SHEAR

1 Introduction
1.1 Shear vs. diagonal tension.
When a material is subjected to shear stresses, analysis using Mohr's circle shows that
the state of stress can also be described by diagonal tension and compression stresses.

Diagonal tension failure

Pure shear failure

Figure 1. Failure by diagonal tension and shear.

In the pictures in Figure 1, the circle represents the state of applied stress at the point,
and the hatched lines represent the limiting stresses at which something fails. The
vertical line on the right is tensile fracture, the pair of horizontal lines represent
yielding in shear, when slip occurs along a surface in the material.
In ductile materials like metals, the planes of the crystals slip over each other quite
easily at a shear stress that is lower than the rupture strength of the material. Thus
yielding in shear precedes rupture in tension. This can be seen on the Mohr's circle in
Figure 1. The circle describes the state of stress in the member and, as the load is
increased, it grows. When the maximum shear stress (on any plane) reaches the yield
strength in shear, y, the material yields. On the diagram, this occurs when the circle
grows large enough that it just touches the horizontal shear limit lines on the diagram.
However if the growing circle touches the vertical line before it touches the shear yield

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limit line, failure will occur by tensile fracture perpendicular to the maximum principal
tension. i.e. at 45 degrees to the applied shear stress.
Concrete has a low tension strength and a relatively high shear yield strength. Thus
when it is subjected to shear stresses, it typically fails in tension on a plane diagonal to
the applied shear stress. To find the true yield strength in shear is in fact quite difficult,
because to do so you must first prevent the "diagonal tension" failure that normally
occurs first. Therefore true shear failure in concrete is quite rare, and when we speak of
a "shear failure" we usually mean a "diagonal tension failure".

Figure 2. Principal stress trajectories in a homogeneous Isotropic beam under uniform loading

Figure 2 shows the principal stress trajectories for a homogeneous beam subject to
uniform loading. You can see that the largest tension stresses are at 45 degrees to the
horizontal near the ends due to shear, but horizontal at midspan due to bending. Thus
cracks should be expected perpendicular to those high tension stresses.

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Figure 3. Shear force, shear flow, and shear stresses in a beam

Figure 3 shows an uncracked homogenous elastic beam and the variation in flexural and
shear stresses along it. Note that the flexural stresses are distributed linearly over the
section and the shear flow, q, is parabolic. (Look back at your CEE220 notes for that).
The shear stress, which is the shear flow divided by the local width, has a jump where
the width of the beam changes.

Figure 4. Idealized forces and shear stresses for a cracked reinforced concrete section

Figure 4 shows the idealized forces and stresses in a cracked concrete beam. q, the
shear flow across any horizontal interface, is given by dT/dx, which is the rate of change
of force in the tension or compression chord. T, the longitudinal force, is M/(jd). The
shear stress, v, is given by q/b, or V/(bwjd). Moment equilibrium for a small element
requires that the horizontal and vertical shear stresses are equal.

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In some cases the member geometry may be such that a diagonal tension failure surface
cannot form. An example is a column corbel. Or the member might have an existing
discontinuity, joint or crack across which shear slip might occur, such as the interface
between a cast-in-place slab poured on precast bridge girders. Then the strength in
"true shear" across that interface must be calculated, and compared with the diagonal
tension strength. The lower of the two strengths controls.

1.2 Types of failure under the influence of shear forces.

1.2.1

Beam (one-way) shear

Figure 5. Beam shear failure by diagonal tension

In beams, shear failure almost always occurs in the form of diagonal tension failure. The
beam cracks on a diagonal plane at approximately 45 to the horizontal, as shown in
Figure 5. This is often referred to as "beam shear" or one-way shear. It applies to
solid one-way slabs too, but one-way slabs are usually so skinny that they are not shearcritical. They almost always fail either by excessive deflection, or in flexure.
1.2.2

Shear Friction

Tension in bars creates compression

across the crack, and thus friction
resistance to shear sliding.
Figure 6. Shear resistance by shear friction across a pre-existing crack.

If shear slip is possible across an interface that is already cracked, it can be resisted by
reinforcement that crosses the interface, as shown in Figure 6. The surfaces are never
perfectly smooth, so any sliding causes the two sides to separate slightly, which
elongates the steel and induces stress in it, which in turn causes a clamping force across
the interface and frictional resistance to the motion. This is called "shear friction".

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1.2.3

Punching shear

Figure 7. Punching shear failures. (a) slab (b) footing.

In two-dimension elements such as slabs and footings another form of shear failure is
possible. A column may "punch through" its footing if the footing is too thin or weak, as
illustrated in Figure 7. Usually, the hole that is left is conical (if the column is round) or
pyramid-shaped (if the column is rectangular). In a slab without beams, the behavior is
the same, but upside down, because a conical hole breaks out of the slab as it falls. The
difference between this "punching shear" failure and the "beam shear" failure is that
the punching shear failure surface is approximately conical, whereas in beam shear it is
approximately a plane. Experiments have shown that the shear strength (in terms of
stress) is different in beam shear and punching shear, even though both depend on a
diagonal tension failure mechanism. Using rational mechanics to explain why this
should be so has proved to be a daunting task.
1.2.4

Discussion.

A complete description of the behavior of reinforced concrete in shear is at best rather

complicated, and in some cases, we do not have one. For example, considerable debate
still exists about the nature of punching shear failures in slabs that have no beams
(called flat plates in the trade). As of 2012, ACI is considering changing the rules for
evaluating punching shear strength in the light of some recent test data. The three
forms of shear failure described above are idealizations of the true situation that are
useful because they offer some basis for rational analysis.
Like any tension failure in concrete, diagonal tension failure is rather brittle, and so it is
undesirable. This is particularly so in earthquake engineering, because there the loads
are difficult to establish precisely, but brittle failure could be disastrous. In an
earthquake environment, special procedures are used to ensure that ductile yielding
mechanisms always occur before brittle fracture mechanisms can form.

