Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design

HYDROLOGY AND
STORM SEWER
DESIGN
HYDROLOGY AND
STORM SEWER
DESIGN
GAUTHAM P. DAS
Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design

Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2017.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored
in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any otherexcept for
brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission of
the publisher.
First published in 2017 by
Momentum Press, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net
ISBN-13: 978-1-94561-232-9 (print)
ISBN-13: 978-1-94561-233-6 (e-book)
Momentum Press Environmental Engineering Collection
Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Private Ltd.
Chennai, India
First edition: 2017
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
DEDICATION
To my wife and son who are the balance to my life.
ABSTRACT
Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design includes fundamentals of hydrology
and design aspects of various hydraulic engineering devices such as
culverts, catch basins, and manholes. This textbook includes the fundamentals of hydrology, open- channel flow, design of culverts, and overall
layout of storm sewers. This book illustrates the use of various methods
employed by government agencies for the design of storm sewer appurtenances and devices to effectively drain rural and urban areas subjected to
various storm systems.
KEYWORDS
catch basins, culverts, manholes, Mannings equation, Open channels,
rational method, SCS method
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
XIII
LIST OF TABLES
XVII
PREFACE
1.
XIX
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
1.1
Important Terms in Open Channels
1.1.1
Wetted Perimeter (WP)
1.1.2
Hydraulic Radius (R)
1.2
Classification of Open Channels
1.2.1
Uniform Steady Flow
1.2.2
Nonuniform or Varied Flow
1.3
Kinds of Open-Channel Flow
1.4
Mannings Equation
1.5
Geometry of Typical Open Channels
13
1.5.1
Rectangular Section
13
1.5.2
Trapezoidal Section
14
1.5.3
Triangular Section
15
1.5.4
Circular Section
15
1.6
Most Efficient Shapes for Open Channels
15
1.7
Specific Energy and Critical Flow
18
1.8
Hydraulic Jumps
22
1.9
Open-Channel Flow Measurement
25
1.10
Different Types of Weirs
26
1.10.1 Rectangular Weir
26
x CONTENTS
1.11
2.
1.10.2 Contracted Weir
27
1.10.3 Cipolletti Weir
27
1.10.4 Triangular Weir
27
Flumes
28
HYDROLOGY FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN
33
2.1
Hydrologic Cycle
33
2.1.1
Precipitation
35
2.1.2
Runoff
35
2.1.3
Infiltration
36
2.1.4
Subsurface Flow
36
2.1.5
Evaporation
36
2.2
Drainage Area
37
2.3
Time of Concentration
38
2.3.1
Factors Affecting Time of Concentration
39
2.3.1.1
Surface roughness
39
2.3.1.2
Channel shape and flow patterns
39
2.3.1.3
Slope
39
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.4
Computing Travel Time and Time of

Concentration
39
2.3.2.1
Overland/sheet flow
40
2.3.2.2
Shallow concentrated flow
43
2.3.2.3
Open-channel flow
43
Limitations
44
Hydrologic Models
45
2.4.1
Rainfall Estimation
46
2.4.2
Rational Method
47
2.4.2.1
Introduction
47
2.4.2.2
Application
48
2.4.2.3
Equations
48
2.4.3
SCS Hydrologic Method
53
2.4.3.1
Introduction
53
2.4.3.2
Application
54
2.4.3.3
Equations and concepts
55
CONTENTS xi
2.4.3.4
Runoff factor
56
2.4.3.5
Urban modifications of the

SCS method
67
SCS peak runoff estimation
68
2.4.3.6
3.
CULVERTS
75
3.1
Shape of Culverts
75
3.2
Materials
75
3.3
Inlets
77
3.4
Embedded and Open-Bottom Culverts
78
3.5
Long-Span Culverts
79
3.6
Culvert Hydraulics
79
3.6.1
Types of Flow Control
79
3.6.2
Headwater
80
3.6.3
Tailwater
82
Culvert Hydraulic Design
82
3.7.1
Types of Control
83
3.7.2
Design considerations
86
3.7.3
Culvert inlets
91
3.7
3.8
4.
Culvert Design Equations and Nomographs
93
3.8.1
95
Nomographs
STORM SEWER DESIGN
109
4.1
Introduction
109
4.2
Structures
110
4.2.1
Inlet Structures
110
4.2.1.1
Configuration
110
4.2.1.2
Location
111
4.2.2
Access Holes
112
4.2.2.1
Configuration
113
4.2.2.2
Chamber and access shaft
113
4.2.2.3
Frame and cover
115
4.2.2.4
Steps
116
4.2.2.5
Channel and bench
116
4.2.2.6
Access hole depth
117
xii CONTENTS
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.2.3
Junction chambers
118
4.2.4
Other Appurtenances
118
4.2.4.1
Transitions
119
4.2.4.2
Flow splitters
120
4.2.4.3
Siphons
121
4.2.4.4
Flap gates
122
Hydraulics of Storm Drainage Systems
123
4.3.1
Flow Type Assumptions
123
4.3.2
Open Channel vs. Pressure Flow
123
4.3.3
Hydraulic Capacity
124
4.3.4
Energy Grade Line/Hydraulic Grade Line
127
4.3.5
Storm Drain Outfalls
129
4.3.6
Energy Losses
131
4.3.6.1
Pipe friction losses
132
4.3.6.2
Exit losses
132
4.3.6.3
Bend losses
133
4.3.6.4
Transition losses
133
4.3.6.5
Junction losses
140
Design Guidelines and Considerations
140
4.4.1
Design Storm Frequency
141
4.4.2
Time of Concentration and Discharge
141
4.4.3
Maximum High Water
144
4.4.4
Minimum Velocity and Grades
144
4.4.5
Cover
145
4.4.6
Location
145
4.4.7
Run Length
146
4.4.8
Alignment
146
Preliminary Design Procedure
146
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
165
INDEX
167
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1.
An open-channel flow
Figure 1.2.
A free-surface flow that is not an open-channel

flow
Figure 1.3.
Typical cross-sections of open channels
Figure 1.4.
Uniform flow in side view
Figure 1.5.
Water surface profile from channel to pool
Figure 1.6.
Water surface profile changing from subcritical to

supercritical flow
Figure 1.7.
Typical open-channel flow for small slopes
12
Figure 1.8.
Cross-section of the pipe half-full
13
Figure 1.9.
Rectangular cross-section
14
Figure 1.10.
Trapezoidal cross-section
14
Figure 1.11.
Triangular cross-section
15
Figure 1.12.
Geometry of a partially full circular section
16
Figure 1.13.
Example Problem 2
17
Figure 1.14.
Example Problem 2: Natural channel with grass

cover, n = 0.004
17
Energy equation applied between two points in an

open channel
19
Figure 1.16.
Specific energy diagram
20
Figure 1.17.
Subcritical and supercritical flow diagram
21
Figure 1.18.
Hydraulic jump
23
Figure 1.19.
Hydraulic jump using a specific energy curve
23
Figure 1.20.
Example Problem 4
24
Figure 1.21.
Side view of the typical design of a weir
25
Figure 1.22.
Different types of weirs
26
Figure 1.15.
xiv LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.23.
Parshall flume
29
Figure 1.24.
Cut-throat flume
31
Figure 1.25.
Trapezoidal flume
32
Figure 2.1.
The cycle by which the water moves between the

earth and the atmosphere
34
Figure 2.2.
Seelye chart for time of concentration
42
Figure 2.3.
Average velocities for estimating travel time for

shallow concentrated flow
44
Approximate geographic boundaries for SCS rainfall distributions
54
Figure 2.5.
SCS solution for the runoff equation
57
Figure 2.6.
Composite CN with connected impervious areas
68
Figure 2.7.
SCS Type II unit peak discharge graph
71
Figure 2.8.
SCS Type III unit peak discharge graph
72
Figure 3.1a.
Commonly used culvert shapes
76
Figure 3.1b.
Commonly used open-bottom culvert shapes
76
Figure 3.2.
Entrance contraction
77
Figure 3.3.
Schematic of side-tapered or slope-tapered inlets
78
Figure 3.4.
Typical inlet control flow section
81
Figure 3.5.
Typical outlet control flow conditions
81
Figure 3.6.
A to D Types of inlet control
84
Figure 3.7.
A to D Types of outlet control
85
Figure 3.8.
Full flow energy and hydraulic grade line
94
Figure 3.9.
Critical depth, circular pipe, and discharge = 0 to

