bottcrn edge of the bucket is at Cl-=0 , renainhg
ccnfortably belov, tie lo,"est operating CI nrini:rn:rn of C1=.I5. A11 good stuff.
ltrere is one big disadvantage caused by the camber, ho\rever. tlctice that the
pitch-ing nsrcnt coefficient is no longer zero, but is Or=-.05 for both airfoj,ls.
Increasing the camber, or rpving the loading aft, both result in an increase in
cln. Ttlus, a pitchijlg nsrEnt is ttre prj,ce lie pay for carbering tie airfoi], and it
requires us to invesligate tie effects of On on airpJ-ane perforrnanc.e so that ue cn
design our airfoils intelligentl-y.
']
95
Ttjfi Draq. As shovrn on fj-gure 5, the center of lift (center of pressure ) for carnbered
airfoils does not alr^rays remain at the nragic guarter-chord point. It does so at the
stal]", but as the angle of attack decreases, the center of lift IIEves reandard. But
the stall c.P, , so
since ne must always locate tie aircraft C.G. at or near
that tie nose of the airp.Iane will drop at the stall, the wing lift vector at cruise
f or carnbered airf oi.Is is af t of the r,,Eight vesEor, and the airplane has a nose-dc'rrn
pitching tendency. The fix? I,fe put a horizontal taj.l surface on the airplane to react
the pitching nE(IEnt, holding the tail dcr.n. But as tle l-eamed earlier, negative l-ift
in ttre tail surface produces induced drag' *hich adds to the wing d!ag. Retrernber
also that for every pound of negative lift in the tail, an additional pound of li-ft
must be generatd by the wing so tllat the swnnation of vertical- forces rernains zero.
For exarple, if the airplane r.ireigls 1000# and the tail do^,n-load is 40*, the wing
must generate 1040* total lift. Ttris additional 40+ of fift, above hhat rapuld be
required for our sl4flretrical airfoil, also creates induced drag. so vte see that t.rjm
drag, or t}le drag associated r,rith trjJrrLing out the pitchlng nEnent of a canbered
airfoil, has trrc cc([Dnents- the induced drag of the tail, and the additional drag
of the wing in producing an increnent of lift egual to tie tail doum-load. For our
tr,.E canbered airfoils, fi-gure 5 shcr*s that the trim drag at cruise is appro).ijnate1y
5-8 drag counts, which is about I0S of the sectsion drag coeffici-ent, and addl-tive
to it. conclusion? Unless e can shctur at .Ieast lot i.ncrease in rnaximum lift frdll
cambering the airfoil, it isn't r.Jorth it. Ifappi]-y, the increase in Clnax for our
airfoils is about 30t, considelably greater thEn the drag increase of 10t, so kle
have a balgain. But thr-s is not always tj case, especially with aft-loaded 3irfoils,
so t}te bigger lesson j-s that r*e should always consider the effect of oj fferences in
on on airpJ-ane perfornance when ccrnparing airfoils. vse also see that it behooves us,
when designing subsonic (1ight cA) airfoi-ls, to keep the On as lcnr as possi-ble, other
things belng egual. Using srmth, forward-loaded nean lines, and using only as rnuch
camber as necessary, does ttris. This is a rrErjor critj-cism of the l|A6A 6-series airfoils. which are nid-loaded, and tie infanpus N&sA GAIAI (I^5-1) airfoils, which are
aft loaded I an j-nexcusable mistake. Don't use thern. For ccnparison, OrF-.05 is lovr,
CrF-,10 is h-igh, and the Gn of the f.ASA GAI., airfoils (npre than -.I5) is outrageous.
Ttrere are other th-ings that can be done to ninirtrize trim drag, such as using
a long tail length, at least three wj,ng chord lengths long. A high aspeqt. ratio
horizontal tail. surface also helps. Anot-Ller effestive technigue is to have a r,,eight
shift to the rear at cruise, follcwirg the C.P. shift to the rear. Retracting the
landing gear to the rear does this, as on tie Iancair rV and the Cessna 210.
Sunnarv. ltrere are thre crefficients of airfoil lErfolnEnce- CI, Cd, and Cm- equaUy
jnportant. the effect of airfoil- On on airplane performance mtst be quantified and
not neglected in desigrning airfoils. orrly forr,rd-loaded nean lines, such as the NACA
(0.5) nean line of reference (A), should be used for csrnon subsonic C.A airfo.il designs, to rnillinrize Gr. It is not necessarl' to reduce t].e airfoil On cc(pletely to
zero, rrrhich r,.,a.s done with the }.lAcA sdigit (230rc<) airfoils,at tlle unfortunate cost
of degrad"ing safety, but onl,y to keep the On as lcnr as praclicable, other things
being equal.
Disclaj-ner. Ttris paper is adnittedly a sfuplified explanation of airfoil lnrformance
and design. For exafiple. wind tunnel force neasursnents are now ccnnrcnly taken with
pressure rakes rather than old-fashioned spring scales- Al-so, for satisfactory
horizontal aircraft stability, it is not necessary tiat the taiL lift coefficient
be negaLive, nelely ttlat it be l"ess than the wing l-ift cefficient, provided that
the nuny olher factors affecting horizont-al stability contribute in a favorable
(stabilizing) direst:-on. Hou,ever, at slo\^' ftight, which is norrnally the lrrcst critical conditron for longitudinal stabj,lity, the center of pressure of any airfoil
approaches tne C/4 point, and tie c.onclusions presented herein regarding "trjm drag"
or drag associated with trinning out t].e wing Qn, are not invalid.
Revised 5/I7 /95
Ha.rry Riblett, 416 Rilelett Iane, wilrLington DE 19808 302/994-0479
5Y--c';..".
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99
ADDSNDUM NLD4BER 2-
Deslgn ltotes
!,lhen designing
including:
for
Tapered wings
airfoil secbions should be used for the root and tip sections, especial-Iy
[Er cent thickness?
2. Hctur much t\,rist (washout ) should be put in the wing to protect the wingtips frcrn
prenEture stall, and to preserve ail-eron c.ontrol tlEoughout the stall?
3. !,lhat taper ratio and what aspest ratio sbou.l-d be used?
Hj-storically, designers have teen guided (at least partj-ally ) by a series of taPered wing tests conductsed on turbulent secti-ons at NACA I-angley in the rn-id-1930's.
Figure I sho\ds a tabulat.ion of the strEcurEns used during these tests, and the tabulated
test results . D/pj-cal performance curves are a.Lso sholnm on figr:re I. l.Iote the sketch of
the initiat stalf dlstributions predicted by l.lACA for "restangular, tapered, and sr,ptback wings". This sketch is especially botherscme, since it il.l.ustrates the NACA concl-usion that "rectangular wings stall first at the wing roots and tapered !,.rings stall
'
first at tl-e wing tips"- hence, supposedly, rather drastic llEilsures
are needed, such
as use of considerabl-e rrrashout, or use of sections with rore camber at the tips, and
then even nrcre uashout, to ccrnbat these "bad tip sta1l characteristics" of tapered
wings. The bothe.nscrre aspect is that the planform differences betrnteen the straight and
tapered wilgs are not so great as to account logically for the n'Erked differences in
the location of initial stall reported by I{ACA. Neverthel-ess, generations of aeronautical- students have been conditioned to accept these resuLts as gospel, and to desigin
accordingly. ltre ccnnonly acceptd washout recqrrrEndation is about 3 degrees, in spite
of the fact. that twist reduces t}le overalL efficiency of ttle wing.
!et's look a Iittle cJ.oser at the test s1=cimens used in the IiACA tests, hodever.