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2 BEAM SHEAR - BEHAVIOR

2.1 Beams without shear reinforcement
Shear cracks can start in one of two different ways.

Figure 8. Flexure-shear cracks in a beam

Flexure shear cracks start as flexural cracks that are approximately vertical. They are
shown in Figure 8. As the crack approaches the neutral axis, the flexural stresses
become smaller and the shear stresses increase, so the crack direction changes to a
diagonal inclination. These cracks normally form at the bottom face of a simply
supported beam near quarter-span, and on the top face next to the support of a
continuous beam. (In the simple beam, at locations closer to the support the flexural
stresses are too low to start a crack, and at locations closer to mid-span the shear stress
is too small to cause the flexural crack to change direction). It can be shown that
flexure-shear cracks form at an average shear stress of approximately 2f'c. This
number is very approximate, but represents a rough lower bound.
Web shear cracks start at approximately the neutral axis, where the shear and diagonal
tension stresses are highest, as seen in Figure 9. These cracks are relative uncommon,
because the flexural stress at the beam face is usually larger than the diagonal tension
stress at the neutral axis, so the flexure-shear cracks form first. Web shear cracks tend
to form in continuous beams with narrow webs, such as I-shaped bridge girders. The
thin web leads to high shear stresses which cause web-shear cracks before the flexural
cracks fully develop. It can be shown that web-shear cracks form at an average shear
stress of approximately 3.5f'c.

Figure 9. Web shear cracks

In most beams the initiation of shear cracking, in either form, does not lead to
immediate failure. The tension steel elongates inelastically and the load is redistributed among the different internal load paths within the beam as the cracks
propagate. Eventually failure occurs by a local mechanism:
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The crack may approach so close to the top surface of the beam that the
remaining compression area is too small to carry the compression force
component of the bending moment, and compressive failure ensues. Or,
The tension steel may fail by debonding after a crack forms along it.

Figure 10 Comparison between ACI 318 Eqs. 11-3 and 11-5 and 1962 data.

Since the shear force that leads to crack initiation is resisted in a stable fashion, the
concrete is treated as having the same shear strength at member failure as it had in
resisting crack initiation. That strength, Vc, lies somewhere between 2 and 3.5 times
(f'c) (bwd), depending on the exact geometry and conditions. The variation of the
normalized shear stress, (Vc/bwdfc), with the parameter (1000wVd/Mfc) is shown in
Figure 10. There w = As/(bwd).

2.2 Beams with shear reinforcement

If diagonal tension is the problem, diagonal reinforcement perpendicular to the cracks is
the obvious remedy. This is indeed the most efficient use of steel, because the tension
in it acts directly to resist the tension that existed in the concrete prior to cracking. That
was a common way of placing reinforcement in the first half of the 20 th century.
However the difficulties of placing steel at a diagonal usually result in increased labor
costs that outweigh the savings in steel. However, in countries where the ratio of labor
cost/material cost is lower than in the USA, diagonal bent up bars are still used.

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Figure 11. Bent up bars used to resist shear.

An alternative is to use stirrups. Especially in columns, they are referred to variously as

stirrups, ties, stirrup-ties, hoops, bands, etc. The generic name is transverse
reinforcement. In 2011, ACI decided to clean up the nomenclature, and now the only
three approved names are:
Hoop A closed tie or continuously wound tie. A closed tie can be made up of several
reinforcement elements each having seismic hooks at both ends. A continuously wound tie shall
have a seismic hook at both ends.
Stirrup Reinforcement used to resist shear and torsion stresses in a structural member;
typically bars, wires, or welded wire reinforcement either single leg or bent into L, U, or
rectangular shapes and located perpendicular to or at an angle to longitudinal reinforcement.
(The term stirrups is usually applied to lateral reinforcement in flexural members and the term
ties to those in compression members.) See also Tie.
Tie Loop of reinforcing bar or wire enclosing longitudinal reinforcement. A continuously wound
bar or wire in the form of a circle, rectangle, or other polygon shape without re-entrant corners is
acceptable. See also Stirrup.

Figure 12 Forces acting on a beam after flexure-shear cracking

Figure 13. Shear Forces In a beam with stirrups

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The transverse reinforcement performs several important functions and resists shear
directly or indirectly in four ways:
Shear resistance of the steel - Vs
Shear force can be carried by steel that crosses the critical crack plane. The steel may
consist of stirrups or bent-up bars.
Any steel crossing the diagonal crack must elongate if the two parts of the beam on
either side of the crack are to displace vertically with respect to each other. Thus the
resistance due to vertical stirrups is
V s = n Av f y
where n is the number of bars crossing the crack.
Shear resisted by aggregate interlock. - Vg.
The stirrups inhibit the crack from opening. In general the crack passes round the
aggregate particles so the aggregate on one side of the crack face engages with the hole
that used to surround it on the other. The result is similar in concept to friction
resistance.

Figure 14. Aggregate interlock on a crack plane.

If the crack is wide and the aggregate is small, interlock might be expected to be
ineffective. In general, its effectiveness depends on the ratio of crack size to aggregate
size. Since big members tend to have big cracks, the ratio of aggregate size to member
size is a reasonable measure of the effectiveness of aggregate interlock. However, most
members today are cast with or smaller aggregate, partly to facilitate pumping, so a
potential danger arises in large beams built with small aggregate. This is sometimes
called the size effect and is a hot topic in shear today. Prof. Michael Collins (U.
Toronto) and Prof. Zdenek Bazant (Northwestern University) are two of the most active
participants in the area.
Figure 15 (from the book on Prestressed Concrete by Prof Collins) illustrates this size
effect. The shear stress at failure is plotted against beam depth. It is clear that bigger
beams fail at lower shear stresses. The huge beam (d = 118) shown in the figure was
tested in Japan by Shiboya. It failed at a load scarcely bigger than its self-weight. Sadly,
the ratio of beam size/aggregate size is not given. That leaves open the hot debate
about whether aggregate interlock explains the effect (possible if all the beams used the
same size aggregate) or whether, as some claim, there are more complicated reasons,
based on fracture mechanics. Interestingly, the effect goes away with even a small
amount of transverse reinforcement. That fact suggests that the stirrups hold the cracks
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closed and make aggregate interlock effective. But agreement on the subject is not
even close.

Figure 15. Effect of depth on shear strength of RC beams without shear reinforcement

In very high strength concretes, say 10,000 psi and above, the shear crack may pass
through, rather than round, the aggregate. The crack plane is then smoother, and
aggregate interlock is less effective. In recognition of this fact, ACI places an upper
bound of 100 psi on the value of fc that may be used for computing shear strength.
Thus, even though the concrete may have fc = 15000 psi, you have to compute the
shear strength using fc = 10,000 psi (i.e. fc = 100 psi).
Shear resisted by the bars in dowel action - Vd.
The longitudinal reinforcing bars are large enough to act as dowels between the two
bodies of concrete on either side of the crack and resist shear force by direct shear
stress in the individual bars. This works provided that the bars cannot split out of the
concrete and bend into an S shape. The bars need to be restrained against this behavior
by placing stirrups close to each other. Thus stirrups contribute indirectly, but in an
important way, to dowel action.