100 cfs
96
Critical depth, circular pipe, and discharge = 0 to

1000 cfs
97
Critical depth, circular pipes, and discharge = 0 to

4000 cfs
97
Figure 3.12.
Critical depth, Q/B = 0 to 60 cfs
97
Figure 3.13.
Critical depth, box culvert, Q/B = 50 to 350 cfs
98
Figure 3.14.
Inlet-control nomograph
99
Figure 3.15.
100
Figure 3.16.
101
Figure 2.4.
Figure 3.10.
Figure 3.11.
LIST OF FIGURES xv
Figure 3.17.
102
Figure 3.18.
Outlet-control nomograph
103
Figure 3.19.
104
Figure 3.20.
105
Figure 4.1.
Inlet structures
111
Figure 4.2.
Typical access hole configurations
114
Figure 4.3.
Tee access hole for large configurations
115
Figure 4.4.
Efficient channel and bench configurations
119
Figure 4.5.
Transitions to avoid obstruction
120
Figure 4.6.
Twin-barrel siphon
121
Figure 4.7.
Storm drain capacity sensitivity
125
Figure 4.8.
Hydraulic and energy grade lines in pipe flow
128
Figure 4.9.
Angle of cone for pipe diameter changes
133
Figure 4.10.
Interior angle definitions for pipe junctions
140
Figure 4.11.
Preliminary storm drain computation sheet
147
Figure 4.12.
Solution of Manning's equation for flow in storm

drains
151
Figure 4.13.
Roadway plan and section for Example Problem 1
152
Figure 4.14.
Storm drain profiles for Example Problem 1
153
Figure 4.15.
Storm drain computation sheet for Example Problem
155
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1.
Mannings roughness coefficient values
Table 1.2.
Cut-throat flume K and n values for English

Units
30
Cut-throat flume K and n values for Metric

Units
31
Roughness coefficients (Mannings n) for sheet

flow
41
Table 2.2.
Frequency factors for rational formula
49
Table 2.3.
Recommended runoff coefficient values
50
Table 2.4.
Composite curve number calculation
58
Table 2.5a.
Curve number for urban areas
59
Table 2.5b.
Curve number for cultivated agricultural lands
61
Table 2.5c.
Curve number for other agricultural lands
63
Table 2.5d.
Curve number for arid and semi-arid lands
65
Table 2.6.
Ia values for runoff curve numbers
70
Table 3.1.
Inlet coefficients
92
Table 4.1.
Access hole spacing criteria
118
Table 4.2.
Access hole spacing criteria
120
Table 4.3.
Mannings coefficients for storm drain conduits
126
Table 4.4.
Increase in capacity of alternate conduit shapes

based on a circular pipe with the same height
127
Table 4.5.
Frequencies for coincidental occurrence
131
Table 4.6.
Typical values for Ke for gradual enlargement of

pipes in nonpressure flow
134
Typical values of Kc for sudden pipe contractions
134
Table 1.3.
Table 2.1.
Table 4.7.
xviii LIST OF TABLES
(SI units) Values of Ke for determining loss of

head due to sudden enlargement in pipes
135
(English units) Values of Ke for determining loss

of head due to sudden enlargement in pipes
136
Values of Ke for determining loss of head due to

gradual enlargement in pipes
137
(SI units) Values of Ke for determining loss of

head due to sudden contraction
138
(U.S. customary units) Values of Ke for determining

loss of head due to sudden contraction
139
Minimum pipe slopes to ensure 0.9 m/s (3.0 ft/s)

velocity in storm drains flowing full
145
Table 4.14.
Intensity duration data for Example Problem 1
150
Table 4.15.
Drainage area information for Example Problem 1
151
Table 4.8.
Table 4.9.
Table 4.10.
Table 4.11.
Table 4.12.
Table 4.13.
PREFACE
The book begins with a comprehensive coverage of precipitation, evaporation, water stored in the ground and as snow and ice, and runoff. These
physical hydrological processes show with respect to the fundamental
knowledge about the process, its measurement and estimation, and how it
ties in with the design of stormwater transport systems. Additionally, this
provides an integrated approach to control stormwater runoff quantity.
This practical guide explains how to determine allowable water depths;
develop inflow hydrographs for various components of a development;
estimate storage volumes for above, surface, and underground locations;
and calculate outflow structure hydraulics for numerous types of facilities.
Real-world examples, calculations, and design plans are contained in this
valuable resource.
CHAPTER 1
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW
Open-channel flows are those that are not entirely included within rigid
boundaries; a part of the flow is in contact with nothing at all, just empty
space (Figure 1.1). The surface of the flow thus formed is called a free
surface, because the flow boundary is freely deformable, in contrast to the
solid boundaries. The boundary conditions at the free surface of an openchannel flow are always that both the pressure and the shear stress are
zero everywhere. But a flow can also have a free surface without being an
open-channel flow. Closed-conduit flows that consist of two immiscible
fluid phases of differing density in contact with each other along some
bounding surface are not open-channel flows, because they are nowhere in
contact with open space, but they do have a freely deformable boundary
within them. Such flows are free-surface flows but not open-channel flows
(Figure 1.2), although they are usually called stratified flows, because the
density difference between the two fluids gives rise to gravitational effects
in the flow. On the other hand, open-channel flows are by their definition
also free-surface flows.
Figure 1.1. An open-channel flow
In a narrow technical sense, flows of liquid at the Earth surface, like

ocean-surface currents or rivers, are not open-channel flows, because they
are in contact with another fluid, the atmosphere, at a free surface within a
2 HYDROLOGY AND STORM SEWER DESIGN
two-phase fluid medium. But the contrast in density between water and air
is so great that in studying liquid flows at the Earths surface, the presence
of the overlying atmosphere is generally ignored.
Figure 1.2. A free-surface flow that is not an

open-channel flow
All the principles and techniques for dealing with velocity structure
and boundary resistance that were developed for closed-conduit flows
hold as well for open-channel flows. However, open-channel flows
involve an important added element of complexity beyond what was covered on laminar and turbulent flows in closed conduits: the presence of the
free surface means that the geometry of the flow can change in the flow
direction not just by being constrained to do so by virtue of the geometry
of the boundaries but also by the behavior of the flow itself. This means
that the acceleration of gravity can no longer be ignored by the expedient
of subtracting out the hydrostatic pressure, as with closed-conduit flows,
because the force of gravity helps to shape the free surface. So, gravity
must therefore be included as an additional independent variable in dealing with free-surface flows.
Many examples of open channels occur in nature and in systems
designed to supply water to communities or to carry storm drainage and
sewage safely away. Figure 1.3 shows the examples of cross sections of
open channels. While considering the design of open channels certain
important parameters have to be discussed.
1.1 IMPORTANT TERMS IN OPEN CHANNELS

1.1.1 WETTED PERIMETER (WP)
In open-channel flow, the wetted perimeter is defined as the surface of the
channel where bottom and sides are in direct contact with the aqueous
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 3
body. Wetted perimeter is a function of geometry and hence will change

according to the shape of the channel, as shown in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3. Typical cross-sections of open channels
1.1.2
HYDRAULIC RADIUS (R)
The hydraulic radius is a measure of a channel flow efficiency. Flow

speed along the channel depends on its cross-sectional shape (among other
factors), and the hydraulic radius is a characterization of the channel that
intends to capture such efficiency. Based on the constant shear stress at
the boundary assumption, hydraulic radius is defined as the ratio of the
cross-sectional area of the flow (A) to the wetted perimeter of the channel
at that cross-section (WP) (the portion of the channel perimeter that is
wet):
Hydraulicradius( R ) =
Flowarea ( A)
Wettedperimeter (WP )
(1.1)
1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF OPEN CHANNELS