Incredulous.l-y, of t].e 22 specj:rens tested, a1I but tLlc tEve a t thickness taper frsn a
r@t thj,ckness of l5t, f68, 18t, or 20t to a tip tiickness of only 91, in addition
to the planform taper. The nexc to last specimen uses a 23013/43010 ccnbination. that il
nrrre canrber at the thinner ) tip- all t}.e rest have the same canlDer, root ard tip. onl-y
the l-ast specirren has the sanE per cent thickness at the root and tip, IZt, but it uses
an odd (eUiptical) planform. Evidently. l.lACA ( erroneously ) assurEd that the preferred
way to build a tapered wing is to taper both the pladorm and the per cent thickness,
and unfortunately the test results are contarninated by the effest of these tr.ra variables
ccrnlcined. casting considerabfe doubt on the conclusions. It is curj-ous (and unexplained'
tllat NACA never dj.d test the tHo variables separately, except for sarple #22, htrich
has an odd planform that further contaninates the data. In fact, if they had tested a
2415/2415 sampLe for exanple, with 2/I planform _taper ratio, they reoul.d have found
tllat the initial- statl, distribution is the sane]for a straight rectangular Hing, that
is, benign. Further, if they had tested a straj-ght pLanform wing with a per cent thickness change frcm root to tip, they rrculd have seen the locaLion of the illilral stalf
shrft to the wj-ng tips. thus. c.ontrary to NACA'S conclusj-on, the spanwise location of
the rnitial stal1 j-s pri:narily a function ot the per cent thickness change frcrn root to
tip, and is not due to the planform taper. Prmf of thrs is shor*n on figures 2 and 3.
Itote that the thj-n (9t) tip sestions stall about 3 degrees ear.l-ier than the thicker
/raot) sections, for both the 24>o< and the 23olo( sections. Flrther, the mlst efficient
'secLion thickness in tenns of naximum L/D is LzZ, as shom by figure 7. Therefore,
there is absolutely no reason ever to use a tip thickness Iess than 12*, and NACA'S
design of the tapered sestions was a rnf,nunEntal mistake.
UnforEunately, follcrvring NACA'S psr exarple, a r.hoLe generation of tapered wing
airplanes was built with wing tips that r^,ere t@ thin. Fign:re 4, curtesy of I'lr. ceorge
Copland of Duncan, OK, is a partial listing of representative planes frcn the I930's,
1940's, and 1950's. Note tJee ill-advised use of 9t thick tip sections on nany of tlrese
ccnrrDn airplanes. It is also interesting to note that a fe!e, of tie nore sucessful airplanes (P-38, P-5I, Dc-3, Eonanza ) did not fall for the trap of using 9t thict( tj-p sections, but used 12t tip sestions, contrar)' to I,IACATS reccnnendation. l.lote a.l-so that the
Pi,per PA-2+ cc.manche, desigrned i.n 1954, rrras a historically si-gnj,ficant airpfane, for
it "broke the ncld" by using only planform taFer with no [E! cent thickness taper, with
1. !,lhat
concernj-ng
100
no washout in the wi-ngs. The resul-t was a very docile ai4ll-ane, Unfortunately, hor"ever,
too rnany nndern airpJ-anes. such as the Venture, Malibl, and high-perfornEnce Eech
ncdels (see frgure 6) continue to be buj-lt with thln wing tips, unnecessarily causing
control prob.l-etns and ccrnprcrnising safety. 'Itle 23015/23009 cc.nbination is especially
j-11-advised, due to the additional problsn of sha-rp statl cha-racterj-stics of the 230)0(
airfoil-s. Figure 3 sholrs the mechanisn of this sharp, dangerous sLalJ-. The 230xx carnber
profil-e has a discontinuity (ki-nk) in at at 158 chord- Tl-ris causes the airfLsd. at
higher angles of attack, to selErate at that point, resulling in a separation bubbl-e on
the top sLrrface. foU-c'\^Ed by reattach(Ent before the no.nnal trailing edge separation.
The added thickness of this separation bubbfe on the top of the wing causes the wing to
act as if it were thicker and nrere ir-ighly canbered (high li-ft) at high angles of attack,
i-n spite of the re.l-atively lovr gecnEtIic camber of the section. At lc,v, angles of attack,
the bubble disappears, and the section leverts to its lop--drag profile. For many years
thj-s airfoj,r was touted as "lnving the best of both r,rorlds", but ttre disadvantage is a
dangerously sharp stall. As the angl-e of attack increases further, the Pattached section gets shorter and shorter unti.I the separation bubbl-e suddenly expands to cover the
entire top surface. resufting in a sudden toss of lift. This is bad enough on singre
engine airplanes, but on twin engine airplanes with one engine out the airprane miy
slap-ro1l suddenly and uncntro.Llably into the dead engine, if the speed drops tcrl lorr(King Air crash l,filmington 5/2/93, Fig 5 del) Recent1y. vortex gen;rators have been
used to rmprove this situation, as shc,wn on fign:re 6. the vc's are instaued at l-0t of
chord just before the discontinuity at 158 of chord. They function by creati-ng a thi-ck
'
( energj-zed
turbulent
) boundary layer i-nrnediately aft of ttre VG's, preventing ttie
ation bubb.Le frcrn formrng. Ttrj-s forces the flo,.r into an even rpre frl-gUy ca.nereO=eparsnape
(nore lift) than with the bubble. wi,thout tlrc disadvantage of the bubbl; ( sharp stalfi.
Ttre Price is a slightly ]-orarer cruj.se speed due to the srnall- anrcunt of drag frcrn the
vc's' but overal'L this is a very good guick fix, uproving safety. of course the bette.r
solution, next ti.file around, is to use nDdern soft-sta}l airfoils not subiecL to the
separation bubbl-e problrn. Also rerernber that the vc's are not a parurcea for aI} air-
foils' but rather a sg=cific crutch for the poor features of the 230>o< airfoiLs.
one finaL ccflnrent is needed regarding l{AcA sarple *22, with the erliptical planform. This slrcirnen has the Lrighest CLmax (I.8I) of any tested, and is aclordingiy often
cited as proof of tlle " inherentLy superiority" of the Lltiptical planform over t-l-re uniforrnly tapered planforms. I{ote, ho^rever, that this specijnen enjoyi tro distj-nct advantages over the other specjrEns- it has a unique high-fift secLion (4412), and in addition
it has the same per cent ttrickness root and tip, l-2s, htlich is, as r,,,e have seen, the
optimun thi-ckness in terms of best L/D. In vierrr of this, we vDnder if the legenda-qr
rnystique of the ellipti,cal planform is justified.
Regarding planform taper ratio. it is r+et1 to renrenrber tllat a ve4/ short tip chord
reans a 1on' Reynords nlrnber at tlre tip, and ai-rfoil section performanci drops ofi at
J.c&r Re)mords nurnbers, ltlus it i-s best not to taper the wings tcro much. cccntcn taper
ratios go frcm about 3/2 to 2/I. Snal-Ier tip chords rEan $naller tip losses, but also
lq.r ttn, as stated above, Of course a higher taper ratio (2/l) alsi tras a structural
advantage
since it pernLits a greater spar depttr at the root for a given per cent root
thickness,' other things being equa1. Alternativery, a higher taper iatio may permit
use of a lo"rer per cent root thi.ckness (15t vs lgt) for letter i/n**.
Regarding aspect ratio, the hj.gher the better, Ijnlited only by structural- consid_
eraLions . AsIEct. ratios betr.reen 6 and l0 .rre ccnnErn for porered- aiforan"..
rn sunnary I for turbul-ent wings, the cips should not be Less than lzt thick. For
Laminar wings, notice that uEre is litt1e difference in L,zD beer*een ]2t and l5t thick
sections, thus r5t thick tip sections are preferred. rf thj,s is done, and if nrcdern
sections such as GA airfoi.l-s are used that have forward road-ing and lead:-ng edge dr@p,
the tip sta11 probrsn is eurrlinated, or at least, is greatly reduced. use of additional
canber at the tips is not needed, nor is vring twist. A flapped section starls at a
loler angle of attack than the sanE sesti-on unflapped, ana tfris in itsel,f provides protegtion against tip stall-s. For twin engine airplanes, to herp the engine-5ut situafion,
the above recqlnEndations are especially applicable, particularly with regard to the use
of soft staLl airfoils, so tllat assynretrical- lift c-onditions are unlikely to develop.
ttarry Riblett - 4/I8/I994
NA
CA
101
TEISITT-IIJIOIEL
TlsT
Lc."Ncr-vs rou
RESI,ILTS.