Figure 16. Dowel action of longitudinal reinforcement

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Concrete shear strength - Vc.
The presence of closed stirrups confines the concrete in the uncracked compression
region and helps it to carry shear forces.
In design, the difficulties of evaluating reliably the magnitudes of Vd and Vg are such
that those quantities are not counted separately. Rather, their influence is lumped in
with the Vc term. Shear strength is formally computed using Vc and Vs alone.
There is another view of shear behavior in reinforced concrete, called "truss
modeling" or "strut-and-tie modeling". This view is gaining credence rapidly. It is in the
main part of the Canadian building code and in chapter 23 of ACI318-14.

Figure 17. Truss model for shear.

The cracked reinforced concrete member is treated as being a truss. The tension steel
represents the bottom chord of the truss, the stirrups represent the vertical tension
members, and diagonal bands of concrete represent the diagonal compression
elements. This picture provides a logical basis for design; for any given loading, the
forces in the truss members and the necessary area of steel can be computed. For the
concrete strut elements, the compressed zone spreads laterally until it includes an
area large enough to carry the forces. This may, of course be limited by the dimensions
of the member.
The forces must also be transferred from one element to another at the nodes. In a
steel or timber truss, this is usually achieved through welds, bolts, or some other
mechanical means. In a concrete truss, the forces must also be transferred at the
nodes. To achieve this transfer, the reinforcing details must be appropriate. For
example the stirrups must be bent around the longitudinal bars, rather than just using
straight vertical bars. Can you see any other areas where load transfer might be
critical?
Strut-and-tie models are particularly useful for choosing the layout of shear
reinforcing in a member or part of a member in which the flow of forces is not smooth
and uniform as it is in a beam. Connection regions in precast concrete elements are
good examples.

3 BEAM SHEAR - DESIGN

3.1 Concepts
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At incipient collapse, the load and strength are related in the same way as they
were for bending.

Vu Vn
The nominal shear strength, Vn, is made up of two parts, Vc due to the concrete and Vs
due to the steel (e.g. stirrups).

Vn Vc Vs
The shear strength attributable to the concrete is assumed to be the same as the shear
force, Vc, that initiated cracking. This implies that the cracked concrete maintains its
shear strength component while the system deforms and the steel stress rises to the
yield stress. This assumption is the result of experimental observations, and is not
readily explained by rational theory. It is more true in deep beams than in long shallow
ones, provided that the longitudinal steel is properly anchored against bond failures.

Figure 18. Loads included in shear demand: compressive reaction.

Unless special adverse circumstances exist, the code permits the member to be
designed for a maximum shear force, Vu, equal to the shear force that exists a distance
d from the face of the support. This is permitted because the critical 45 crack starts
from the bottom of the beam next to the support and reaches the top surface at a
distance d from it. Only the load beyond the crack contributes to Vu.
The chief counter-examples are heavy concentrated loads closer than d to the support
and members in which the shear forces are resisted by a tensile rather than a
compressive reaction, or members that carry significant tension as well as shear.

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Figure 19. Loads included in shear demand: tensile reaction.

Examples are walls of above-ground liquid retaining tanks. In them, each wall provides
support for the others. For example, the north-south water pressure loads the eastwest walls in shear and bending, and the north-south walls in tension. Thus the northsouth walls support the east west ones, and vice versa. Each wall is subjected to
simultaneous tension and shear.
This has two consequences. First, the combined loading will cause cracking at a load
lower than would be the case with shear alone. Second, the crack will start at the reentrant corner, rather than a point d from the face of the support. Both make the shear
problem worse. Whereas shear in a slab is seldom a problem, shear in a tank wall leads
to the need for thick walls. Alternatives are to make the tank out of prestressed
concrete (and preferably circular) or steel.

3.2 Code requirements for beams.

3.2.1

Gravity loads (ACI ch 11)

Design for Strength.

Vu Vn Vc Vs
The concrete component is given by

Vc 2.0 f 'c bwd

This is simple but slightly conservative. The Code allows an alternative, more
complicated equation (below) that generally leads to higher shear strength but it is
seldom used.

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V d
Vc 1.9 f 'c 2500 w u bw d
Mu

In the presence of axial load as well, Vc changes to

Nu
Vc 2.0 f 'c 1
2000 A
g

bw d

(ACI Eq 11-4) if Nu (lbs) is compressive (+),

N u
Vc 2.0 f 'c 1
bd
500 A w
g

(ACI Eq 11-8) if Nu (lbs) is tension (-)

These equations are shown in Fig. R11.3.2.2 in the Code.

Figure 20. ACI 318 Fig R11.2.2.2 showing shear capacity in the presence of axial load.

Figure 21. Inclined stirrups crossing a crack

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For all shear reinforcement consisting of a series of uniformly spaced bars, Av is the
cross-sectional area of all the legs or bars at that location and is the angle between
the bar and the horizontal. The contribution of the steel to the shear strength is

Vs

Av f yt d
s

cos sin

In the special but common case of vertical bars (e.g. stirrups) = 90, and this becomes

Vs

Av f yt d
s

Another way to look at this equation is to note that one stirrup has a vertical strength of
Avfyt, and that, if the crack is at 45 degrees, its horizontal projection is approximately d
(see the figure below.) If the stirrups are at spacing s, the crack will cross n stirrups,
where n = d/s. Thus the total strength of the n stirrups is

Vs nAv f yt

Av f yt d
s
0

45

Figure 22. Number of stirrups contributing to shear capacity.

