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Module I
MODULE I
Design principles different phases in design cycle; common engineering materials,
properties and selection.
Stresses in machine parts - Tension, compression and shear; factor of safety; stress
concentration.
Theories of failure Guests theory Rankines theory St. Venants theory
Haighs theory Von Mises & Hencky theory.
Design for fatigue loading endurance limit stress - Factors affecting endurance limit
fatigue stress concentration factor, notch sensitivity.
Combined steady and variable stress - Gerber, Goodman & Soderberg method and
Modified Goodman method.
REFERENCES:
1. Shigley J. E., Mechanical Engineering Design, McGraw Hill Book Company,
2014.
2. Bhandari V. B., Design of Machine Elements, Tata McGraw Hill, 2010.
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product,
from
inception to termination.
Identification of need generally starts the design process.
Recognition of the
is
but
perceptible
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definition
of
the
problem.
The
definition
of
problem is more specific and must include all the specifications for
the object that is to be designed. The
specifications
are
the
dimensions of
the space the object must occupy, and all the limitations on
these quantities.
The synthesis of a scheme connecting possible system
elements is sometimes called the invention of the concept or
concept design. This is the first and most important
step
in
the
investigated,
scheme is capable. Competing schemes are compared so that the path leading to the
most competitive product can be
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Functionality
Noise
Strength/stress
Styling
Distortion/deflection/stiffness
Shape
Wear
Size
Corrosion
Control
Safety
Thermal properties
Reliability
Surface
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Manufacturability
Lubrication
Utility
Marketability
Cost
Maintenance
Friction
Volume
Weight
Liability
Life
Remanufacturing/resource
recovery
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ENGINEERING
MATERIALS
PROPERTIES
AND
SELECTION
2.1. Common Engineering Materials
Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its
properties, cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore important to
have some idea of the common engineering materials and their properties
before learning the details of design procedure. This topic is in the domain of
material science or metallurgy but some relevant discussions are necessary at
this stage.
(e) Austenitic cast iron - Depending on the form of graphite present these
cast iron can be classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic flake
graphite iron designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2
Austenitic spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example,
ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small percentages of
silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, etc. They may be produced by
adding alloying elements viz. nickel, chromium, molybdenum, copper and
manganese in sufficient quantities. These elements give more strength and
improved properties. They are used for making automobile parts such as
cylinders, pistons, piston rings, brake drums etc.
(f) Abrasion resistant cast iron - These are alloy cast iron and the alloying
elements render abrasion resistance. A typical designation is ABR33 Ni4 Cr2
which indicates a tensile strength in kg/mm2 with 4% nickel and 2%
chromium.
II. WROUGHT IRON - This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of
the order of 99.5%. It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small
amount of silicon, sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is tough,
malleable and ductile and can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however
take sudden shock. Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other
components may be made of this iron.
III. STEEL - This is by far the most important engineering material and there
is an enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of engineering
requirements.
Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon content can
be less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron carbide to impart
hardness and strength. Two main categories of steel are (a) Plain carbon steel
and (b) alloy steel.
(a) Plain carbon steel - The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on
the carbon percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in
more than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of
plane carbon steel and they are designated as C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on
where the number indicates the carbon percentage.
Following categorization of these steels is sometimes made for convenience:
Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C
P
A
P
A
PCos
A /cos
P Sin
A / cos
P
A
P
2A
Figure 3.5. The concept of critical sections explained with the help of a loaded
plate with holes at selected locations
Let the cross-sectional area of the plate, the larger hole H 1 and the smaller
holes H2 be A, a1, a2 respectively. If 2a2 > a1, the critical section in the above
example is CC and the average normal stress at the critical section is,
=
P
A2 a2
Elastic region
Yielding
Strain Hardening
Necking and Failure
A stress-strain curve with each region identified is shown below. The curve
has been sketched using the assumption that the strain in the specimen is
monotonically increasing - no unloading occurs. It should also be emphasized
that a lot of variation from what's shown is possible with real materials, and
each of the above regions will not always be so clearly delineated. It should be
emphasized that the extent of each region in stress-strain space is material
dependent, and that not all materials exhibit all of the above regions.
A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from measuring load (stress - ) versus
extension (strain - ) for a sample of a material. The nature of the curve varies
from material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the stress-strain
behaviour of typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and
engineering strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the
original dimensions of the sample and not the instantaneous values. In each
case the samples are loaded in tension although in many cases similar
behaviour is observed in compression.
e=
P
Ao
LLo
Lo
where, Lo and Ao are the initial or original length and cross-sectional area
respectively.