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103
Airfoil- Appl-ications
Airpl,ane
IiP
Root
l4ilitarv
ctlrtis-Vgright
P-38 Lightninq
P-39 Aircobra
P-40 l.lalrhavrk
P-51 Mustang
F4U Corsair
B-17 FJ.yi-ng ForEress
B-24 Liberator
c-46
Douglas
c-47,
Lockhed
BeIl
Cureis
l{orth Arnerican
Chance Vought
Boeing
Consol idated
230J5
44L2
00I5
23009
2209
DC-3
66-2r2
23018
23009
00L8
0010
Davis
Davis
23017
4410.5
2?L5
44L2
Ccrrnerci-a1
culver
Cadet
34L4
3408
Ryan
Navion
4415
6410
Beech
tdel
23016.5
23AL2
Bch
35 Bonarza
Skipper
plus
GAlr-l
Ces.sna
210
64A215(a=0.5
Cessna
310
23018
23009
Cessna
337 Skymaster
24L2
2409
Cessna
402
23018
2300 9
Cessna
500 Citati-on
23014
23012
Piper
Piper
Piper
PA-2$ ccnrmnche
54A215
SanE, no
fA -?t chrokee
/d -rg runairar"t
65-415
GAI^I-I
l4ilsubishi
MU-2
6/lA4t5
63A2L2
23015
23009
Gnnnan
Goose
sJ-ots
64A412(3=a.!)
twist
Hcnpbuil-ts
Fal-cp
F-8
Questair
I-ake
Buccaneer
Bushby
I{idget Mustang
Tailwind
wittrrEn
classair
Lancair, wheeler D(press, Prescott Pusher
Pul-sar
64-272
23017
4415
64}',l.2
54-210
23010
4409
64A210
ied
I ) -0215F
lrs ( 1)-0313
NLF(
Jones
lihite Lightning
66-21s
lhorp
T-I8
53-412
l,4odif
ied
66-215
lbdified
trtGUAe 4-
104
clssNA3l0voRIEXGENrRAToRs tJAcA
Boundary l-ayer Research and The Twin Cessna Flyers have
teamed up tro bftig e3rly model Cessns 310 ownels the advaltages
vodex generaton afford. Afier Boundary Layer Research @LR)
developed the kits for the Cessna 3 1 0 &rough the 3 i 0F, BLR aad
The Twb Cessna Flyers came to an areement granring The Twin
mpft
iiii?s
ArR
&oaRst
AUGUST 1SS4 27
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IIO. 3
/il6 Rib'en Lane
Wilmington, DE 19808
(Irl/JtlI995)Tandnq trre sharp stal] of Lhe NACA 23012 A.irfoil
30?934-0479
the
notoriousl-y
soften
carl
be
used
to
tllat
t'.r)
methods
paper
discusses
Srnnnarv. This
generators,
or alterof
vortex
is,
use
that
airfoil,
neCA
23012
l-narpstaff of the
of
(reprofiling).
nechani-sm
the
discuss
l
also
build-up
an
upper
surface
nativeJ-y
droop
is
ineffectedge
leading
wlly
additional
and
explain
airfoil,
on
ttris
the stail
tive for i:rproving the stall on this airfoi-I.
Discussion. In the mid-I930 ' s, follorn'ing tie r.prk on the 4digit airfoif series .
( salre
NACA aducted a series of tests on airfoils related to the 4-di-git airfoils
placed
far
forward.
unusually
camber
rnaxjmum
the
thickness distribution), but with
The ob ject of the tests r,,ras to see if the aj-rfoil Gn cDuld be reduced to zero, Iartdch
is not a necessity for conventional, airplares any'\r'Jay, as long as the GIl is kept
reasonably lcrhr by nEderately fo4rard loading. Anyhc'vr, these " zero on" airfoils !,rere
designed ana esiea, and the nrcst widely used of these 5digit airfoils is the ubiquitous and infanrcus I'IACA 23012 airfoiL. It is l2t thick, with Peak camber of 1.8tc
Iocated at the l-5tc position, rather ttEn tl]e usual 40tC Fosieion usd on nDst of the
pozufax 4-digit airfoi-ls Q4I2, 44L2,4415, etc-). the nean line aft of .I5c is a
straight 1ine, thus the only camber in tl:-is airfoil is in the first 15t of the chord
length. Accordingly, rrie can describe the airfoil as bejlg the DiACA 0012 sYrlretrical
secaion wj,th the first 15t bent do,mward5 (lc:ding edge droop ) approxirrrately 1-8t.
Actually, the effective drmp is only about l.4t due to the faulty "slope and radius"
nrethod of leadil]g edge design used on all of tjte I'IACA airfoi.l's , ho/,,ever the fact
renains that the camber profi,le of this airfoiL consists of leading edge drmp only,
with no conventional camber. the result of tJris is an airfoil- with near-zero
Pitching nErrcnt coefficient (Gn). Fr:rther, sirtce there is no negative canber jn the airfoil, the nEximun lift c,'cefficient Eemains high and the induced drag is loi^r, cdrpared
to the best knorvn previous zermn airfoil-, l'4ax ltur)l('s 1924 |+6. The [&-6 achieved
zero cln by reflexing ( negative carrber ) the nean line frcrn .60c to the trailing edge,
effectj,vely kj,lling the nosedcnn pitching nE(Ient by applying a dcarnload on the trailing edge of the airfoil ( figure 9). this, hokever increases total inducd drag, and
reduces Clnax. the carnber profile of the !F6 in the first 60tC is conventional ' ho\^rever, so the M-6 des have a nice. soft stallwind tunnel- test results of the "ns^," zero-on ai-rfoit, 23012' are sr.nrnarized
in t{AcA IR *537 of l{Ey 7 , 1935 (see figure I). Based on the faets ttlat 2301-2 shc,LEd
a nEderately high Clmdx, very lol Gn, and Cd no greater than the 0012 syrnetrical
section. NACA pronounced this airfoil to be "markedly superior to lll-knovm and
cc6rpnLy uSed sectj-ons',, and reccnnended its wide usage in glorn'ing telrn5. HouJever,
the airfoil has a terrible sh;rFstall characEeristic. wtlich MCA TR#537 failed to
d.issuss, and that i-s its domfall. thrs was noted briefly in Table II Airfoil Data
of IR #537, So IIACA knevr of the existence of the sha-rp staU, ard chose to ignore it.
SlErp sta11 airfoj,ls are bad enough on single engine airplanes, but on prop driven
twini with one engine out these aj-rfoils are especially letha1, causing accidents
such as described in figure 2. In fasE, sharp stall airfoils are the rnaior reason
that cA light twin fatality rates ironically exceed the fatality rates of GA ]ight
singles. [,le will not achieve true twin-engine reliability in prop-dri-ven twins
untit h,e get rid of these sharp-sta1I airfoils. ProP.driven twins are ljjrlited by
Iateral cont.rol authority near vtIE due to the effect of a "blovtn surface" aft of the
operating engine - with shatp-stal-l airfoils, sudden unccnmanded and uncontrollabl-e
upsets occur at relatively high vlo'lc. with soft-stal,I airfoils, vtlc is much ]o$,er,
and in addition the roll tendency is control,lable. Knq,'/ing wllat r.,e knod today ' 'e
realize tlEt NACA, as soon as they learned of the bad stalL characteristic of the
sdlgit airfoils, shoul-d have terafnated the project. Accepting the sharp stall
rnerely to achieve zero Gn was a Poor trade-off.
There are t\^D tl/pes of airfoils that have sharp statlsr tllose with too u,tt.l-e
camber in t-ire Ieading edge, and those with too much cafiber in the leading edge.
airExarp.l-es of tJre fj-rst group incluae nDSt synrnetrical sections, and l-olv-carnbered
and
such as ttre- l-ater 11gcA 64-212, These airfoils experience ccnPlete
ioi:"!
separation frcm the very leading edge at the stall-, and they can usually
rlo',
suoa*
G-i-pt"""O by adding a sITEIl anpun! of leading edge d"rmP ' Arrf oils of the second
ADDn{DUI'1
108
group. ircluding ?3OI2, experj-ence ccnpl-ete flo* sepa.ration on t}re toP su-rface at the
stall, frcm a poj.nt near the end of the leading edge droop, that is, at about .l2C
in the case of the 23012. the resul-t is the sane. horever- a shaq) loss of 1ift,
usually acccnpanj-ed by loss of lateral control, and a hysteresis loop reguiring a
substantial decrease of angle of attack ( wrth considerable altitude Ioss ) before
attached flc'vr can be re-established.