If d/s is not an integer, it would seem reasonable to round it down to obtain n. For
example, if d/s = 4.7, it would seem reasonable to assume that 4 stirrups, rather than
4.7 stirrups, cross the crack. However, this rounding is not normally done in practice.
The error in failing to do so is greater if d/s is small (i.e. the stirrups are quite widely
spaced). For example, if d/s = 1.9, the difference between rounding to n =
ROUND(1.9,1) = 1, and not rounding ( n = 1.9) is substantial.
Cracks are inherently lazy. If they can save themselves the trouble of yielding a stirrup
by diverting their path to go around the end of it, they will do so. This is likely if the undiverted crack barely clips the end of the stirrup.
If bent-up bars are used, and n bars are all bent up at the same place
Vs nAv f yt d sin

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The function cos sin is maximized by setting = 45 degrees, which suggests that
45 bars are most efficient from a structural point of view. Another way of looking at
this is to notice that a 45 bar would cross the presumed 45 crack at right angles, so its
axis is aligned with the direction of the load.
The Code (22.5.10.5) only allows you to use the central 3/4 of the bent-up bars. This
allows for the possibility that the crack might propagate at an angle other than 45, and
might engage fewer bars than expected. For similar reasons, the Code imposes
maximum spacing limits in stirrups. They are given below.
Tie spacing limits (ACI 9.7.6.2.2)

s min ,24"
2

in all cases

s ,12"
4

if Vs 4bw d f ' c

Note that additional restrictions on the tie spacing may exist associated with the
longitudinal steel. For example, in a column, or in a beam with compression
reinforcement, limits are given in ACI 25.7.2
Minimum Shear reinforcement (ACI 9.6.3.3)
The minimum steel is intended to prevent brittle shear failure in the event of an
unexpected overload.

b
Av
min max 50 psi, 0.75 f 'c w
f yt
s

(fyt is in psi)

It is equivalent to adding to the concrete glue with a shear strength of 50 psi. This
minimum steel is required in almost all cases where

Vu 0.5Vc
Exceptions are made for a few special cases, such as

Hollow-core units with total untopped depth not more than 12.5 in., and hollow
core units where Vu < 0.5Vcw;
Concrete joist construction defined by 8.13;
Beams with h not greater than 10 in;
Beam integral with slabs with h not greater than 24 in. and not greater than the
larger of 2.5 times the slab thickness and 0.5 times the width of the web;
Beams constructed of steel fiber-reinforced normal weight concrete with fc not
exceeding 600 psi, h not greater than 24 in., and Vu not greater than f2fcbwd.

These exceptions are largely political, because in some cases (e.g. hollow-core slabs the
production process essentially precludes the installation of shear steel. However, they

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also reflect the fact that they apply only to members that are (a) quite small (no danger
from the size effect) and they form part of a system (e.g. joist construction) in which,
if one joist were to fail, there are others nearby to pick up the load. You can decide for
yourself about the validity of the latter argument.
Maximum Shear Reinforcement (ACI 22.5.1.2)

Vs 8bwd f 'c

for all types of shear reinforcement.

Vs 3bwd f 'c

for bars bent up all at one place.

This means that the total shear strength is limited to

Vn 10bwd f 'c

if stirrups are used and Vc is taken as Vc 2bwd f 'c .

The reason for the limit can be seen with the help of a truss model. The member fails
when the weakest element in the truss (horizontal chord steel, vertical ties or diagonal
concrete strut) fails. If the steel ties fail first, we tend to call it a shear failure, If the
bottom tension chord fails first we call it a flexural failure. However, if more and
more vertical and horizontal steel is added, more and more load can be applied.
Because the area of concrete that can be used as a diagonal strut is finite, it seems
reasonable to believe that eventually the diagonal concrete struts must become over
loaded and fail by crushing. Experiments have shown that this occurs when the shear
force is greater than about 10 bwd f'c. Thus the limit on Vs prevents you from putting
in too much shear steel and ensures that any shear failure will be reasonably ductile,
because it is caused by tension failure of the stirrups. The intention is similar to that of
the max for the longitudinal tension steel in a beam.
This is one place in which the AASHTO bridge code differs significantly from ACI.
AASHTO allows a shear stress up to 0.25 fc. The two coincide at fc = 1600 psi, but for
stronger concrete (i.e. essentially all concrete) the AASHTO limit is higher. Because the
physical behavior underlying the limit is compressive rather than tensile, the use of fc,
rather than fc, in the limit seems rational.
If Vc is taken as (2fc) bwd, as is commonly the case, tie requirements can be
summarized as:
Shear Reinforcement Summary
Vu/[( fc)bwd]

Vu/( Vc)

Tie requirements

< 1.0

< 0.5

No ties needed.

< 2.0

< 1.0

with exception: no ties needed

w/o exception: minimum ties

< 6.0

< 3.0

Ties for strength. s < d/2

< 10.0

< 5.0

Ties for strength. s < d/4

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vs / sqrt(f'c)

9
8

ACI tie requirements

(drawn for f'c = 5000 psi)

6
5
4
3

strength

min w/o exeption

min with exeption

0
0

10

(vu / / sqrt(f'c)
Figure 23. ACI tie requirements.

The same information is also shown in Figure 1Figure 23. The horizontal axis represents
the demand, vu/. It is expressed in terms of stress, vu, which is just Vu/bwd. The vertical
axis represents vs, the shear strength of the section (again in terms of stress) provided
by the stirrups. This is, of course, directly related to Av/s, which is the quantity that ACI
uses to define the minimum steel. In general
vs

A f d A f
Vs
v y v y
bw d
sbw d
s bw

For minimum steel, assuming fc > 4444 psi,

b
Av
min 0.75 f 'c w
f yt
s
so

vs ,min

Av ,min f y
b

f
0.75 f 'c w y 0.75 f 'c
s bw
f yt

bw

Thus in Figure 23 the dashed and solid horizontal lines at vs/fc = 0.75 represent the
minimum tie steel.
Example Shear in beam under gravity loading.
A viewing platform is constructed at the top of
a building. It consists of 20-ft long cantilever
beams at 15 ft centers, supporting a 6 slab.
The beams are 15 in wide, and 30 in deep
overall (including the slab). The platform is to

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be designed for self-weight, 20 psf SIDL and 100 psf LL. Select the beam reinforcement
for shear. fc = 6 ksi, fyt = 60 ksi.
Loads:
wsw = [(6/12*15ft) + (30-6)*15/144]*0.15 = 1.5 k/ft
wu = 1.2*(1.5 + 15ft*0.020) +1.6*(15ft*0.100) = 4.56 k/ft
Mu = wuL2/2 = = 4.56*202/2 = 912 k-ft
Flexure:
As = 8.57 in2. Use 4#10 over the web in one layer, plus 8#6 bars in the slab, 4 on each
side of the beam.
Assume #4 ties. Thus h-d = 1.5 + 0.5 + 10/16 = 2.625. Use h-d = 3, d = 27.
Shear:
Vu may be taken d from the support, so the loaded length for shear calculations is 20ft
27/12 = 17.75 ft.
Vu = 17.175*4.56 = 80.94 kips
bw d f ' c

15 * 27 * 6000
31.37 kip
1000

Vc 2bwd f 'c 2 * 31.37 62.74kip

Thus shear reinforcement is needed, and

Vs

Vu

Vc

80.94
62.74 45.18kip 1.44bw d f 'c
0.75

Av
Vs
45.18

0.0279 in 2 / in
s d * f yt 27 * 60

b
58 psi *15"
Av
0.0145in 2 / in
max 50 psi,0.75 f 'c w
s
f
60
,
000
psi
min
yt

The steel needed for strength controls. Check

the maximum spacing:

4#6

2#10

2#10

4#6

Vs 1.44bwd f 'c 4bwd f 'c ,

so s < d/2 = 13.5.