1.2.1 UNIFORM STEADY FLOW
Uniform steady flow occurs when the volume flow rate (typically called
discharge in open-channel flow analysis) remains constant in the section
of interest and the depth of the fluid in the channel does not vary. Flows in
the laboratory can be set up to be very nearly uniform, and outdoors flows
like those in long canals are often also close to being uniform. But uniformity is an abstraction: real flows are never perfectly uniform, because,
no matter how closely the conditions of flow are adjusted, there are always subtle free-surface effects that extend downstream from the source
of the flow and upstream from the sink for the flow, or upstream and
downstream from places where the channel geometry changes, like dams
or bridge piers. In uniform flow, the driving force for the flow is provided
by the component of the weight of the fluid that acts along the channel, as
shown in Figure 1.4.
Figure 1.4. Uniform flow in side view
1.2.2
NONUNIFORM OR VARIED FLOW
Truly uniform flow rarely exists in either natural or man-made channels,

because changes in channel section, slope, or roughness cause the depths
and average velocities of flow to vary from point to point along the channel, and the water surface will not be parallel to the streambed. Flow that
varies in depth and velocity along the channel is called nonuniform. Although moderate nonuniform flow actually exists in a generally uniform
channel, it is usually treated as uniform flow in such cases. Uniform flow
characteristics can readily be computed and the computed values are usually close enough to the actual for all practical purposes. The types of
nonuniform flow are innumerable, but certain characteristic types are
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 5
described in the following paragraphs. Briefly discussed are the characteristics of nonuniform flow, both subcritical and supercritical, together with
common types of nonuniform flow encountered in highway drainage
design.
Varied steady flow occurs when the discharge remains constant, but
the depth of the fluid varies along the section of interest. Unsteady varied
flow occurs when the discharge varies with time, resulting in changes in
the depth of the fluid along the section of interest whether the channel is
prismatic or not. Varied flow can be further classified into rapidly varying
flow or gradually varying flow.
1.3 KINDS OF OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW

Pressurized pipe flow is classified as laminar or turbulent flow and this
classification was achieved by the use of the Reynolds number. This cannot be used to classify open-channel flow as the ratio of the inertia forces
to gravity is important.
Froude number (NF) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of
the flow inertia to gravity forces. Froude number is defined as:
NF =
v
gyh
(1.2)
where yh = hydraulic depth given by:

yh =
A
T
(1.3)
where T is the top width of the free surface of the fluid at the top of
the channel and A is the cross-section of the flow at the point of interest.
When Froude number is equal to 1.0, that is, when v = gyh , the
flow is called critical flow. When NF>1, the flow is supercritical and when
NF<1, the flow is subcritical.
Based on the Froude number, the following different kinds of flow
are possible:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Subcritical-laminar: NR < 500 and NF < 1.0

Subcritical-turbulent: NR > 2,000 and NF < 1.0
Supercritical-turbulent: NR > 2,000 and NF > 1.0
Supercritical-laminar: NR < 500 and NF > 1.0
With subcritical flow, a change in channel shape, slope, or roughness

affects the flow for a considerable distance upstream, and thus the flow is
said to be under downstream control. If an obstruction, such as a culvert,
causes ponding, the water surface above the obstruction will be a smooth
curve asymptotic to the normal water surface upstream and to the pool
level downstream, as shown in Figure 1.5.
Water Surface
Total Head Line
V2
2g
Pool Level
dn
d
So < S
c
Figure 1.5. Water surface profile from channel to pool
With supercritical flow, a change in channel shape, slope, or roughness

cannot be reflected upstream except for very short distances. However, the
change may affect the depth of flow at downstream points; thus, the flow
is said to be under upstream control. An example is the flow in a steep
chute where the water surface profile draws down from critical depth at
the chute entrance and approaches the lesser normal depth in the chute, as
shown in Figure 1.6.
a
Total head computed

for normal depth on
steep slope
hf
dl = dc
S o < Sc
1
d2
dn
2
>S
Actual total
head line
Figure 1.6. Water surface profile changing from subcritical to supercritical flow
Most problems in highway drainage do not require the accurate computation of water surface profiles; however, the designer should know that
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 7
the depth in a given channel may be influenced by conditions either

upstream or downstream, depending on whether the slope is steep (supercritical) or mild (subcritical). Three typical examples of nonuniform flow
are shown in Figures 1.5, 1.6, and 1.7 and are discussed in the following
paragraphs. The discussions also explain the use of the total head line in
analyzing nonuniform flow.
Figure 1.5 shows a channel on a mild slope, discharging into a pool.
The vertical scale is exaggerated to illustrate the case more clearly. Crosssection 1 is located at the end of uniform channel flow in the channel and
cross-section 2 is located at the beginning of the pool. The depth of flow d
between sections 1 and 2 is changing and the flow is nonuniform. The
water surface profile between the sections is known as a backwater curve
and is characteristically very long.
Figure 1.6 shows a channel in which the slope changes from subcritical to supercritical. The flow profile passes through critical depth near the
break in slope (section 1). This is true whether the upstream slope is mild,
as in the sketch, or whether the water above section 1 is ponded, as would
be the case if section 1 were the crest of a spillway of a dam. If, at section
2, the total head was computed, assuming normal depth on the steep slope,
it would plot (point a on sketch) above the elevation of total head at section 1. This is physically impossible, because the total head line must
slope downward in the direction of flow. The actual total head line will
take the position shown, and have a slope approximately equal to Sc at
section l and approaching slope S0 farther downstream. The drop in the
total head line hf between sections 1 and 2 represents the loss in energy
due to friction. At section 2 the actual depth d2 is greater than dn because
sufficient acceleration has not occurred and the assumption of normal
depth at this point would clearly be in error. As section 2 is moved downstream, so that total head for normal depth drops below the pool elevation
above section 1, the actual depth quickly approaches the normal depth for
the steep channel. This type of water surface curve (section 1 to section 2)
is characteristically much shorter than the backwater curve discussed in
the previous paragraph.
Another common type of nonuniform flow is the drawdown curve to
critical depth which occurs upstream from section 1 (Figure 1.6) where the
water surface passes through critical depth. The depth gradually increases
upstream from critical depth to normal depth, provided the channel
remains uniform through a sufficient length. The length of the drawdown
curve is much longer than the curve from critical depth to normal depth in
the steep channel.
1.4 MANNINGS EQUATION

The Manning formula is an empirical formula used when estimating the
average velocity of a liquid flowing in an open channel. By equating the
expressions for the driving force and the opposing force, an expression for
the average velocity of uniform flow can be derived:
ForSIunits :v =
1.0 2/3 1/ 2
R S
n
ForEnglishunits :v =
(1.4)
1.49 2/3 1/ 2
R S
n
(1.5)
The units will stay consistent in the above equations:

v = Velocity of flow in m/s or ft/s
R = Hydraulic radius in m or ft
S = Slope of channel
n = Mannings roughness coefficient, the typical values of which are
shown in Table 1.1
Table 1.1.
Mannings roughness coefficient values
Type of Channel and Description
Minimum Normal Maximum
Natural streams minor streams (top width at flood stage < 100 ft)
1. Main Channels
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts

or deep pools
Same as above, but more stones
and weeds
Clean, winding, some pools and
shoals
Same as above, but some weeds
and stones
Same as above, lower stages,
more ineffective slopes and
sections
Same as d with more stones
Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep
pools
0.025
0.030
0.033
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.033
0.040
0.045
0.035
0.045
0.050
0.040
0.048
0.055
0.045
0.050
0.060
0.050
0.070
0.080
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 9
h.
Very weedy reaches, deep pools,

0.075
0.100
0.150
or floodways with heavy stand of
timber and underbrush
2. Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks usually steep,
trees and brush along banks submerged at high stages
a. Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few
boulders
b. Bottom: cobbles with large boulders
0.030
0.040
0.050
0.040
0.050
0.070
1. Short grass
0.025
0.030
0.035
2. High grass
0.030
0.035
0.050
1. No crop
0.020
0.030
0.040
2. Mature row crops
0.025
0.035
0.045
3. Mature field crops
0.030
0.040
0.050
1. Scattered brush, heavy weeds
0.035
0.050
0.070
2. Light brush and trees, in winter
0.035
0.050
0.060
3. Light brush and trees, in summer