Arrfoils of tfre second group cannot be irnproved by adai ng leading edge drrcp,
since they al-ready have too much droop. For exanple ' adding npre droop to the 230]2
airfoil results in t}Ie 33012 or 43012 ai.rfoils, and these have stall- characteristics
as bad as or vrorse t-lnn the 23012, frcm wird tunnel data ( check it out)- I'itut is required is to ease the cransition frcrn the leading edge droop to the rest of the rlean
Iine, reducing the discontinuity in the nean line at tbat point- one effecLive and
proven rrEthod is to install a cqnplete span-wise array of vortex generators on the
top surface at alout .10c, (Fiq. 3, delered). Ttlese function by fi11in9 in the "low
sFot" on the wing dch/nstrean of the vcrs with a thickened boundary layer of energized
turbulent ai-r. discouraging flol separation. Ttris fix is cheap and effective, and
should be reguired on all twin-engine prop cqnnuters using 5-digit airfoil-s, which
is the nrajority of the flet. AIso. don't forget that that single enging airplanes
with 5-digit airfoils can benefit frcrn tj:-is as rrell.
Another possi-ble way of acccrplishing ttrc sane fix is to reprofile the wings,
filling rn tie lor,r sFot aft of the leading edge droop on the top surface with soli-d
materj.al such as foam and glass. This is quite cqrrrDn on experinental (hcnebuilt )
aj.rplanes, wi-th both nptal and ccrPosite wj-ngs. Fign:res 4, 5, and 6 describe this
nethod. l,lotice that the secej.on drag astuafly decreases, in spite of ttre increased
sestj-on thickness, due to the prcnption of Iaminar flovr. Furttrer, the zero-lift Gn
renains about the saITE, so top speed is unaffected. Ttris nerr profi-le could also
be used to nlcdj-fy existing t@.Ling on production airplanes. Of c-ourse, t}le better
soluti"on aerodlmarnically is to discard the ?3012 airfoil crcrTplete.l-y, and use a rndern
lol.F-gn, soft-stall airfoil, such as a "cA" airfoj-l.
As stated above. the I{ACA s-digit sestions cannot be inproved by adding leading
edge droop, tius the tlc State/l{AsA fj:< on the "Venture" airplane (figure 8) is a
poor solution lo the prob.Len. I suspect that any jjrprovenent of the stall in this case
is nereJ-y the result of the consj-derable aerodlmaruc twist that was introdticed into
the wing by this fix, delaying the tip stal-l. Horever, tll]is causes a considerable
loss of efficiency at high spce d, and aLso raises the ]anding speed of the airplane,
so it is not a good solution to the problsn.
4301X Airfoil-s. The NACA 4301X airfoils are the sarrE as the 2301x airfoi.Is, but with
twice as rm:ch leading edge droop ( figure 9). The stall is as bad as, or tanrse thar.
the 230IX airfoils. Fortunately, the 4301x airfoils are rarely used. one exception is
Fred l^Jeike's " Etcoupe" ( NACA 43013), holrever on this arrplane the elevator travel, is
ljrnited so that the stall angle of attack can never be reached, Still, the 43013 was
a strange choice for this airplane.
Anotier airplane that uses the 4301X airfoiLs is the Ftench ATR-72 twin turbo"prop c:cnmuter. and tlEt story does not tEve such a happy ending. In october 1994 a
crash occurred at Roselar,en, Indiana kitling a1I 68 people on board, a direct result
of the NACA 4301X airfoj.Is used on that airplane ( figure I0). As confirned by subsequent in-flight spray tests a 3,/4 inch high j-ce ridge forms on the top surface at
.09c, forfidng a very effective' spoiler. vffren ccrnbined with the already terrible stall
charactseristic of the airfoil, this caused an unccnnanded, uncontrollable roll-over
and irrec'cverabl.e dive. Ttre ice ridge forms at the very spot on the airfoil- \rtrere
a pronouncd suction peak exists ( figure 7), since here the tsrperature depression
frcm adr-abatic expansion and cooling is the greatest. The ice ridge is aggravated by
tlre strange ptacglrent of the vortsex generators on the ATR 72 wing. The "fi;<", longer
de-icer bcots, is nrerely a bandage, for the basic probJ-ern rguins. Ivlodern c-onstantvelocity airfoils do not have this suction peak, nor the problan.
Conculsions. Ttrese interirn fixes should be used until the t'IAcA 5-diqit ai-rfoil-s cbn
}IACA TR
109
r.b.
537 )
ITRTOILS ILII'L\G ?EX I.A..XITU){ C.{.I(BEA ST-OSI]ALI,Y FI..R
FORW,I.ND
simple mean-line air{oi.ls are given in fgrLre t6TJre anolysis of ihese chorts o'Dd the" dstr of toble
_IJ shor that tbe reflesed !-irfoils, altbouqh co[rDlr.irs
fnror.rbl-r s.itb otber ref ered airfoiis, uJ;;J;;;
the simple meaali-oc uitt"ils_ f*tf,.r.o"r1il"
foils corerirg r range of carn ber locations lorro,rd
^r'ot Dormal positions possess improved characreristics-{ con:parison of tbe N. A. C. A. 24 012 ,ittr the
-\.
-.1'. C. A. 2912 i-Ddicates the differea""s'tba; y;
<.),
AEFENENCES
1. JTobs,
1932.
-{.
TABIJ II._AIRFOII,
I
Clrg-6at:nn
irr
g ,t
=
-
--:\-A.C.^:tnri
r De
I "* -o,i$*-.ffijgr6
_
I
tl
r---r
DAT-A.
r.
!
i
^ ^--
!'
:';i,J3"f,:' ;ir..
i;.;. ol!d.<
;1311;rrP6 "gP,n,,r" !
- --.-'-_j_
-(')
t!'r Ert
'
<
<
dl*r:
''i
..1 ?r\ ;;
c'
Ei!
c.a..1''2...
,_l
.t0
.q) .dt
:iB
:,H
!9
O
.6i --.oa
rol.2 a5
23
0.t9 6.25 Il
ao
16
:Sl j.co, I
1 .@iJ
3r ,@i5
r0 ir
ro _-,1
6.26 12 z.
l.A l2 2i
;; ilg;.i$f;''"t{r .Dord 1.5o.d &5 r i,a. ro,D,o8 !!. cr,ltD,u.. or r!. E-!riD..
itif
t-or ot i-r.
rrccr o l-afi,m
! I rrb
or
hlr{urr.
rsr
r,rr
N loJ-3 ro
!!. tt.rcba.
,/
",.Ir;i'ilt"i
I Tubul.lc.
. Tb.!a
jtrj:ff"crr'srdcadod
t3cror a 2 6t
d.!! arr.
Dr!
.rFtcl.l
ior
4-n'e
/u/,/r
h.'.
to!
''-
'-*
rr
----
,/
d.!rir..r.ri,"usi@
'iu
b. qrblilh.d
i! r r...rr'!bn
d-I!.
rrlb rb.rpDu.rlro!
ljr.Ccc!
EtAt)Qc
5l
;; :i a;iz: l+: li:-,= - ii
A z;=ii;
: l;li=; i;
ic +f iietl'E:il1i ;; ! i
c)
o)
c'r
(D
o.
ot
<.)
o)
ot
(!
(6
*(!
;
o
co
:ecri;;fE;Flii
a.)_
ul
zo)
E
F
k;;fii*
S ig!i{+;:;,iri*l;i;;c;;
I/';vlg
tr::EcbE'Eb4:i:g;t
UJ
110
4-zE+ia:cc
A,'
2
*:
E *'-:
t\l
lb
fl il;e ;?iE=fi;*cli!';ii
an
td
r.o
l,lJ
c(
(-
?
U
q.
\.1_
:
.E
<
TE
t Eii;:ii;iiiff
\J.
sgEi?cii
"
v
o
o
q-
J
0
()
E:iiiiff iiiiitiEiiii*
.H
:.Ji
:1,.
$I
':.
f
d.
(.r.t
t0
J
i ;":dg
s' iiel*i;gi?i3Fi ed
E:
ll
F
ft
IEAS;E5TAE=EP3
z: L_- E>. a o { !r -.2
..,::
'JJ
u
J
E iititi =:ei5E'ertii*;ii
=J
(U
:-
gE:*ifiq!*.!;
Ti
a,ifl -ger
I
I
ftiSEs=fE'is,HEE
::.9
-r,sil
Ctt"rt R.tr
7-
111
UPPFR SURFACE REPRO TIUFl
95
llar
O(:r
?f,(:) 1 O-UF
Rep
tap ord
i. I h'/
4 . 2?..)