#4@12

Using #4 ties (with two legs each), the spacing

needed for strength is
s

Av
2 * 0.20

14.0in
Av s 0.0279

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2#6

20
This exceeds the maximum spacing of 13.5, so use #4 ties at 12.
The tie geometry needs to be selected. The most important principle is that the tie
should enclose the flexural steel in a way that allows the load to be transferred from
one to the other. That generally means a bend of 90 degrees or more round the main
bars. In addition, the system should be as readily constructible as possible.
Thus seismic ties need to be closed hoops so that both top and bottom longitudinal bars
can be fully engaged for loading in both directions.
Use of closed hoops means that the longitudinal bars cannot be dropped in as they can
when open, U-shaped stirrups are used, so the cage is best pre-fabricated on a jig then
installed as one piece. In seismic regions such as the west coast this is considered
normal practice and contractors are accustomed to it. In non-seismic regions, open Ushaped stirrups are often preferred.
However in a cantilever, the main bars are in the top, so the U-shaped stirrup should be
open at the bottom. That does nothing for constructability, so here we will use closed
hoops.
3.2.2

Special seismic provisions for beams (ACI ch 21.7)

Mpr

Mpr

R = 2Mpr/L

R = 2Mpr/L
L

Figure 24. Model for shear demand, Ve, due to earthquake loading.

If the member is subject to end moments alone, both acting counter-clockwise on the
member as is typically the case in the beams of a seismic moment frame, statics shows
that the shear force demand is (Mend1 + Mend2)/L. Thus the shear force due to end
moments cannot be greater than (Mpr1 + Mpr2)/L where Mpr1 is the highest probable
moment at end 1, and can be calculated from the flexural steel there. ACI requires that
Mpr be taken as Mn, calculated using 1.25fy instead of fy. Then the maximum shear due
to end moments plus applied uniform load cannot be greater than

Ve

M pr1 M pr 2
L

CIVE 452. notes shear

21

Vu Ve

wu L
2

Vn is chosen such that

Vu Vn Vc Vs
This procedure is called Capacity Design and ensures that the member fails by flexural
yielding rather than in shear. Flexural yielding is ductile, so is the preferred mode for
inelastic deformation. ACI also imposes certain empirical rules concerning hoops,
mostly to ensure good confinement of the concrete in regions where plastic hinges are
likely. However, since the hoops also provide shear strength, the two issues should be
considered at the same time.
ACI 18.6.5.2 requires that Vc be taken as 0.0 when the earthquake-induced shear force
calculated in accordance with 21.5.4.1 (i.e. (Mpr1 +Mpr2)/L) represents one half or more
of the maximum required strength and the factored axial force, Pu including
earthquake effects is less than Agfc/20. Since most beams have no axial load (at least
according to the most common methods of analysis), Vc = 0.0 in most beams in a severe
seismic region.
A hoop is a closed tie with corner bends of at least 135. They are required for a length
2d at the end of any continuous beam, or 2d from any plastic hinge location. The
spacing must be min (d/4, 8db. 24dh, 12"). Elsewhere, open (i.e. U-shaped) stirrups
may be used, spaced up to d/2.
Example - Shear reinforcement in seismic beam.
A beam in a seismic frame is 21 wide and 42 deep overall, 21 ft clear between
columns faces and reinforced with 6#11 bars top and 4#11 bottom. fc = 5 ksi. Design
the ties using fyt = 80 ksi. The longitudinal steel has fy = 60 ksi. The beam carries a
uniform DL = 0.5 k/ft and LL = 0.8 k/ft in addition to self-weight. Use d = h-3.
3

D
D

36

21

3
21

CIVE 452. notes shear

22
The largest component of shear will come from Ve, defined in ACI 18.6.5.1, based on
Mpr, the probable moment strength of the beam. In evaluating Mpr, we will ignore the
effects of compression steel, because it is simpler and will make little difference because
<< max + .
For negative moment strength, As = 6*1.56 = 9.36 in2.
T 1.25 * f y * As 1.25 * 60 * 9.36 702 kips

T
702

7.866in
0.85 f 'c b 0.85 * 5 * 21

a
7.866

M pr T d 702 39
24617 in kip
2
2

For the positive moment strength, with 4#11 bars, Mpr = 17,025 in-kips.

Ve

M pr1 M pr 2
L

24,617 17,025
165 .3kips
21 *12

The gravity load shear may be evaluate at a distance d from the support face (in this
case the gravity component is so much smaller than the seismic one that it makes little
difference), so
L

21 39"
Vu , grav wu d 2.982
21.6kips
2

2 12

Vu Ve
Vn ,req

Vu

wu L
165 .3 21.6 186 .9kips
2

186 .9
249 .2kips
0.75

Vc = 0 (ACI 18.6.5.2), so Vs = Vn,req.

Av
Vs
249 .2

0.07986 in 2 / in
s d * f yt 39 * 80
The minimum shear reinforcement is controlled by ACI 9.6.3.3

b
53 psi * 21"
Av
0.0139 in 2 / in
max 50 psi, 0.75 f 'c w
s
f
80
,
000
psi
min
yt

The steel needed for strength controls. Check the maximum spacing. The rules for
seismic (ACI 18.6.4) are different from the general ones in ACI 9.7.6.2:
s < d/4 = 39/4 = 9.75

controls

s < 8db of longitudinal bars = 11

CIVE 452. notes shear

23
s < 24db of hoops = 12 (if #4 hoops)
s < 12
Double hoops of #4 bar have 4 legs, so Av = 4*0.20 = 0.80in2, in which case for strength
we need:
s < 0.80/0.7986 = 10
This exceeds the maximum spacing of 9.75. Use #4 double hoops at 9.