L = final length of the specimen
P = load applied at the instant.
4.1.2. Natural Stress - Strain diagram or True stress Strain Diagram
Since when a material is subjected to a uniaxial load, some contraction or
expansion always takes place. Thus, dividing the applied force by the
corresponding actual area of the specimen at the same instant gives the so
called true stress.
True Stress () & True strain () is related to engineering stress & strain in
the following way:
Keeping the volume of material constant, we can write,
AoLo = AL
Ao L
=
A Lo
LLo + Lo
P P Ao
L
= =
x =s x =s x
=s x(1+ e)
A Ao A
Lo
Lo
Similarly true strain offers a more accurate calculation of the instantaneous
elongation per unit length of the material. The true stress is generally
increased rapidly than engineering stress once the strain increases and the
accordingly, the cross sectional of the specimen decreases.
L
=
Lo
dL
L
LLo+ Lo
=ln =ln
=ln ( 1+e)
L
Lo
Lo
posses a well define yield points, In order to find the yield point or yield
strength, an offset method is applied.
In this method a line is drawn parallel to the straight line portion of initial
stress diagram by off setting this by an amount equal to 0.2% of the strain as
shown as below and this happens especially for the low carbon steel. (Figure
4.2).
l1 l g
x 100
lg
l1 = gauge length of specimen after fracture(or the distance between the gage
marks at fracture)
lg = gauge length before fracture(i.e. initial gauge length)
For 50 mm gage length, steel may here a % elongation d of the order of 10%
to 40%.
4.1.3.2. ELASTIC ACTION
The elastic is an adjective meaning capable of recovering size and shape after
deformation. Elastic range is the range of stress below the elastic limit.
Similar tests are carried out for bending, shear and torsion and the results for
different materials are available in handbooks. For design purpose an
allowable stress is used in place of the critical stress to take into account the
uncertainties including the following:
o
o
o
o
o
Uncertainty in loading.
Inhomogeneity of materials.
Various material behaviours. e.g. corrosion, plastic flow, creep.
Residual stresses due to different manufacturing process.
Fluctuating load (fatigue loading): Experimental results and plot-
The ratio must always be greater than unity. It is easier to refer to the ratio of
stresses since this applies to material properties.
5. STRESS CONCENTRATIONS
5.1. INTRODUCTION TO STRESS CONCENTARTION FACTOR
(KU MAY 2011)
In developing a machine it is impossible to avoid changes in cross-section,
holes, notches, shoulders etc. Some examples are shown in figure 5.1.
3
avg
Where avg at section AA is simply given by,
avg =
P
t ( w2 b)
and
1=
P
tw
3 = 1 1+
2b
a
If a=b the hole reduces to a circular one and therefore 3 = 31, which gives
kt = 3.
If, however b is large compared to a then the stress at the edge of
transverse crack is very large and consequently k is also very large. If b is
small compared to a then the stress at the edge of a longitudinal crack does
not rise and kt = 1.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
b)
c)
d)
e)
Yielding and fracture can be visualized in a typical tensile test as shown in the
clipping- Typical engineering stress-strain relationship from simple tension
tests for same engineering materials are shown in figure 6.3.
Figure 6.3(a) Stress strain diagram for ductile materials (Eg. Low carbon steel)
.
Figure 6.3(c) Stress strain diagram for brittle materials
Figure 6.3(d) Stress strain diagram for elastic perfectly plastic material
For a typical ductile material as shown in figure 6.3(a), there is a definite yield
point where material begins to yield more rapidly without any change in stress
level. Corresponding stress is y. Close to yield point is the proportional limit
which marks the transition from elastic to plastic range. Beyond elastic limit
or elastic - perfectly plastic material yielding would continue without
further rise in stress i.e. stress-strain diagram would be parallel to parallel to
strain axis beyond the yield point. However, for most ductile materials, such
as, low-carbon steel beyond yield point the stress in the specimens rises upto a
peak value known as ultimate tensile stress u. Beyond this point the specimen
starts to neck-down i.e. the reduction in cross-sectional area. However, the
stress-strain curve falls till a point where fracture occurs. The drop in stress is
apparent since original cross-sectional area is used to calculate the stress.