1 {:)
{_lr:)
15.()q'
4. 6A:
L97t-)
2, 5(:){)
?5.
(-) (:J
5, 94?
trr_).
i_)(:,
.5 _ i:, i,)
f,.: . (1(:)
4(:).
{:r
ij
45,i](l
3. 949
51:).
4:r{:)
55.
(_i
6i:1.
{-r r-,
6,C -
(:) r:)
3. t._.-.
7(l) . i:rl)
f,. 564
;:. l cri:)
75-t)ti
LrF rd
if,(J 1 5-UP
lop ord
6- 9?5
8.4?1
9.421
_:Cff)
a. 4Lt7
:. ?60
1aa
r:)
. g9(:l
1 . 4?1,1
{-r. qgr i
1
7.911
1{1.
7.46t
8.841
s. f,44
,477
4.47i
. ??
1(,), 99
i:) _ 55(_r
c.767
4.814
1rl.
zto,lL
5 . 69r:)
[2to'z- ar)
,tA)it4'4 B"'.D-u/
t,1tZ (
O' t.oprd!,r
G, ,rfC
,e^ A L,de
qte I 2a*,e<
N u.J
vo
s
o,:
L.ao,^,/E Xd.,t.
---=-
+
-
E(,)
B. {19{:)
6.91,5
At...'t
Ra...c,wa
9.195
Fth,
1r:r.518
!I.-J-:'/
I t.6i.i
6. {,r{)i-r
4.9u{}
4.11{,
7- 9BO
s.?9f,
11-611
B. -i41
8- O54
rl?f,
top ord
11.478
644
9. 668
5.91f,
:f,(118-LJF:.
11.658
ll,.li.6
-7rtj
6,
. 628
I (:). ijTi
1 I . (-)59
1(1.668
1r:)
A3,-3hal9t
?:(i l7-LtF
lop ord
7
9.181
A. boE
trl
5. 581
l:
/. /tt
8,I91
;i . 4?{:r
.l , 45i:r
if,{l1 :-uF
a. 954
I . 9l(:)
;r. ?4{ )
?{-i. i)i:t
Ar(F-orLs
^JAcA
rof i I e
over (-lr:) 1?
NACA
?'3oxK
NAC4 13otz-'ArRFott--
F= 3 < toL.-
.--SEaarN
\ 7z
Z-50tz -U
(onFu7t4
xacP
sre"
4E lAoF,Le __
AtfrLY'tS
.j-
:'-._-.
1.-,'
l{o
ul
er'a\-J
-l
AAPG'
oP o.llJ I 5 StaNtFteA^'7
l
?tTcll tttt t
c- tl L y' \
/lo
evlT CoEFcxre{
fiuda-4
1- lracL
-.
f,
,_6.of
d.
.A - -
.\
\\
I
'
11
-l-\
L c-
f^ EE1'.
t.=.tr
v'.
.R,a.e'rr-i
Dftaa 4oc:-rF<tt:atr
tlnll(
I=*une 6
y'e.o.17
113
Dr ec,p,n,^
...-
t.:.'
_r
?.6J
. .?
:i
Ar.i-ol: iiu*l,er
',:
i -- _;._r. :ai*
,. t
fi;#+---iffi
!,.-|rF tr j ::
.,Fr_
''o-t l"te'-"iilrz-rs94
z3ot1?rE rsure
,--.__- NE9atttE
cA/ss r<t^'6
, or r 36
ous io Aqr,a4rrc cea.a1' {5:';i(43o,* t,n,^a B!,r yJo RrE)
OEAI<
, oe C
-7"
t.o
//c
LSo
tz- u P
A tR
AIRFOIL lzl-rp
$. oo
13,937- THrct{NESs
oO
OO E- O.
ABOVE ANGLES OF ATTACF:
3.
'EHI'uF.lg,hil.
. y(t6
. ?Ol
7.3o, L- u p
tl
Vo
rrz,
hnaRati
.OOZ FLAF'
s. oo
l/uc
l.e
*lc
,t
4.
114
_!r
\'
x
a
t-
q.
)-
{(.\
= ::.:! iiii;=;:
,.
r!i:+:;::;:!i
:!::;;;:,:g;F!:a;:
::;;;;1=!1i;iit; isi;;;i;j:;;! !r;iE:i;i;iiE, :
=
j jEif iFiiF:;i=i:iiiriijiiff
;;iiiliit;i:r: t;
ii iliii!lff i iiif
;
;i!
EF;
;;;i ii ; ; rai:;,
i r : i
i:
ii
;;
clq
I
c)
-tt
aN
l---t
O
N
16
ii('F E-\
cn
115
Ttris is qarbage
._:r
-:
NORTH CAROLINA
STATE UNIVERSITY
@,r:a
:
design considaralion
*i"
at stali ol.j" to rt J
ti'
siil
STALL STFIPS
t'.'
ta'
tfri'
r+'
to force inboard
'passive" davice
which
delays th outboad
separation well beycnd the
point at which it would
normally occur. This is
Vonex
Separated
Flor
ffi
achieved by th introduction
ot increasd leading edge
cambr and
the
augmentation ol the energy
within the boundary layer
crealed by a vortex which
Basic Wi.E
torms at the discontinuous
wing/droop intsrsctiori. Th6
net result ii increased stall Leadlrp Rtge Orcop Aorodynamics
departur rssistanc due to
the improvd.. roll damping .
and predictable pitch break . -
.'tt,tlo=
LE. Droop
(t--
116
O
math.fndi:d cquarbn
e[ach tloinl
Porc.nt dtoop
Pcrcenl rxienrion
design
lorer
anach point
considerations.
TEST FESULTS
t.5
't.5
1.0
1.0
0.5
05
0.0
0.0
-0.5
-1.0
.0
Fl.ps
15
d.gr.
8:sclinr
-+
oloops E Slotr
.{1.5
-t-0
0to2030ao
ALPHA
Fla9s - o d.Ct
'.tt,
Ct Ltto=4 - 1.
117
-,t'.
'.1
s
I
5l
xl
F.
(l
lt
:
n
ol^-
:l
av
AJ
(f-lt^ ql
t-
Hl
,l
r&
t
.rt-
Cl
rr
Y
r\
-s
I
.9
''
----
-t
(l<l r!
.. .
---+---*
" /
J
II
l/
t
t{
llJ
o_
0e
Frq
-+-
I\
,l\'s
J
6ar
,,
t.^,
l;*'
.c1i
$
"l ,tr
?l
:j
-'
utt
ru
\I i / II I.l
r't.i
:i
| / /
--l .
.9
\0
/-A
\it
1---\J--;7
Hl
It /
/
/
i
'l : / /
.1l
.. --...-- >l
Gl -'
v
U
ef
tJ'J
tl
-S-/o
v
a
f
118
U.S. APPROVES
f
I
airfoils
rended ro
l5 deg.--o
setiing normolly
.t ,l1t
y'
en
chonging oileron hing6 moment dromdticolly. With the new doicer, no odve.se eF
fects occurred becouse rhe ice ridga foiled
ATR officiols expect io cornpleto ret.o-
r;c;ols ho'e norilied U.S. ond foreign oirlrome monu{octurers t"qr Ae ogenc/ pions
dce.wq <to
c At
*e
1;Pa',-ee)
t. R'oa g,.qC
e1Nt<A|te'
CaSR'ttt's 7o
iJ6&. g(4s5,{s ?64<
this
yeo'lo
iest oiher
turboproppoworod
rc)
tight operc ons wj'h'ne reoesigned doicers, Solvono soid. He expecls the di"
rective to be irsued this rnon$.
Despiie tho .ew deicer ond pleos from
AIR officiols, lho FAA losl week refvsed
lo removo reshjclions trnposed in Jonuof/
,^r^
N rFF
Atv\^
A t(ta)v
,----r.'.4
-,-^.74oue
'n/oo^o- t--f
I
3eP aa ar
oil
'10c
u ec
"t;a '
5paa'
,tk
q
t-
.",.
1995
35
119
ADDM{DUM NLIMBER 4
at the stall, folloled by a hysteresis loop during stall recover,y. That is, the
ang.le of attack mlst be decreased considerably in order to obtaln fl-c,v/ re-attach'1ent
after stall- separation has occured, usually with a cqsiderabfe loss of altitude.