3.3 Code requirements for columns.

Transverse reinforcement is the generic name for reinforcement that is in a plane
perpendicular to the longitudinal reinforcement. In columns, it may consist of ties or
continuous spirals. Generally, continuous spirals are used only in circular columns, and
individual ties are used in all others (rectangular, L-shaped, octagonal, etc.). Very
occasionally, square continuous spirals are used in precast square columns. In large
bridge columns (or drilled shafts), individual circular ties are used instead of continuous
spirals. This is partly because big spirals are heavy and difficult to handle, and partly
because the entire spiral could theoretically unwind and become useless if it breaks in
one place, whereas the loss of one individual tie would not lead to the loss of all the
others. Such circular ties are permitted to be butt-welded at the joint, and this is often
the method preferred by DOTs.
Ties or spirals in columns serve four main functions. They:

Hold longitudinal bars in place during casting.

Prevent longitudinal bars from buckling under P plus M.

Confine concrete against bursting under P plus M during cyclic loading.

Resist shear.

The last three are particularly crucial in seismic zones.

3.3.1

Gravity loads

Minimum tie size and spacing are given in ACI 10.6. These reflect the first two bullets
above. If shear requires the use of tie reinforcement heavier than the minimum, then
use it.
3.3.2

Special seismic provisions.

The column must always be designed to resist the maximum applied shear force. This
should be done using the same equations as for beams. However, in a column the axial
compressive load may be large enough to justify Vc 0.0. But beware corner columns in
buildings, which see considerable uplift from seismic overturning effects on the frame.
That uplift may significantly reduce the compression load due to gravity load, and lead
to net tension and Vc = 0.0.

CIVE 452. notes shear

24
Three column regions are identifiable and are treated separately:

within the beam-column joint,

the column just above and below the joint, and
the mid column height region.

Note that, if the longitudinal bars are spliced in the mid-height region (which is the best
place to do it from a structural point of view because the moments are smallest there),
then additional tie requirements apply because the splice must be confined. Special
seismic requirements exist for the ties in those regions. The most important one is that,
in the column just above and below the joint, the area of tie reinforcement must be
greater than the larger of (ACI 18.7.5.4):
Ash 0.09 sb c

f 'c
f yt

Ash 0.30 sbc

f 'c
f yt

Ag
1

A
ch

where
Ash = total cross-sectional area of transverse reinforcement (including cross-ties)
within spacing s and perpendicular to direction bc. (Note: this is the same
steel as would be called Av if it were being designed to resist shear.
However, the symbol Ash indicates hoops intended for confinement,
whereas Av indicates that it is intended for shear. The same steel can do
both jobs. You should calculate the amounts needed for each criterion and
use the larger one.)
s = center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement.
bc = cross-sectional dimension of member core measured to the outside edges
of the transverse reinforcement composing area Ash.
fyt = specified yield strength, fy, of transverse reinforcement. (Note, the code
now allows ties to be made of steel with fy > 60 ksi, so fyt may not be the
same as fy for the longitudinal reinforcement.)
Ag = gross area of concrete section.
Ach = cross-sectional area of structural member measured to the outsides of
transverse reinforcement.
The first equation controls for big columns. For square columns with 1.5 clear cover,
the break point comes at b = h = 21.5.
The first equation is an empirical value for s that has been found from experiments to
provide enough confinement to allow plastic hinging in columns under combined
compression and bending. The second equation reflects the beneficial effects of
confinement on compressive strength of concrete. It is a mathematical expression of
CIVE 452. notes shear

25
the physical requirement that, when the cover spalls off, the strength of the confined
core after spalling is at least equal to the strength of the unconfined gross cross-section
before spalling. It is an attempt to ensure a minimum level of ductility. We will look at
it more closely when we study columns.
For circular spirals the rules are similar, but are written in terms of the volumetric spiral
reinforcement ratio, s, defined as the ratio of the volume of the spiral reinforcement to
the volume of the concrete core confined by the spiral (measured out-to-out of the
spiral). Thus

AspDc

s ,vol

sDo2

Asp
sDo

where
Asp

= cross-sectional area of spiral reinforcement.

Dc =

Diameter of spiral circle, measured center-to-center of bar or wire

Do =

Diameter of spiral circle, measured out-to-out of bar or wire

The approximation in the above equation ignores the difference between the center-tocenter and out-to-out dimensions of the spiral. For practical purposes those differences
are negligible.
Be careful with the value for transverse reinforcement. Sometimes it is quoted on an
area, rather than volume, basis, e.g. the area of cross-section of the transverse
reinforcement divided by the area of the corresponding region of core concrete. That
gives

s ,area

2 Asp
sDo

which, for a circle, is twice the volumetric ratio. For square or rectangular ties, the ratio
s,area/s,vol is not necessarily a constant. Unfortunately, engineers are not always clear
about which definition they are using. Often, what is called s,vol above is called vol, so
that is clear. However, if you see simply s, it may not be clear which is meant. (The
code symbol is s is defined as the volumetric ratio, but that does not stop some people
from mistakenly interpreting it the wrong way.)
The requirements are:

s 0.12

f 'c
f yt

s 0.45

f 'c
f yt

Ag
1

A
ch

CIVE 452. notes shear

(ACI 25.7.3.3)

26

4 SHEAR FRICTION
4.1 Concept
Shear friction is the model of behavior that allows you to calculate the resistance to
sliding shear failure along a plane. It usually involves a discontinuity at the pane, such as
a cold joint between concretes cast at different times or a pre-existing crack, to start the
sliding.
The underlying concept is that failure occurs by sliding on the critical plane, and that the
displacement is resisted by friction forces. The normal force that gives rise to the friction
is provided by:

Reinforcement crossing the interface at right angles

External load, including self-weight. Note that, if the external force causes
tension normal to the interface, it detracts from the forces that cause
compression, and must be accounted from when evaluating the friction
resistance.

The friction resistance is taken as a friction coefficient multiplied by the normal force.
Different friction coefficients are applicable to different conditions.

4.2 Design requirements (ACI 22.9)

Vu Vn
Vn Avf f y sin cos

where Avf = cross-sectional are of reinforcement crossing the interface.