4. Medium to dense brush, in
winter
5. Medium to dense brush, in
summer
d. Trees
0.040
0.060
0.080
0.045
0.070
0.110
0.070
0.100
0.160
1. Dense willows, summer, straight

2. Cleared land with tree stumps,
no sprouts
3. Same as above, but with heavy
growth of sprouts
4. Heavy stand of timber, a few
down trees, little undergrowth,
flood stage below branches
5. Same as (4.) with flood stage
reaching branches
0.110
0.150
0.200
0.030
0.040
0.050
0.050
0.060
0.080
0.080
0.100
0.120
0.100
0.120
0.160
3. Floodplains
a. Pasture, no brush
b. Cultivated areas
c. Brush
(Continued)
Table 1.1. (Continued)

4. Excavated or Dredged Channels
a. Earth, straight, and uniform

1. Clean, recently completed
0.016
0.018
0.020
2. Clean, after weathering
0.018
0.022
0.025
3. Gravel, uniform section, clean
0.022
0.025
0.030
4. With short grass, few weeds
0.022
0.027
0.033
1. No vegetation
0.023
0.025
0.030
2. Grass, some weeds

3. Dense weeds or aquatic plants
in deep channels
4. Earth bottom and rubble sides
0.025
0.030
0.033
0.030
0.035
0.040
0.028
0.030
0.035
5. Stony bottom and weedy banks
0.025
0.035
0.040
6. Cobble bottom and clean sides
0.030
0.040
0.050
1. No vegetation
0.025
0.028
0.033
2. Light brush on banks
0.035
0.050
0.060
0.025
0.035
0.040
0.035
0.040
0.050
0.050
0.080
0.120
0.040
0.050
0.080
0.045
0.070
0.110
0.080
0.100
0.140
1. Neat surface
0.010
0.011
0.013
2. Mortar
0.011
0.013
0.015
b. Earth winding and sluggish
c. Dragline-excavated or dredged
d. Rock cuts
1. Smooth and uniform
2. Jagged and irregular
e. Channels not maintained, weeds
and brush uncut
1. Dense weeds, high as flow
depth
2. Clean bottom, brush on sides
3. Same as above, highest stage
of flow
4. Dense brush, high stage
5. Lined or Constructed Channels
a. Cement
OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW 11
b. Wood
1. Planed, untreated
0.010
0.012
0.014
2. Planed, creosoted
0.011
0.012
0.015
3. Unplaned
0.011
0.013
0.015
4. Plank with battens
0.012
0.015
0.018
5. Lined with roofing paper
0.010
0.014
0.017
1. Trowel finish
0.011
0.013
0.015
2. Float finish
3. Finished, with gravel on
bottom
4. Unfinished
0.013
0.015
0.016
0.015
0.017
0.020
0.014
0.017
0.020
5. Gunite, good section
0.016
0.019
0.023
6. Gunite, wavy section
0.018
0.022
0.025
7. On good excavated rock
0.017
0.020
0.022
0.027
0.015
0.017
0.020
2. Random stone in mortar

3. Cement rubble masonry,
plastered
4. Cement rubble masonry
0.017
0.020
0.024
0.016
0.020
0.024
0.020
0.025
0.030
5. Dry rubble or riprap
0.020
0.030
0.035
1. Formed concrete
0.017
0.020
0.025
2. Random stone mortar
0.020
0.023
0.026
3. Dry rubble or riprap
0.023
0.033
0.036
1. Glazed
0.011
0.013
0.015
2. In cement mortar
0.012
0.015
0.018
c. Concrete
8. On irregular excavated rock

d. Concrete bottom float finish with
sides of:
1. Dressed stone in mortar
e. Gravel bottom with sides of:
f. Brick
(Continued)
Table 1.1. (Continued)
g. Masonry
1. Cemented rubble
0.017
0.025
0.030
2. Dry rubble
0.023
0.032
0.035
0.013
0.015
0.017
1. Smooth
0.013
0.013
2. Rough
0.016
0.016
h. Dressed ashlar/stone paving

i. Asphalt
0.030
j. Vegetal lining
0.500
For small slopes, which are typical in open-channel flow, it is more

practical to use L >> h, where L is the length of the channel as shown in
Figure 1.7.
Figure 1.7. Typical open-channel flow for small slopes
The volume flow rate in the channel from the continuity equation,
which is the same as that used for pipe flow, is:
Q = A* v
In open-channel flow analysis, Q is typically called the discharge.

Substituting the above equation into Equations 1.4 and 1.5 gives an equation that directly relates the discharge to the physical parameters of the
channel:
ForSIunits :Q =
1.0 2/3 1/ 2
AR S
n
ForEnglishunits :Q =
1.49 2/3 1/ 2
AR S
n
(1.6)
(1.7)
Example Problem 1
Determine the normal discharge for a 200-mm-inside diameter common

clay drainage pipe running half-full if it is laid on a slope that drops 1 m
over a run of 1,000 m.
Solution
The slope S = 1/1,000 = 0.001. From Table 1.1, n = 0.013.
Figure 1.8. Cross-section of the pipe half-full
A=
1 D 2 D 2 (200) 2
=
= 5, 000 mm 2
=
2 4
8
8
A = 15, 708mm 2 = 0.0157m 2

WP =
R=
Q=
D
2
= 100 mm
A 5, 000 mm
=
= 50mm = 0.5m
WP
100 mm
2
1
1.0 32 12
1.0
AR S =
( 0.0157 )( 0.5) 3 ( 0.001) 2 = 5.1810 3 m3 / s
n
0.013
1.5 GEOMETRY OF TYPICAL OPEN CHANNELS

1.5.1
RECTANGULAR SECTION
The simplest open-channel flow cross-section for the calculation of

hydraulic radius is a rectangle. The depth of flow is often represented by
the symbol y, and b is often used for the channel bottom width, as shown
in Figure 1.9.
From the hydraulic radius definition: R = A/WP, where A is the crosssectional area of flow and WP is its wetted perimeter.
From Figure 1.9 it is clear that A = by and WP = 2y + b, so the
hydraulic radius is: R = by/(2y + b) for an open-channel flow.
y
b
Figure 1.9. Rectangular cross-section
1.5.2 TRAPEZOIDAL SECTION
The trapezoid shape is the most popular shape of open channels for several reasons. It is an efficient shape because it gives a large flow area relative to the wetted perimeter. The slope of the sides can be defined by the
angle with respect to the horizontal or by means of the pitch, the ratio of
the horizontal distance to the vertical distance. The parameters used to
calculate the trapezoid area and wetted perimeter, are y, the liquid depth;
b, the bottom width; B the width of the liquid surface; , the wetted length
measured along the sloped side; and , the angle of the sloped side from
vertical. The side slope is usually specified as horizontal:vertical = z:1.
The cross-sectional area of flow is the trapezoid area: A = y (b + B)/2,
or trapezoidal channel: A = (y/2) (b + b + 2zy), because B = b + 2zy, as
seen in Figure 1.10. Simplifying, the trapezoid area is: A = by + zy2. The
wetted perimeter is: WP = b + 2, but by Pythagoras theorem: 2 = y2 +
(yz)2, or = [y2 + (yz)2]1/2, so the wetted perimeter is: WP = b + 2y (1 + z2)1/2,
and the hydraulic radius for a trapezoid is: R = (by + zy2)/[b + 2y (1 + z2)1/2]
Figure 1.10. Trapezoidal cross-section
1.5.3 TRIANGULAR SECTION
The triangular open-channel cross-section shown in Figure 1.11. depicts

the typical case where the two sides are sloped at the same angle. Fewer
parameters are needed for the triangular area than for the trapezoid area.
The parameters, as shown in the diagram are: B, the surface width of the
liquid; , the sloped length of the triangle side; y, the liquid depth measured from the vertex of the triangle; and the side slope specification,
horizontal:vertical = z:1.
The triangle area is: A = by/2, but the figure shows that B = 2yz, so
the triangle area becomes simply: A = y2z. The wetted perimeter is: P = 2
with 2 = y2 + (yz)2. This simplifies to: WP = 2[y2 (1 + z2)]1/2. The hydraulic radius is thus: R = A/WP = y2z/{2[y2(1 + z2)]1/2}
yz
yz
B
1 y
Figure 1.11. Triangular

cross-section
1.5.4 CIRCULAR SECTION
The hydraulic radius for a circular pipe flowing full is easy to calculate.
The cross-sectional area is A = D2/4 and the wetted perimeter is WP = D.
Substituting into the equation R = A/WP and simplifying the expression
gives: R = D/4. The computation of the data for circular sections at
various depths can be facilitated by the graph in Figure 1.12.
1.6 MOST EFFICIENT SHAPES FOR OPEN