Al-so. the stalf is often acsc.rFanied by loss 6f lateral c.ontrof, resulting in a wild
delErture . Other f actois cutri-bute to the probletn, such as the extrenely lc'v/ Relnolds
nunber of this ajrplane at the stal-l, less then Il mil]ion. AII- in all-, tie airfoal
selection was especially pcor for thj,s appU.cation I and this is inexcusable.
Short. of a ccnplete tring re-design, various nEtnods are availa-ble to irqxove the
BD-5 staLL lErfornence. For eJ{anE)l-e, BD l"Licro Technologies offer dr@ped leading edge
nose ribs and ot-|rer cqQonents ) for wings tbat are still under cronstruction. For
ccnpleted airplanes, ho,tever, seve-ral, nEticds of re'profiling the wing shatrE have
(
witn good resu.lts. Seti Arderson has nodified hrs rel-l--knom BD-5 with an
ulper forl ard surface re-profile of his crldn desigrn, extsending back to approxirrately
40t of chord on the top surface, aJld ti-is h3s been fl-yjjlg for several- years with
excellent results. 'Ihis npdrfication is mini-rral and relatively s jrrpfe, and, Iike
otfler upper surface build-up schenes, stiffens the upper skin to prevent wrink-Iing.
Unfortunately, hordever, this partial re-profiling essential-Iy reverts tt.e wing profile to a turbulent seceion, resufting in a slight drag increase. this is only a
nr-inor orsadvantage, and is of lj-tlle conceln, considering the nnrked inprove<rent in
flight safety tllat results,
Anothe.r schene for utr4=r surface re-profiJ-ing is shown on the attached sketch,
dalLed II/20/92- In this schenE the cqpl"ete up[Er surface is built up frcrn the leading edge to the flap,/ai.l,eron yELI lip, at approxjratefy 80t of chord. The flaps and
ail.erons regui-re no nadrfication and are re-used as j,s. A-lso, the exrsting tip sestion, NACA 64-218, hrldle inprovable, has acceptable stal} perforrnance due to its
I88 thickness. 1trus, a re-profi.l,e tenplate j-s furnished for tJre wing root only, and
the re-profil-e br:ild-up feathers out to nothing at the wing Lip, arld at the }eading
edge ard at the flaplaileron r+e1l lip. I'4a)dnu.[n hrild-up, at the root, is I inch
been used
additiona-l ttrickness.
The "GA" re-profile irproves tne alJ--i-nportant leading edge prof iJ-e, adds a
Slnall amcunt of thrckness and camber, and mcves the loading fonsard slightly so
that tl pitching nEnEnt coefficien! is not affecced. ltre result is a softer stall,
higher nraxi.mm lif t cef f icient with ajld h'j-thout f laps , and a wider larninar bucket,
In addj,tion, the new profi-le has been designed to nailltain c-onstant velocity flcw
to approxlrately nid-chord, preserving larn-irnr flqr ( ard lcrvr drag). CG l-ijltits for
the ai.rpl-ane are not affected.
Flight experienc-e with this nrcdification has been excelLent. A typical exanple
is the attached report frcrn Bobble Parcr of Odessa, Texas.
Another option for BD-5 projects under eonstrucb.j-on j-s sirnply to assernble the
wings as designed, and then re-profile the top surface befor ffigbtIn the interest of rrProving flight safety, I offer a ful-l-size tsrplate
drawing tori lq1o to crf,ver the cost of printing and naiting.
8/16/1995
302/994-O479
Note. The attached standard table of ordinates can be used to generate the profile
BD-5 root terq)late ( 31 inch chord) , or for any airplane using the IrAcA 64-212
for-Tle
airfoil.
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Ret!"ped
8/LL/s{
Harry Riblett
416 Rr-blett I-ane
wikilington DE 19808
Dear }tarry:
Like I told you, I \"pu.l-d let you kno\^' ho^'the (top surface ) scahr-on wing airfoil re{iork calrE out (on my BD-58).
It lceEred nv stall sFed f rcm 80 MpH to 67MPH. The stal-I .is nq^, sc(ethj-ng .l-ike
an ErcoulE, kind of "mushing" like. lbp end, the s'aflE- no loss there. The warm day
take-off d"istance was 2500 ft, and is no,r about 1600 ft. I stiU hold it dcldn until
I get about 85 MPH, ard then lift off. HcrA,ever, I novJ notice that the acceleration
is guicker frcrn 60 to 85 MPH tban it used to be. probably because the wing is no$/
generating nrcre lift on tlle take-off ro11 than before, thus the take--off ro11 is
shoruer. TjnE to rotatj-on is nour only 16 seconds e 1600 ft, with OAT 86 degrees,
density altitude 6200 ft. Our airport is at 3000 ft.ASL.
For the rer,rork, I left t}le wings on the ship, and cleaaed the top surface of the
wing of aII paint, to the bare ah:nr-inun, and scrubbed this with APX. I used 2 l-b.
dersi-ty fcElrjl, I/2 in thrck, cqvered with tr.ro layels of glass cloth. I put on the
first layer lengthwise, and the seoond layer 90 degrees to the first, and finished
off with tr.D coats of polyester, I then reinforced the leading edge with t\nlc layers
of fine hre-ave 3-inch glass tape, staggered, wtdch extended back about 2 inches
frcrn the leading edge on the loler surface. Itle tota.L cost of all Irlateria,]-s t|as
$105.00 frdn wicks Aircraft, and it t@k re 44 hours to put it al,L together. The
airplane enpty Height was 467 lbs, ard is ncr^' 471 lbs, so the rebork added only
4 lbs to the enpty ,reight.
t"ly ship is a BD-SBDH, s/N 19, N-6782F, '.rtrich I built myself. It has the standald
( non-stretched ) body fength. the wing spa.n is 2L\ ft.
It has a non-turbo Honda
engine wi-t]. a 46x66 Hy prop. It has Matco wheels and disc brakes.
Thanks again,
ltarry-
Etlb FarnEr
P.S. I also riirote to Rich Perki-ns and gave him aU the i.rfo and pish.ures for ttle
ED-5 neb.rk nrJsletter.
ADDE{DI}I II\J},IBER
123
critique of the
I\ASA N'I;F(I)-0115
eirfoi]
The Ju.l-y- August 1995 issue of the "Journa.L of Aircraft" (AIAA) contains an
article by SeJ-ig, I{aughfiEr. and Sc(rers, that presents a unew NASA" arrfoil, NLF(f)0II5, a "Natural l-a.rr-inar Flovr AirfoiL for General Aviation Applications". As it
turns out, the airfoil- was designed by Herr Doktor Richard Eppler, and I have corresponded with hjil about it. Ttre airfoil and its nrean l-ine ( canber profile) are shotnn
on figure 1. After plotting these, I saw notiing frightening about the thickness distribution, although the point of rnaximun utickness I-s relatively far aft at '42C,
but I was concerned about ttrree things in the nean li-ne:
.1, ltle nose of the airfoil contains excessive leading edge droop, scnewhat l-ike
the NACA 230L5 airfoil, vrhich has a sharp stal] due to excessive J-eading edge droop.
Therefore, I suspected that NLF(1)-0115 nEy have a siJrdlar sharp sta1I.
2. A dj-p appears in the canrber profile at .60C, sinr-ilar to the NLF(I)-0215F airforl. al,so due to Eppler, As hE have seen previously. this area of negative lift extends the lan:inar n:n slightly hence the npniker "natural " Iaminar flc,w ), hoerever
the negative lift produced by the camber dip resufts in a loss of efficiency, a point
that I suspect Dr. Eppl"er has not c.onsidered.
3, Pronounced aft camber appears in the airfoil fran .65C rearward, and I suspected
a rel"atively high pltching lrraftEnt coefficient (Gn) as a resu],t. Ttris also',Duld probabfy cause high aileron hinge lrErents (stiff ailerons), a.Ithough thj-s rould probably
be hard to prove without flight tests.
A canputer perforrnance analysis confirned ny fea.rs about this airfoil, especj"ally the sharp staU at 13 degrees ang]-e of attack, accordingly, in an attenpt to
track dob/n the cause of the por performance, I designed a ner,r, airfoil- for ccnpar:ison,
c,A 42E-215, figure 2. Ttris new airfoil looks like cA 40A21,5 on figure 1, except the
point of naxj.rn:m thickness is at .42C rather th,an .40C. the new airfoil uses the unoffensive Eppler thickness distribution frcrn M,F(1)-0115, and cqnbines it with the
proven GA-2 rean l-ine frcrn "GA Airfoils". This should give us a direct cdnparison
of the efficacy of the Eppler mean line versus the GA-2 nean 1ine.