= coefficient of friction
= angle between bar and potential sliding plane.
In the special case of reinforcement normal to the potential failure plane, = 900 and

Vn Avf f y
The coefficient of friction is given in table 22.9.4.2. The maximum shear friction
resistance, Vn, is specified in ACI Table 22.9.4.4.
Example shear friction resistance.
An older building is being retrofitted to improve its seismic resistance. As part of the
retrofit, a 9 thick wall is being extended. The new and old parts of the wall are to be
connected by dowel bars embedded in the old part by drilling and epoxying them in
place. The existing concrete is not roughened. The new concrete has fc = 5000 psi. The
drilled in bars are #5 at 12 c/c.
CIVE 452. notes shear

27
What average shear stress can be carried across the joint?
The bars provide shear friction strength of

vn

Vn Avf f y 0.6 * 0.31 * 60

0.1033 ksi
bs
bs
9 *12

Note that it is very important to ensure that the bars are properly anchored in the holes.
Example shear friction resistance between wall and slab
An 8 slab is connected to a wall using bars that extend from the wall into the slab at 45
degrees in each direction with the intention of transferring in-plane shear forces from
the slab into the wall. The bars are #6 at 9 c/c in each direction. What is the horizontal
shear strength in kips/ft of slab? The wall is roughened to amplitude. fc = 4000 psi
for the slab, 5000 psi for the wall. (Note: this detail was used in several parking garages
that suffered damage during the 1994 Northridge earthquake).

Figure 25. Shear connection between slab and wall.

This is an interesting application. The bars were used presumably to provide shear
friction resistance in each direction. However:
For an applied load in the direction shown, half of the bars will be in tension and the
others will be in compression. The shear resistance from one pair of bars will then be

Vn Ab f y sin cos Ab f y sin 45 sin 45 cos 45 cos 45

Vn 2 Ab f y cos 45 2 * 0.44 * 60 * 0.707 37.3kips

The force normal to the wall is zero, because the components in that direction from the
two bars cancel out. Therefore the shear friction component is zero, and all the shear
resistance comes from the components of the bar forces parallel to the wall. This result
is not intuitively obvious at first sight.

CIVE 452. notes shear

28

5 PUNCHING SHEAR
Punching shear strength must be evaluated when load is transferred between a column
and a slab or footing. It is addressed in ACI 22.6.5. The strength requirement is, as
usual,

Vu Vn Vc Vs
Here we will consider only the concrete component because several types of shear
reinforcement exist, and the rules for designing such reinforcement are quite
complicated. That reinforcement is normally addressed in the design of two-way slabs,
which are not included in this course.
Vc is given by the smallest of

Vc 4 f 'c b0 d

4
Vc 2 f 'c b0 d

d
Vc 2 s f 'c b0 d
b0

These equations all have a common form; it is just the dimensionless coefficient ( the
part in parentheses) that is different in each case. The first equation (with coefficient =
4) controls under most circumstances. In the equations:
b0 = perimeter of critical section

= ratio of long/short dimensions of column, concentrated load or reaction area.

(Do not confuse it with 1 in the Whitney equivalent stress block)
s = dimensionless constant used to compute Vc in slabs and footings,
= 40, 30, 20 for interior, edge, corner columns, respectively.
The first equation usually controls directly adjacent to a column. The second equation
usually controls when the column is very rectangular (i.e. more like a wall). The third
equation usually controls if the column is very large compared with the slab thickness,
or in the slab just outside a drop panel.
The load to be included is the load that lies outside the potential shear failure cone (see
ACI 8.4.3.2), unless the slab is supported by a tension reaction. This is rare, and would
occur, for example, if the column was hung from above and in tension. In a slab, the
area inside the failure cone is small compared with the area outside it, so the error
made by using the entire area is small and conservative. In a footing, that is usually not
the case.

CIVE 452. notes shear

29
Example punching shear and drop panels in a slab
Notional shear
failures surfaces

True failure
surface for
drop panel

True failure
surface for slab
6
Drop panel

bdrop
d

bcol = 16

Figure 26. Punching shear in a slab with a drop panel

A flat plate floor is made from a 6 slab with 16 x 16 columns on a 22ft x 22 ft. grid.
Loads are self-weight, 20 psf partition loading and 120 psf LL. fc = 4.5 ksi. Check the
punching shear capacity at the column, and design a drop panel if it is inadequate.
Allow h d = 1.25. The column is an interior one.
Solution
For simplicity, use the total area to compute the loads. (We could exclude the load
falling within the failure surface for the drop panel, on the basis that it does not
contribute to the shear force on that failure surface. This is similar to the one-way shear
condition that allows you to consider shear no larger than that existing at d from the
face of the support.)
Loads

wsw

6"
150 75 psf
12"

wu 1.275 20 1.6120 314 psf

Vu wu * 22 0.314 * 484 152.0kips

2

Shear strength

vc 4 f 'c 0.75 * 4 * 4500 201.2 psi 0.2012 ksi

vc b0 d Vc Vu , so
but
so

b0 4bcol d
a
d 2 d bcol 0
4

CIVE 452. notes shear

b0 d

Vu
152 .0

755 .5in 2
vc 0.2012

30
where a

Vu
vc

Note that the physical significance of a is that it is equal to the area of the notional
failure surface in shear, i.e. the vertical one. The solution is

16
b
a
755 .5
d 1 2 1 1
1 7.90in.
2
b
16 2
2

h d 1.25 9.15" Round up to 10 total depth.

Comments: We included the load from the total area (and did not exclude the small
area inside the 45 degree failure cone) which is conservative, but we also ignored the
additional weight due to the drop panel, which is unconservative. Both errors are small,
and they counteract each other, so we will accept the solution as is.
Lateral dimensions of drop panel
To find the lateral dimensions of the drop panel, we need to consider shear failure in the
slab immediately outside the drop panel. The procedure is the same as for punching at
the column except:
bdrop is used instead of bcol
the punching shear strength, vc, is not known at the outset because it is probably

d
controlled by the coefficient 2 s from ACI Table 22.6.5.2 (c).
b0

Unfortunately b0 is not yet known because b0 = 4(bdrop +dslab), and bdrop is what
we are trying to find. Note that s = 40 for an interior column.
For the slab, h = 6, so d = 6-1.25 = 4.75. The strength equation is

Vc Vu

d
f 'c 2 s b0 d Vu
b0

but

if Equation (c) from Table 22.6.5.2 controls

b0 4bdrop d

so, after re-arranging the equation,

bdrop

40
Vu
152 *1000
d 1 s
4.751 51.0"
8 8 * 0.75 * 4.75" 4500
8
8d f 'c

Try a drop panel 51 x 51 in plan. Now check that Equation (c) really does control the
punching shear stress.
b0 4bdrop d 451 4.75 223