CHANNELS
The term conveyance is used to indicate the carrying capacity of open
channels. Its value can be deduced from Mannings equation.
In SI units, Mannings equation is:
Q=
1.0 2/3 1/ 2
AR S
n
Figure 1.12. Geometry of a partially full circular section
Everything on the right side of the equation is dependent on the design

of the channel except the slope. Hence conveyance K can be defined as:
K=
1.0 2/3
AR
n
(1.8)
Mannings equation is then:
Q = KS 1/ 2
(1.9)
The conveyance of a channel would be maximum when the wetted

perimeter is the least for a given area.
Example Problem 2
Calculate the minimum slope on which the channel shown in Figure 1.13
must be laid if it is to carry 1.416 m3/s of water with a depth of 0.61 m. The
sides and bottom of the channel are made of formed, unfinished concrete.
Q=
1.0 2/3 1/ 2
AR S
n
S =(
Qn 2
)
AR 2/3
Figure 1.13. Example Problem 2
From Table 1.1, n = 0.017. The values of A and R can be calculated

from the geometry of the section:
A = (1.22 )( 0.61) +
2(0.61)(0.61)
= 1.116m
2
WP = (1.22 ) + 2 0.612 + 0.612 = 2.945m

R=
A 1.116
=
= 0.379m
WP 2.945
2
(1.416)(0.017)
S =
= 0.0017
2/3
(1.116)(0.379)
Therefore, the channel must drop at least 1.7 m per 1,000 m of length.
Example Problem 3
For a natural channel with levees shown in Figure 1.14, calculate the flow
rate for a depth of 3 and 6 ft. Given the slope of the channel, s = 0.00015.
Figure 1.14. Example Problem 2: Natural channel with grass cover, n = 0.004
a.
Depth of 3 ft:
12 ft
3.0 ft
L
L=
32 + 32 4.243 ft
A = ( 3)(12 ) + 2 ( 3)( 3) = 45ft 2

2
WP = 12 + 2 ( 4.243) = 20.485ft
R=
Q=
b.
A
45
=
= 2.197ft
WP 20.485
2
1
1.49
( 45 ) 2.197 3 0.00015 2 = 34.7ft 3 / s
0.04
Depth of 6 ft:
L2 =
22 + 22 = 2.828
42 + 42 = 5.657
L1 =
4
2
10
12
10
6
2
A = ( 4 )(12 ) + 2 ( 4 )( 4 ) + ( 2 )( 40 ) + 2 ( 2 )( 2 ) = 148ft 2
2
WP = 2 ( 2.828 ) + 2 (10 ) + 2( 5.657 ) + 12 = 48.97ft

R=
Q=
A
148
=
= 3.022ft
WP 48.97
2
1
1.49
(148) 3.022 3 0.00015 2 = 141.1ft 3 / s
0.04
1.7 SPECIFIC ENERGY AND CRITICAL FLOW

Open-channel flow must have a free surface. Normally free water surface is
subjected to atmospheric pressure, which remains relatively constant
throughout the entire length of the channel. If the energy equation is applied
between the two points in an open channel as shown in Figure 1.15:
z1 +
v12 P1
v2 P
+ hL = z2 + 2 + 2
2g
2g
The pressure distribution in any section is directly proportional to the

depth measured from the free water surface. In this case, the water surface
line corresponds to the hydraulic gradient line in pipe flow. The energy
equation can be rewritten as:
z1 +
v12
v2
+ y1 hL = z2 + 2 + y2
2g
2g
The total energy is measured relative to the channel bottom and is

composed of potential energy due to the depth of the fluid plus kinetic
energy due to its velocity.
Figure 1.15. Energy equation applied between two points in an open

channel
Letting E denote the total energy,

E = y+
v2
2g
(1.10)
where y indicates the depth of flow and v is the average velocity.

For a given discharge Q, the velocity is Q/A. Then,
E = y+
Q2
A2 2 g
(1.17)
Total energy flowing through the channel is potential energy and

kinetic energy
Potentialenergy :Es = y
Kinecticenergy :Ek =
Q2
A2 2 g
The depth corresponding to the minimum specific energy is therefore

called the critical depth, yc.
Figure 1.16. Specific energy diagram
Figure 1.14 applies for a given cross-section and discharge of an open

channel. It can be noted that as the depth of the flow increases, the static
energy increases, and the kinetic energy decreases. The total energy curve
approaches the static energy curve for high depths and the kinetic energy
curve for small depths. The specific energy is minimum (Emin) for a
particular depth. This depth happens to be the critical depth (yc). The same
depth for which the Froudes number = 1.0 and corresponding critical
velocity = vc, Emin is the energy value with a singular depth. Depths greater
than the critical depth are called supercritical depth. Depths greater than
the critical depth therefore have supercritical flow.
Froude number > 1.0: v > vc.
Depths greater than the critical depths supercritical flow.
Froude number < 1.0: v < vc.
For all other energy values, there are two depths associated, one
greater than the critical depth and one less than the critical depth. In
Figure 1.16, both y1 below the critical depth yc and y2 above yc have the
same energy. The two depths y1 and y2 are called the alternate depths for
the specific energy E. As discharge increases, the specific energy curves
move to the upper right portion of the chart, as shown in Figure 1.17.
Figure 1.17. Subcritical and supercritical flow diagram
Specific energy is given by the equation:

E = y+
Q2
(1.12)
A2 2 g
Critical depth yc is the depth of flow at minimum specific energy content, and it can be readily determined for the commonly used channel sections. The magnitude of critical depth depends only on the discharge and
the shape of the channel, and is independent of the slope or channel
roughness. Thus, in any given size and shape of channel, there is only one
critical depth for a particular discharge. Critical depth is an important value
in hydraulic analyses because it is a control at which it reaches nonuniform flow whenever the flow changes from subcritical to supercritical.
Typical occurrences of critical depth are:
1.
2.
3.
Entrance to a restrictive channel, such as a culvert or flume, on a

steep slope
At the crest of an overflow dam or weir
At the outlet of a culvert or flume discharging with a free fall or
into a relatively wide channel or a pond in which the depth is not
enough to submerge critical depth in the culvert or flume.
Critical slope is that channel slope, for a particular channel and discharge, at which the normal depth for uniform flow will be the same as the
critical depth. Critical slope varies with both the roughness and geometric
shape of the channel and with the discharge.
Critical slope, however, varies with roughness and must be determined as provided in the instructions. For large circular cross-section
pipes, and for pipe-arch and oval pipe sections, a direct reading can be
made on the part-full flowcharts for critical depth, specific head, and critical slope (for certain values of n).
1.8 HYDRAULIC JUMPS