Figure 3 shcrys that the perfornunce of GA 42E-2I5 is indeed superior to che
IErforrEnce of NASA Nf,F(I)-01f5, including a soft stall rather than a sharp sta.I1, a
wider laminar bucket, and a 30-401 reduction of pitching nr:nr=nt coefficient. The profile drag as expested, is the sane, since both airfoils use tie sanre thj,ckness distribution. ' Ttre obvj-ous concLusion is thac the rean Iine of D.IASA NL!'( 1) -0],15 is poorly
(
designed.
If an even wj-der laminar bucket
rnay be used,
ure 3.
In spite of the ind-icated superiority of GA 42E-2I5, Dr. Eppler does not tike
1t, because it was not designed by the rEdern "inverse" rnethod for designing airfoifs.
You be
the judge.
Harry Riblett
416
Riblett
Iane
wilnlington DE 19808
2/L4/r996
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ADDSIDUM MJMBER 6
127
Harry Riblett
416 Ribtett Lane
Wilmington DE j909
3o'r-lat1$ -D +71
2/8/L996
washington DC 20 594
Attn: Mr. John Clark, Chief, VehicLe perfonnance Divi-sion
Subject: tuneri.can Eagle ATR-72 crash at Roselawn Indiana LO/31/1994
Dear Mr. Clark:
Ity letier xo you 9/7/95 explaj,nd ,ahy the ice ridge on the ATR-72 wing, wtrich
was t-lle jfiediate cause of loss of contro.l , formed at exact.Ly the 9t chord position.
In you response Ietter I/25/1996 you ignored this point ccnp-letely, which is unfortunate. for that is the key to the puzzle. Ttterefore. f arn enclosing additional data
showing that the cause of the ice rj-dge, r*rich caused the accident, is due to an
anc.rEly of the l,lACA 430xx airfoil, that is, a pronounced negative pressule peak at
the 9t chord position, exactfy where tJ.e ice ridge forms. l4ore conventional. airfoils
do not have this problern. Ttlerefore, t}re accident r,Jas caused by the p@rl-y designed,
unusual, and fortunately rarely used, }IACA 430)0( airfoils used on this airpLane.
This il.l-conceived airfoil design was part of a test prograrn conducted by I'IACA
Langley on "airfoils having the camber unusuaLly far: forw-ard", Ilere].y to see \{hat
effects the exErso-. forvard loading would have on airfoil perforrnance- hopefully. lovt
pitching nrnent coefficients, Figure 2 shov/s the forward loading scheduJ-e, and ccmpares it to a rbre conventionaL. unifoqnJ-y loaded ai-rfoil, the NACA 54-415, used on
the Fokker F-27 'Friendship". the theorcical pressure profiles predicced by I{ACA
for these airfoils, figure 4, shol't a pronounced Feak at .09C for the 430xx airfoil,
ard no peak whatever for the 64*41-5 aj-rfoil. The actual pressure distributions
(velocity ratj-o curves ) for these trno airfoils obtaj.ned by ccnputer performance
analysrs, figure G, confj,rms the predicted profiJ-es.
Ttre results of t.t.e 1935 NACA wind tunnel tests, figure 5, shoh/ that the arrfoiL
ncnent coeffici.ent ( unrelated to the Roseladn acci.dent ) is indeed loev, as anticipated.
However. the sharp and dangerous starl on these aj,rfoj-ls. as bad as any airfoil- ever
tested by NACA, is unaccepta-ble, therefo;c the tests must be considered a failure.
UnforEunately, ihese test airfoils canE to be used on actual" aj-lpl,anes, r.riti generally disappointj-ng resutts. espe.cially on propdrlven twins.
The ice ridge forms at the negative pressure peak (.09C) because that is hrhere
the adiabatic cooling is the greatest. Thls is analagous to ice formation in the
airfoil is at fault.
l,lACA 430:o<
128
.By copy of this letter' r request FAA'S Mr. salvano to incrude this letter as a
public
ccmEnt in the docket rega_rding this accident, and also to include at in the
FAA'S tcing symposium schedu.ted for May 6-8 at Springfield. VA.
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About the Author
64
EM#2957
Technical Advlsor. He has buj.1t two homebuilt airplanes, a Starduster II and a CUBy, flies both regularly, and is working on a
(nearly finished) single seat original design, as yet unnamed. The
new project is a high-winC ,50Lb. pusher, tricycle gear, wlth folding wings, and j.s of typical ICubI construction.
Harry got his early interest in aviation from his father,
who operated a G.L flight school at l{j,1trj.ngton airport iBmediatly following WV-II. Harry served as a Reservist Radar Officer/
Air ControLler on a USN cruiser during the Korean War. He subsequently worked a dozen or so years uith civilian coEpanies
manufacturing, testing, and installing aircraft runway arresting gears.
His interest in airfoil design prompted him to visit NASA
langley j.n 1985 to encourage them to develop a EoderD aerles of
airfoils specifically dsigned for General Avlation alrcraft.
nisappointed pith NASATS near total lack of enthusiasB for such
a project, he returned horoe, bought a computer, developed his
own GAtr series of airfoils, and published his book, rrGA Airfoilsa Catalog of Airfoils for GeneraL Aviation Use't.
Harry and his wj.fe Jo-Ana never Diss going to the annual
Oshkosh Convention, have three chj-ldren (Allen, Gail and Mark),
and sjx grand-children. Allen is an.active "Stardustertr pilot,
and the others give flmoral supportrr.
June
1994
Harry Riblett
415
Riblett
Lane
Wilmington, Delaware
n2/994-s479
19808
ADDENDUM
t'lo.
133
F.;ql!Iq*$$]angs..Earrdm,
It r.E load the airplane
134
i-ncreases frqn 8e to l.oe {you're welccne), ar'd the li-ft of the rear wing increases
frcnr I6Q Eo to 24e, for a totaL resulranL lift of 34e lbs. But since the *eight of
the ai-lprane is stiu onry 24e lbs, the first thing we notice is tlEt ure aiiplane
90es up' lto\,{, taking rEflents dbout the cc, q see L\at the resultant e is no longe!
aligned with the cG, nhich first of all neans tlrat the a-irDlane is in a transitioial
conditj-on. Ttle net *t=l!_"l the airplane alout the cc is nor,r negative ( nose d.s,nn ) ,
and anEunts to (34e tbs)(0.6 ft)=20.4a ft-lbs. This is ttre stabiiizing nE(IEnt that
re a-re looki-ng f or , to bring the nose back dor.,n tsnard th" ;i;;
atl-tude Ttrere a-re othe! lesser factors that af fest dynamc stal iiv,
u" fonard
fuselage area, f!:.ctlon in the conrroi.s, ard sti.ci-free ( destabiirrinoJ,
"*t -."a
fusel-aEe area ard stick-fjled (stabilj.zing), as qEII
"ta
p."p.:.f"i-J1j'ar*,"""n
-b"l
".
effects - These a-re not incruded in tne adve sinple anarysi;,
.h" !iir,"rpr"=
sane. As tong as the cG is f orvrard of ' tire aj-rilan" , -n ,rt .i-poi.rt
JTtarl
F.r:
,u
net stabirizing rEcEnt will
after
a disturbance. rn our" anarysis, negr-esting
-resurt
the iesser factors rentroned above, the neutra] point is the CG I;;d;" ul *1rr"n
the Ci of both r./ings is tne salrE.
Fram the above r.le
.n """. that the prumry reguir(ent for arly tal:Id.en wrng
regarding dlnaruc
i.s itnr ti'r" r"..r*ra wing nust. be n,"i" i,rgi:.y
3rrplane
loaded than the rear wjng. l61l+av
In .aaitio.,, tfre tor,rraia wing musi
st ii before
the rea:: wing, so that the
"Lr,rays
of the arlplane wilJ- dr-p at ttre
siau.
rather
-nose
che reverse. In Lr1e case. of. L1e gllard aLrplane, Lir-is neans that the nrain wi.ng than
can
never reach its nra:<irun lif c coef fj-cient, btrich spells inefficienry and relatively
tt-igh ianding sFeds. E\rthe!,. it neans titat f]aps'cannoc be useci on the main wingl
of a canard arrpJ'ane - A further resEErcrion is trrat a car:.ard airprane shour-d not be
flared on randing, since a starr of ttre forvard wing approaching touchdo^'n is rikery
to cause a sudden nose drop.