CIVE 452. notes shear

31

d
40 * 4.75
2 s 2
2.85 4.0
b0
223

OK

Use a drop panel 51x 51 in plan, with a total depth of 10 (i.e. projecting 4 below the
slab).
Note: In buildings, drop panels are not popular with architects, because they get in the
way of services, such as HVAC and plumbing. They also require special formwork, which
can prove quite expensive. Thus the more common solution is to use shear
reinforcement and no drop panel. You can see an example of drop panels in UW
parking lot N12. There, no HVAC services exist. The garage was also built before the
efficient modern form of shear reinforcement called stud rails was developed, so drop
panels provided a good solution.
Example Spread footing design
A 24x24 column carries 450 k dead load and 250 k LL. Design a square spread footing
for it if fc = 3500 psi, fy = 60 ksi, the densities of the soil and concrete are 110 and 150
pcf, and the soils has an allowable bearing pressure of 7.5 ksf. The bottom of the
footing will be 4ft below grade.
The solution is slightly complicated by two matters:
1. Geotechnical engineers like to work with service loads and capacities, while
structural engineers use LRFD, with factored loads and capacities. (Somebody
needs to tell the geotechs to get with the program.) Thus, we determine the
lateral dimensions of the footing using service loads, then we switch to factored
loads to determine the footing depth, based on punching shear in the concrete.
2. The distributed load in this case from the soil, and it is pushing upwards. But a
significant portion of the loaded area falls inside the conical failure surface, so
excluding it leads to a design that is significantly less conservative.
Critical
perimeter

2ft

1.5ft

Soil

Concrete

2.5ft
10ft
Soil pressure
causing shear
Figure 27. Punching shear forces in a spread footing

CIVE 452. notes shear

32
Footing lateral dimensions
The allowable soil pressure is quoted at an elevation 4 ft below grade. The loads that
must be carried are therefore the column load, the weight of the concrete and the
weight of the soil overburden. If we consider the net allowable pressure as the gross
(7.5 ksf) minus the weight of soil plus earth, we can estimate the lateral dimensions. To
do that we need to know how deep the soil and concrete footing are, but we do not yet
know the footing depth. Fortunately, the densities of the soil and concrete are quite
similar so we can guess the footing depth and the resulting lateral dimensions will not
be sensitive to the accuracy of the guess. The best alternative is to write a spreadsheet
so that trial and error is painless.
Guess tfoot = 2.5 ft
then

tsoil = 4ft - tfoot = 4 -2.5 = 1.5 ft

Service load (no load factors) pressure at 4ft below grade due to footing and soil weight
qs+c = 0.15*2.5 + 0.11*1.5 = 0.54 ksf
qnet = qall - qs+c = 7.5 - 0.54 = 6.96 ksf
Pcol,serv = 450 + 225 = 675 kips
Afoot > Pcol,serv/ qnet = 675/6.96 = 97.0 ft2
Try a 10ft x 10ft footing.
Footing depth
The depth is controlled by punching shear, and is therefore computed using LRFD, so we
now need to convert to factored loads. We can deal with just the load from the column,
because the weight of the soil and concrete do not affect the punching shear demand.
Pu = 1.2*450 +1.6*225 = 900 kips
qu = factored upwards soil pressure = Pu/Afoot = 900/100 = 9 ksf.
The area inside the failure cone, Aint, is a square of side (bcol + 2 dfoot), see Figure 27. In
this case bcol = 2.0 ft.
The critical perimeter for punching shear failure is a square of side (bcol + dfoot)
The design shear strength (in terms of stress) of the concrete, vc, is

vc 4 f 'c 0.75 * 4 * 3500 177 psi 25.56ksf

vc b0 d Vc Vu qu * Afoot Aint

vc 4bcol d d Vc Vu qu * Afoot bcol 2d 2

Re-arranging terms leads to the quadratic equation

CIVE 452. notes shear

33
d 2 d bcol

where A fs

A fs
4

2
A foot bcol

vc
1
qu

100 2
25 ft 2
25
.
56

Again, Afs represents (loosely) the area of the shear failure surface. The solution is

bcol
2

A fs 2
25
1 2 1 1 2 1 1.693 ft 20.3in.
bcol 2
2

Allowing h-dave = 4.5 leads to hfoot = 20.3 + 4.5 = 24.8

Note that the cover for the footing (cast against wet earth) is 3 and, because we will
have some steel running each way, we will use an average d for the two directions,
which is therefore cover +db. Using h-dave = 4.5 allows for #11 bars and so should be
enough.
Using a spreadsheet and Goal Seek saves solving the quadratic, although the solution is
not difficult in this case.
Use hfoot = 25,

dfoot = 20.5.

The punching shear capacity is sufficient, so we can now design the flexural steel.
Note that we could have used shear reinforcement (stirrups) in the footing and a higher
punching shear stress capacity, which would have led to a thinner footing. However it is
almost always more economical not to do that, but rather to dig a deeper hole and
make the footing thicker. This is particularly true because, in soil with some cohesion,
there may be no need for formwork, in which case the main cost of a deeper footing is a
few minutes of extra work for a back-hoe and more concrete.
Flexural reinforcement

Critical section
for flexure

The critical section is at the column face,

so L = (10ft 2ft)/2 = 4ft
mu qu L2 / 2 9 * 42 / 2 72 ft k / ft width

With d = 20.5 and fc = 3500 psi, the flexural steel required is

As = 0.807 in2/ft width.

controls

As ,min 0.0018bh 0.0018 *12 * 25 0.54in 2 / ft width

#8 bars at 10 c/c provide 0.940 in2/ft width.

CIVE 452. notes shear

34
Note that the flexural steel is only slightly more than the minimum. If As,req < As,min, ACI
9.6.1.3 allows you to use less than As,min, provided that you provide more than 1.33As,req.
This sometime happens in a footing, because the footing depth is quite large in order
resist punching shear.
The bar size that can be used is limited by bond considerations, which we have not yet
discussed. The length between the critical section (at the column face) and the edge of
the footing represents the length available for bonding (or developing) the bar. The
bar must be small enough to achieve full development over that length. If that is not the
case, you need to use smaller bars or a hook or some other type of anchorage on the
end. A typical development length lies between about 30 and 40 bar diameters
(depends on many parameters, including concrete strength). Thus the bar size here
needs to be less than about 48/40 = 1.2. We have chosen #8 bars (1 dia) so are
probably OK.

CIVE 452. notes shear