A hydraulic jump is a phenomenon that occurs when liquid at high velocity discharges into a zone of lower velocity; a rather abrupt rise occurs in
the liquid surface. The rapidly flowing liquid is abruptly slowed and increases in height, converting some of the initial kinetic energy in the flow
into an increase in potential energy, with some energy irreversibly lost
through turbulence to heat. In an open-channel flow, this manifests as the
fast flow rapidly slowing and piling up on top of itself similar to how a
shockwave forms.
The phenomenon is dependent on the initial fluid speed. If the initial
speed of the fluid is below the critical speed, then no jump is possible. For
initial flow speeds which are not significantly above the critical speed, the
transition appears as an undulating wave. As the initial flow speed increases further, the transition becomes more abrupt, until at high enough
speeds, the transition front will break and curl back upon itself. When this
happens, the jump can be accompanied by violent turbulence, eddying, air
entrainment, and surface undulations, or waves. Figure 1.18 illustrates the
phenomenon known as a hydraulic jump.
A hydraulic jump makes a dynamic transition from the supercritical
flow in the steep channel to the subcritical flow in the pool. The flow approaching the pool in Figure 1.18 is supercritical and the total head in the
approach channel is large relative to the pool depth. In general, supercritical flow can be changed to subcritical flow only by passing through a hydraulic jump. The violent turbulence in the jump dissipates energy rapidly,
causing a sharp drop in the total head line between the supercritical and
subcritical states of flow. A jump will occur whenever the ratio of the
depth y1 in the approach channel to the depth y2 in the downstream channel reaches a specific value. Note in Figure 1.18 that normal depth in the
approach channel persists well beyond the point where the projected pool
level would intersect the water surface of the channel at normal depth.
Normal depth can be assumed to exist on the steep slope upstream from
section 1, which is located about at the toe of the jump.
E
E1
y1
E2
V2
y2
V1
supercritical flow
subcritical flow
Figure 1.18. Hydraulic jump
The depth at section 2 after the jump can be calculated from the
equation:
y2 = ( y1 / 2 )
1 + 8N F 12 1
(1.13)
The energy loss in the jump is dependent on the two depths:

E1 E2 = E = ( y2 y1 )3 / 4 y1 y2
Figure 1.19. Hydraulic jump using a specific energy curve
(1.14)
Example Problem 4
In Figure 1.20, water is being discharged from a reservoir under a sluice

gate at the rate of 18 m3/s into a horizontal rectangular channel, 3 m wide,
made of unfinished formed concrete. At a point where the depth is 1 m, a
hydraulic jump is observed to occur. Determine the following:
a.
b.
c.
d.
The velocity before the jump

The depth after the jump
The velocity after the jump
The energy dissipated in the jump
Figure 1.20. Example Problem 4
Solution
Velocity right before the jump

Q=18 m3/s
A= (b) (y) = (3 m) (1 m) = 3 m2
v1 =
Q 18m3 / s
=
= 6.0m / s
A1
3m 2
The hydraulic depth is equal to A > T, where T is the width of the free
surface. Then for a rectangular channel, yh = y. Therefore
NF =
v
gyh
6.0m / s
9.811
= 1.92
The flow is in the supercritical range, therefore it can be calculated

using the formula:
y2 =
y1
) ( 2)(
1 + 8 N F12 1 = 1
1 + 8(1.92) 2 1 = 2.26m
Because of the principle of continuity:

m3
)
s
v2 = Q =
= 2.65m / s
A2 (3)(2.26)m 2
(18
E =
( y2 y1 )
4 y1 y2
( 2.26 1.0 )
4(1.0)(2.26)
m = 0.221m
This means that 0.221 Nm of energy is dissipated from each Newton of

water as it flows through the jump.
1.9 OPEN-CHANNEL FLOW MEASUREMENT

An open channel is one that has its top surface open to the prevailing atmosphere. Two widely used devices for open-channel flow measurement
are weirs and flumes. Each causes the area of the stream to change, which
in turn changes the level of the fluid surface. The resulting level of the surface relative to some feature of the device is related to the quantity of flow.
A weir is a specially shaped barrier installed in an open channel over which
the fluid flows as a free jet into a stream beyond the barrier (Figure 1.21).
Figure 1.21. Side view of the typical design of a weir
1.10 DIFFERENT TYPES OF WEIRS

Figure 1.22 shows four common shapes for weirs for which rating equations
have been developed to enable the calculation of discharge Q as a function
of the dimensions of the weir and the head of fluid above the crest H.
Figure 1.22. Different types of weirs
Measurement of the head can be done by a fixed gage, called a staff

gage, mounted at the side of the stream for which the zero reading is at the
level of the crest of the weir.
1.10.1 RECTANGULAR WEIR
A rectangular weir, also called a suppressed weir, has a crest length L that
extends the full width of the channel into which it is installed. The standard design requires:
1. The crest height above the bottom of the channel:
2. Hc3Hmax
3. The minimum head above the crest: Hmin > 0.06 m
4. The maximum head above the crest: Hmax < L/3.
The rating equation is:
Q = 1.84LH 3/ 2
where L and H are in meters and Q is in m3/s.
(1.15)
1.10.2 CONTRACTED WEIR
A contracted weir is a rectangular weir having sides extended inward from

the sides of the channel by a distance of at least 2Hmax. The fluid stream
must then contract as it flows around the sides of the weir, decreasing
slightly the effective length of the weir. The standard design requires:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The crest height above the bottom of the channel:

Hc>=2Hmax
The minimum head above the crest Hmin > 0.06 m
The maximum head above the crest Hmax < L/3.
The rating equation is:
Q = 1.84( L 0.2 H ) H 3/ 2
(1.16)
where L and H are in meters and Q is in m3/s.

1.10.3 CIPOLLETTI WEIR
A Cipolletti weir is also contracted from the sides of the stream by a

distance at least 2Hmax and has sides that are sloped outward. The same
requirements listed for the contracted rectangular weir apply. The rating
equation is:
Q = 1.86LH 3/ 2 (1.17)
1.10.4
TRIANGULAR WEIR
The triangular weir is used primarily for low flow rates because the
V-notch produces a larger head H than can be obtained with a rectangular
notch. The theoretical equation for a triangular weir is:
Q = 8 / 15C 2 g tan ( / 2 ) H 5/ 2
(1.18)
The above equation can be reduced to:
Q = 4.28C tan ( / 2 ) H 5/ 2
(1.19)
The value of C is somewhat dependent on the head H, but a nominal

value is 0.58. Using this and the common values of 60o and 90o for
yields:
(1.20)
(1.21)
Q = 0.79H 5/ 2 60 o notch
Q = 1.37H 5/ 2 90 o notch
1.11 FLUMES
Flumes are used in measuring water flow of a larger channel. When used
to measure the flow of water in open channels, a flume is defined as a
specially shaped, fixed hydraulic structure that under free-flow conditions
forces flow to accelerate in such a manner that the flow rate through the
flume can be characterized by a level-to-flow relationship as applied to a
single head (level) measurement within the flume. Acceleration is accomplished through a convergence of the sidewalls, a change in floor elevation, or a combination of the two. Flow measurement flumes typically
consist of a converging section, a throat section, and a diverging section.
Commonly used flumes are:
a.
Parshall flume: The most recognized and commonly used flume

today is a fixed hydraulic structure developed to measure surface
waters and irrigation flow. It is currently used to measure volumetric flow rate in industrial discharges, municipal sewer lines, and
influent/effluent flows in wastewater treatment plants. The Parshall flume (Figure 1.23) accelerates flow through a contraction of
both the parallel sidewalls and a drop in the floor at the flume
throat. Under free-flow conditions the depth of water at specified
location upstream of the flume throat can be converted to a rate of
flow. The general free-flow discharge equation for Parshall flumes
may be expressed as:
Q = 4 Bh11.522 B
0.026
(1.22)
where Q is flow rate (ft3/s or m3/s);

B is the throat section width (m or ft); h1 is the upstream depth (m or ft).
Figure 1.23. Parshall flume
b.
Cut-throat flume: The Cut-throat flume is a class of flow

measurement flume used to measure the flow of surface waters, sewage flows, and industrial discharges (Figure 1.24).
Like other flumes, the Cut-throat flume is a fixed hydraulic
structure. Using vertical sidewalls throughout, the flume accelerates flow though a contraction of sidewalls until the flow
reaches the throat of the flume, where the flow is then expanded. Unlike the Parshall flume, the Cut-throat flume lacks
a parallel-walled throat section and maintains a flat floor
throughout the flume. The free-flow discharge can be summarized in terms of imperial units:
Q = KW 1.025 H a n1
(1.23)
C = KW 1.025
(1.24)
where Q is flow rate, in ft3/s;