- convent+onal Ailprare. A convenrionat aj.r-orane (taif in the rear ) is arso
+ +If wlng
arrplane, so:-r obeys the san= rul-es for stab.i.Iity as stated a.bove.
: -1"*
The horizontaL tail surface. hcrdsver, unlike a canard, is c^rl.d on to produce
a
l-ift in either direction, up or. dc'ern. Accordi-nsly,
usual practice is to cunproe"
mj,;e, and use a syrnEtrical sect-ion for the tail'surfaces.
-" tn. nrce o:ao:-2.
yldgh has a good VD ralio and decent ttlickness. By using a=u!n
,"f"tiu"fy
farge, ,^Eff
designed tail. hE can achieve a wi-de cc range. ttrii is a desi-rab.r,e
a"'=ign
6oi""eiu",
for instance in a c'h-in-class. airplane, enrrinci,ng the utirity ot tire airprane
ni-tti-ng considerabre flocibiJ,ity ir't roaoittg. By r,\,ay of irlu-stration, r.Li= *r-by perin"
an arrpJ,ane wj-th a main wing area of g0 sqit, aid a horizontal tail a-rea
of
z0
sqft,
of rhe rnaln '"ring area. Trr-is i.s srigntry n.re tt'n the rur.e of thunb of r5-2og
:: cne
i:B wrng
or
area, used on srnalle:: airplanes. No./ suppose orlr airplane
a wing
section with a pitching nErrent of OrF-0.04, and suppose the desj-gn li-ftuses
coefficient
at cruise is Cldes=0.z. Referring to the attached @ chart, r.e s& tUt t]le maj-n
wing @ is at .45c at cnris. rf r"e
load t-rre airplane with the cc at tt'is sa,.E poi.nt,
,45c (aft cc lir{dt), the airprane
wirr
be staLic;J.ly
aj}i the lifi coerfi-cient
of the tair' wir..r, be zero. lt.,rLher, be see that this i-sstable,
arso a aynarnicaiif
condi-tion. since the Lift coefficient of the rear wing (tail) i; ro'"rer iian=a"ri"
the trft
coefficient of thefonrnrd r,iing. lJe a-l,so nolice tlar trris is a parLrcul-arlv
effj.cient
since there is no wastefur- tai,l dcnn-road. ,iud-;J;-Jiir'rr
ti,e
".nfiguration,
CG
'r,ere placed farther forr"and, -or if, ure pitching nsrEnt coefftcrent of .rr" ,*g
."ere greater , or both. For exarpr-e ,
ai4>rar,' used the r.rAsA GAIFI ai.rf oir , with
-if the of
pitcLinE
ntrEnt
gYtrgeous
coeffj.cient
do-O . f Z. the c' of ttre nain wing r_oufa
Its off the chare, and a c-onsiderable (
be
and rEsteful ) tail dcr"n-load muld L requjred
to trjrn Lhe airptane.
alext vre check to rnake sure the tair- does not starl before the main wing.
At the
sta]-l, our wing airfoil has a C]rrEx of I.8. and the G> of the main
wi-ng nov6s fonrard
at or very close to tlE c/4 positron, as a1l ai-rfoils do. with ttre cc it .asc, ,,.
-rt
that the required Eil lift coefficient will be +0.5r for t,."
ity.
is rs=.=
wit-t:-i' the range of our IEC-A 63A012 tail section. even at the
"t relatively
"t"l
p.eynolds
icnr
nunber and lcwJ aspect rario cc(Ifrlf,n for tail surfaces, and re are satisfied that
the
tail wirl not starl before t}Ie nraj.n wing. vJe also note that the taiL cJ. is consj.derablv
135
less tfnr the wing cl, so this condj-tj-on is dynamically sta-ble as r",e)'l. lte proF
ably ',,ouldn't have been able to prove out this aft CC liJrrit with a gnalLer, PoorLy
designed tail, such as the flat tails of tubular construccion ccflncn to l"ight aj"rplanes.
9ie are not finished yet. hodever. Before r,re can be satisfied tt)at this is a
safe aft CG limit, r,{e mlst also investigate the spin recoverff properties of the
airpLane at th-is CG location. ltris involves a lthole nevJ set of paranEters, beyond
the scope of tlai.s tEper.
It is interesting to note, as shoiml b'y lhe exafipIe above. that a srnal] anEunt
of pitcllixg trErEnt cfficient in an airfoil can actually tre helpful in ach.ieving
a wider CG range, Thus the zer*r airfoi.Ls tlEt NACA developed in the s-digit. studies
serve no useful- pu4)ose, at least in cnventional- airplanes. At the other extrenE,
the later I.IASA GAvFt ard -2 aq16i1s , rrl'rich have gfl values 3 ti.nes larger than they
need to be, are equalfy ill-advised.
Holv shall rrE ans\re! tfle question posed in the first Paragraph above? The corleqE
ansrrer is "ltle aft CG lijrdt shDuLd be slightly forviard of the aircraft neutral poijlt.
provided the tarl does noE stall before the nE-in wing, and provided the spin recover!. characteri-stics of gre a:irplane a.re satisfaqeory. " I{o\aver, this is difficult
to calsulate pEior to flight tests, therefore a cnservative pracLice with sj-rple
airi planes is to ignore tie infLuence of t-he tail on the position of the airplane's
neutral Foint, arld sirply put the aft CG lirnit at or near the i,'i:tg A.C., tllat is,
at a[proxijrately 25-30i of chord. This seerns to be a safe practice. at least unLil
flight tests can be done to Fossilcly extend the CG range. RenEnber. horever, t-tlat
the CG peniulun effect rrrks for us on high wj.ng aj-rplanes, but r^orks against us
on low wing airplanes. thus, for Io^, wing airplanes, 23-25tC is often used as the
aft
CE
riarrlt nibJ.ett
4/17/1996
136
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ADDNiDUM NTI4BER 8
137
don't
need.
r'-nus the vc's a.re very effective band-ards that address the poor wing and tail
' are used
designs that
on today's Iight tvrins (and ccnrnuter twlns ai well). Of course,
the better approach is to design and build the planes properly in tbe first p1ace,
Three things are required, at1 withi-n current tectnorogy: (l) soft stalr airioil-s,
such as "GA" airfoi-rs (2) t'ting tips ar least l2t thick ior turbulent airfoirs, and
I5t thick for lani,nar flol airfoils, and (3) Low drag. effective rudder designs,
such as the articulated rudder used on the USAF C-I7.
Hhy does Vlichi-ta continue to build this trash, htlen \i knov, better? It,s the
fauLt of the FAA t1,'pe cerLificate systern, for the re-cerEification costs associated
vrith najor design changes effectj.vel-y freezes t].e design. Thus rne are forever vdded
to 40 and 50 year-ord technology. to the detrirent of aafety, Ttris must be changed.
Ttre first thing that FAA shoul-d do is to rescind ( after a suitable grace period of
perhaps trno years ) the tl,?e certificates of at1 prop--driven twins that cannot show
a unc lo,rer thEn the normal stal1 speed of tl'e a-irplane. Ttren the arended type
certificate for the rnproved "no \.trc" nrcdel shoul-d be issued follo,ring a sinpie
fl-j-ght denpnstration. wj.thout the prohibitiveLy expensj-ve "normFl-" c"itificallon
procedure. Imported airplanes t"ouJ-d have to met the sanE perfornEnce reguirenents.
VJj-th that, 'ne',^ould at last tEve true twin-engine reliability, whrch we do not
have with today's obsolete, garbage airplanes.
Harry Riblert
5/Li /1996
I tJO
FRIDAY
A(r.
The kit tor lhe Baion 5581C/!/E contains 106 vodex generalors mounted on lhe
wirgs and on both sides of the ruddr, plustuo strakes on tl* outside ol theengine
naclles, ,t redlces the Baron's Vmca by 10 knots and sells tor S2450,
saP
Aflordabte
Ftyirs
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At
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