C is the free-flow coefficient;
K is the free-flow length coefficient for the flume;
Ha is the head at the primary point of measurement, in feet; n1 is the
free-flow exponent.
Both K and n vary by flume length, as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2.
Cut-throat flume K and n values for English Units
Length
(in)
Throat
width (in)
Coefficient
(C)
Free-flow
exponent
(n1)
Free-flow
length coefficient (K)
18
18
18
18
36
36
36
36
54
54
54
54
108
108
108
108
1
2
4
8
2
4
8
16
3
6
12
24
12
24
48
12
0.494
0.974
1.975
4.03
0.719
1.459
2.97
6.04
0.96
1.96
3.98
8.01
3.5
7.11
14.49
22
2.15
2.15
2.15
2.15
1.84
1.84
1.84
1.84
1.72
1.72
1.72
1.72
1.56
1.56
1.56
1.56
6.1
6.1
6.1
6.1
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
3.98
3.98
3.98
3.98
3.5
3.5
3.5
3.5
The free-flow discharge can be summarized in terms of metric units:
Q = K mWm1.025 H am n1
(1.25)
C = K mWm1.025
(1.26)
Table 1.3.
Cut-throat flume K and n values for Metric Units

Free-flow
Free-flow
length coef- coefficient
ficient (Km)
(Cm)
Length
(cm)
Throat width
(cm)
Free-flow
exponent (n1)
45.72
2.54
2.150
7.4791
0.1802
45.72
5.08
2.150
7.4791
0.3553
45.72
10.16
2.150
7.4791
0.7205
45.72
20.32
2.150
7.4791
1.4701
91.44
5.08
1.840
3.7758
0.1811
91.44
10.16
1.840
3.7758
0.3675
91.44
20.32
1.840
3.7758
0.7503
91.44
40.64
1.840
3.7758
1.5213
137.2
7.62
1.720
2.9394
0.2103
137.2
15.24
1.720
2.9394
0.4293
137.2
30.48
1.720
2.9394
0.8718
137.2
60.96
1.720
2.9394
1.7545
274.3
30.48
1.560
2.1383
0.6322
274.3
60.96
1.560
2.1383
1.2843
274.3
121.9
1.560
2.1383
2.6175
274.3
182.9
1.560
2.1383
3.9741
lnlet
Converging
Section
Outlet Diverging Section
3
1
2L
La =
9
5L
Lb =
9
Piezometer Top
for measuring ha
L
L1 =
3
2L
L2 =
3
Figure 1.24. Cut-throat flume
Piezometer Top
for measuring hb
L
B=W +
4.5
L
B=W+
4.5
c.
Trapezoidal flume: Designed primarily to measure flows in irrigation ditches and channels, the Trapezoidal flume consists
of outward sloping walls of varying widths and a flat floor.
The throat of the flume is defined as the narrowest section of
the flume. In some cases, the sidewalls of the throat meet at
the floor of the flume to form a V section with no flat floor.
As the flow increases in the Trapezoidal flume, the effective
crest width increases as the sidewalls slope outwards. The result of this is that the Trapezoidal flume has the sensitivity to
measure low flows and the capacity to measure high flows, all
without a change in floor elevation (as with a Parshall) or the
need for a free, spilling discharge off the end of the flume (as
with an H-type flume). For specific agricultural applications,
particularly low flows or flat gradients, the Trapezoidal flume
is superior to the Parshall flume. The trapezoidal shape of the
flume conforms closely to the normal shape of irrigation
ditches, particularly those that are concrete lined. This greatly
minimizes the amount of transition needed to direct flow into
and out of the flume (Figure 1.25).
Trapezoidal Flume
Plan
View
b
Q
L
Hydraulic
Jump
Section
View
h
P
Figure 1.25. Trapezoidal flume
INDEX
A
Access hole
chamber and access shaft,
113115
channel and bench, 116117
depth, 117
frame and cover, 115116
location and spacing, 117118
primary function of, 112113
steps, 116
Access shaft, 113115
Allowable headwater (HW),
elevation of, 88
American Association of State
Highway and Transportation
Officials (AASHTO), 121
Antecedent soil moisture
conditions (AMC II), 58
Aprons, 91, 92
B
Backwater curve, 7
Barrel slope, 80, 87
Benching, 116
Bend loss coefficient (Hb), 133
Buoyancy protection, 86
Bureau of Public Roads (BPR).
See Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA)
C
Catch basin, 110111
Chamber, 113115
Cipolletti weirs, 27
Circular section, open channels, 15
Closed-conduit
culvert shapes, 75
flows, 1
Computing travel time, 3944
open-channel flow, 4344
overland/sheet flow, 4042
shallow concentrated flow, 43
Concrete, 75
Connected impervious areas, 67
Contracted weirs, 27
Conveyance, 1516
Critical depth, 21
Critical flow, 1822
Critical slope, 22
Culverts
design equations, 9394
and nomographs, 95108
embedded and open-bottom,
7879
hydraulics, 79
design, 8293
flow control types, 7980
headwater, 8081
tailwater, 82
inlets, 7778
long-span, 79
materials, 7577
shape of, 75
Cut-throat flume, 2931
168 INDEX
D
Debris control, 8687
Depression, 7778
Discharge, 12
Drainage area, 55
Drainage basin, 3738
E
Embedded culverts, 7879
Energy grade line (EGL), 127129
Energy losses, 131140
bend losses, 133
exit losses, 132
junction losses, 140
pipe friction losses, 132
transition losses, 133139
Erosion control
along channel, 90
at inlet and outlet, 90
Evaporation, 3637
Evapotranspiration, 34
Exceedance probability, 46
Exit losses, storm drain outlet, 132
F
Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA), 79
systematic approach to culvert
analysis, 82
Flap gates, 122
Flow control, types of, 7980,
8385
Flow splitters, 120121
Flow type assumptions, 123
Flumes, 2832
Froude number (NF), 5
Gas laws, 34
Geographic Information System
(GIS), 385
H
Headwater, 8081
limitations, 88
High-density polyethylene
(HDPE), 75
Horizontal bends, 87
Horizontal culvert clearances, 90
Hydraulic capacity, 124127
Hydraulic grade line (HGL), 116,
127129
Hydraulic jumps, 2225
Hydraulic radius (R), 3
Hydraulics. See also Culvert,
hydraulics
of storm drainage systems
capacity, 124127
energy grade line/hydraulic
grade line, 127129
energy losses, 131140
flow type assumptions, 123
open channel vs. pressure flow,
123124
storm drain outfalls, 129131
Hydrologic cycle, 3335
evaporation, 3637
infiltration, 36
precipitation, 35
runoff, 3536
subsurface flow, 36
Hydrologic models
rainfall estimation, 4647
rational method, 4753
SCS hydrologic method, 5373
Hydrology for hydraulic design
drainage area, 3738
hydrologic cycle, 3335
evaporation, 3637
infiltration, 36
precipitation, 35
runoff, 3536
subsurface flow, 36
hydrologic models, 4546
rainfall estimation, 4647
rational method, 4753
SCS hydrologic method, 5373
INDEX 169
time of concentration, 38
computing travel time and,
3944
factors affecting, 39
limitations, 44
I
Infiltration, 36
Inlet coefficient (Ke), 91
Inlet control flow, 80, 8384
with headwalls, 9192
nomographs for, 95108
relative efficiency of, 92
rules apply to place, 112
Intensitydurationfrequency
curve (IDF curve), 47
J
Junction chambers, 118
Junction losses, 140
L
Long-span culverts, 79
M
Mannings equation, 813
example problem, 13
hydraulic capacity, 125127
roughness coefficient values,
812t
Maximum high water, 144
Minimum velocity and grades,
144145
Multipipe culverts, separation
of, 91
N
National Bureau of Standards
(NBS), 79
Natural invert, 77
Nomographs, 95108
Nonpoint source pollution, 36
Nonuniform flow, 7, 45
O
Open-bottom culverts, 7879
shapes, 75
Open-channel flow
classification of
nonuniform or varied flow, 45
uniform steady flow, 4
flumes, 2832
geometry of typical
circular section, 15
rectangular section, 1314
trapezoidal section, 14
triangular section, 15
hydraulic jumps, 2225
important terms in
hydraulic radius (R), 3
wetted perimeter (WP), 23
kinds of, 57
Mannings equation, 813
measurement, 25
most efficient shapes for, 1518
overview, 12
specific energy and critical flow,
1822
weirs, different types of, 26
Cipolletti, 27
contracted, 27
rectangular, 26
triangular, 2728
Open-channel flow, 4344
vs. pressure flow, 123124
Orientation of outfall, 131
Outlet control flow, 80, 8485
nomographs for, 95108
Overland flow, 4042. See also
Surface runoff
P
Parshall flume, 28
Peak discharge equation, using
SCS method, 6873
Pipe friction losses, 132
Pitch, 14
170 INDEX
Precipitation, 35
Pressure flow vs. open channel,
123124
Pressurized pipe flow, 57
R
Rainfall, 55
estimation, 4647
intensity (i), 49
runoff equation, 5556
Rational method
application, 48
equations, 4853
introduction, 47
Rectangular section, open
channels, 1314
Rectangular weirs, 26
Return period, 47
Riprap aprons, 130
Roadway drainage system, effects
of an inadequate, 109
Runoff coefficient (C), 47, 49
Runoff curve numbers (CN), 57
Runoff factor, 5666
S
SCS hydrologic method
application, 5455
equations, 5556
introduction, 5354
peak runoff estimation, 6873
runoff factor, 5666
urban modifications of, 6768
Shallow concentrated flow, 43
Sheet flow, 4042
Siltation, 87
Sink, 37
Siphon, 121
efficient design of, 122
Specific energy, 1822
State Departments of
Transportation, 110
Storm drain, 109110
conduit, 141
outfalls, 129131
Storm sewer design
design guidelines and
considerations, 140
alignment, 146
cover, 145
design storm frequency, 141
location, 145146
maximum high water, 144
minimum velocity and grades,
144145
run length, 146
time of concentration and
discharge, 141144
hydraulics of
energy grade line/hydraulic
grade line, 127129
energy losses, 131140
flow type assumptions, 123
open channel vs. pressure flow,
123124
storm drain outfalls, 129131
capacity, 124127
introduction, 109110
preliminary design procedure,
146155
structures
access holes, 112118
configuration, 110111
junction chambers, 118
location, 111112
other appurtenances, 118122
Stormwater runoff peak flows, 48
Stratified flows, 1
Subcritical flow, 6
Subsurface flow, 36
Supercritical flow, 6
Suppressed weir. See Rectangular
weirs
Surface roughness, 39
Surface runoff, 3536
Surface topography, 117
INDEX 171
T
Tailwater, 82
elevation, 129
hydraulic conditions, 89
Tapered inlets, 7778
Throat of flume, 32
Time of concentration, 38
computing travel time and, 3944
and discharge, 141144
factors affecting, 39
limitations, 44
Transitions, 119120
losses, 133139
Trapezoidal flume, 32
Trapezoidal section, open
channels, 14
Travel time (Tt), 38
Triangular section, open
channels, 15
Triangular weirs, 2728
U
Unconnected impervious areas, 68
Uniform steady flow, 4
Unit hydrograph, 55
United States Geological Survey
(USGS), 43
USGS flow type, 8385
V
V-notch, 27
Varied steady flow, 5. See also
Nonuniform flow
Velocity, limitations of, 86
Violent turbulence, 22
Volume flow rate, 4
W
Water cycle, 33
Watershed, 37
Weep holes, 8990
Weirs, different types of, 26
Cipolletti, 27
contracted, 27
rectangular, 26
triangular, 2728
Wetted perimeter (WP), 23
Wingwalls, 92
OTHER TITLES IN OUR ENVIRONMENTAL

ENGINEERING COLLECTION
Francis J. Hopcroft, Wentworth Institute of Technology, Editor
ISO 50001 Energy Management Systems: What Managers Need to Know About Energy
and Business Administration by Johannes Kals
Hydraulic Engineering: Fundamental Concepts by Gautham P. Das
Climate Change by Kaufui Vincent Wong
Applied Chemistry for Environmental Engineering by Armen S. Casparian and Gergely
Sirokman
Introduction to Environmental Engineering by Alandra Kahl
Environmental Site Investigation by Christopher B. Pickles
Engineering Economics for Environmental Engineers by Francis J. Hopcroft
Conversion Factors for Environmental Engineers by Francis J. Hopcroft
Ponds, Lagoons, and Wetlands for Wastewater Management by Matthew E. Verbyla
Momentum Press is one of the leading book publishers in the eld of engineering,
mathematics, health, and applied sciences. Momentum Press offers over 30 collections,
including Aerospace, Biomedical, Civil, Environmental, Nanomaterials, Geotechnical,
and many others.
Momentum Press is actively seeking collection editors as well as authors. For more
information about becoming an MP author or collection editor, please visit
http://www.momentumpress.net/contact
Announcing Digital Content Crafted by Librarians

Momentum Press offers digital content as authoritative treatments of advanced engineering
topics by leaders in their eld. Hosted on ebrary, MP provides practitioners, researchers,
faculty, and students in engineering, science, and industry with innovative electronic content
in sensors and controls engineering, advanced energy engineering, manufacturing, and
materials science.
Momentum Press offers library-friendly terms:
perpetual access for a one-time fee

no subscriptions or access fees required
unlimited concurrent usage permitted
downloadable PDFs provided
free MARC records included
free trials
The Momentum Press digital library is very affordable, with no obligation to buy in future years.
For more information, please visit www.momentumpress.net/library or to set up a trial in the
US, please contact mpsales@globalepress.com.

Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

HYDROLOGY AND

Hydrology and Storm Sewer Design

Important Terms in Open Channels

Wetted Perimeter (WP)

Hydraulic Radius (R)

Classification of Open Channels

Uniform Steady Flow

Nonuniform or Varied Flow

Kinds of Open-Channel Flow

Geometry of Typical Open Channels

Most Efficient Shapes for Open Channels

Specific Energy and Critical Flow

Open-Channel Flow Measurement

Different Types of Weirs

1.10.1 Rectangular Weir

1.10.2 Contracted Weir

1.10.3 Cipolletti Weir

1.10.4 Triangular Weir

HYDROLOGY FOR HYDRAULIC DESIGN

Factors Affecting Time of Concentration

Channel shape and flow patterns

Computing Travel Time and Time of

Shallow concentrated flow

SCS Hydrologic Method

Equations and concepts

Urban modifications of the

SCS peak runoff estimation

Embedded and Open-Bottom Culverts

Types of Flow Control

Culvert Hydraulic Design

Culvert Design Equations and Nomographs

STORM SEWER DESIGN

Chamber and access shaft

Frame and cover

Channel and bench

Access hole depth

Hydraulics of Storm Drainage Systems

Flow Type Assumptions

Open Channel vs. Pressure Flow

Energy Grade Line/Hydraulic Grade Line

Storm Drain Outfalls

Pipe friction losses

Design Guidelines and Considerations

Design Storm Frequency

Time of Concentration and Discharge

Maximum High Water

Minimum Velocity and Grades

Preliminary Design Procedure

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

A free-surface flow that is not an open-channel

Typical cross-sections of open channels

Uniform flow in side view

Water surface profile from channel to pool

Water surface profile changing from subcritical to

Typical open-channel flow for small slopes

Cross-section of the pipe half-full

Geometry of a partially full circular section

Example Problem 2: Natural channel with grass

Energy equation applied between two points in an

Specific energy diagram

Subcritical and supercritical flow diagram

Hydraulic jump using a specific energy curve

Side view of the typical design of a weir

Different types of weirs