Georgia (country)

This article is about the country. For the U.S. state, lasted until the peaceful Rose Revolution, when Georgia
see Georgia (U.S. state). For other uses, see Georgia pursued a strongly pro-Western foreign policy, introduc(disambiguation).
ing a series of democratic and economic reforms aimed
at NATO and European integration. The countrys Western orientation soon led to the worsening of relations with
Coordinates: 4200N 4330E / 42.000N 43.500E
Russia, culminating in the brief Russo-Georgian War.
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Georgia ( i /drd/; Georgian: , tr. 1 Etymology
Sakartvelo, IPA: [skrtvl]) is a country in the
Caucasus region of Eurasia. Located at the crossroads
of Western Asia and Eastern Europe, it is bounded to Main article: Name of Georgia (country)
Georgia probably stems from the Persian desigthe west by the Black Sea, to the north by Russia, to the
south by Turkey and Armenia, and to the southeast by
Azerbaijan. The capital and largest city is Tbilisi. Georgia covers a territory of 69,700 square kilometres (26,911
sq mi), and its 2015 population is about 3.75 million.
Georgia is a unitary, semi-presidential republic, with the
government elected through a representative democracy.
During the classical era, several independent kingdoms
became established in what is now Georgia. The kingdoms of Colchis and Iberia adopted Christianity in the
early 4th century. A unied Kingdom of Georgia reached
the peak of its political and economic strength during
the reign of King David IV and Queen Tamar in the
11th12th centuries. Thereafter the area was dominated by various large empires for centuries, including the
Mongols, the Ottoman Empire, and successive dynasties
of Iran. In the late 18th century, the kingdom of KartliKakheti forged an alliance with the Russian Empire, and
the area was annexed by Russia in 1801. The latters rule
over Georgia was conrmed in 1813 through the Treaty
of Gulistan with Qajar Iran. Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, Georgia obtained independence, though
only briey, and established its rst-ever republic under
German and British protection, only to be invaded by
Soviet Russia in 1921 and subsequently absorbed into the
Soviet Union as the Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic.

Gorgania i.e. Georgia on Fra Mauro map.

nation of the Georgians gurn, in the 11th and

12th centuries adapted via Syriac gurz-n/gurz-iyn and
Arabic uran/urzan. Lore-based theories were given
by the traveller Jacques de Vitry, who explained the
names origin by the popularity of St. George amongst
Georgians,[10] while traveller Jean Chardin thought that
Georgia came from Greek (tiller of the
land). As Prof. Alexander Mikaberidze adds, these
century-old explanations for the word Georgia/Georgians
are rejected by the scholarly community, who point to
the Persian word gur/gurn (wolf[11] ) as the root of
the word.[12] Starting with the Persian word gur/gurn,
the word was later adopted in numerous other languages,
including Slavic and West European languages.[12][13]
This term itself might have been established through
Since the establishment of the modern Georgian repubthe ancient Iranian appellation of the near-Caspian relic in April 1991, post-communist Georgia suered from
gion, which was referred to as Gorgan (land of the
civil and economic crisis for most of the 1990s. This
wolves[14] ).[12]
1

HISTORY

The native name is Sakartvelo (; land of

Kartvelians), derived from the core central Georgian region of Kartli, recorded from the 9th century, and in extended usage referring to the entire medieval Kingdom
of Georgia by the 13th century. The self-designation
used by ethnic Georgians is Kartvelebi (, i.e.
"Kartvelians").
The medieval Georgian Chronicles present an eponymous
ancestor of the Kartvelians, Kartlos, a great-grandson of
Japheth. However, scholars agree that the word is derived from the Karts, the latter being one of the protoGeorgian tribes that emerged as a dominant group in
ancient times.[12] The name Sakartvelo ()
consists of two parts. Its root, kartvel-i (-),
species an inhabitant of the core central-eastern Georgian region of Kartli, or Iberia as it is known in sources of
the Eastern Roman Empire.[15] Ancient Greeks (Strabo,
Herodotus, Plutarch, Homer, etc.) and Romans (Titus
Livius, Tacitus, etc.) referred to early western Georgians
as Colchians and eastern Georgians as Iberians (Iberoi in
some Greek sources).[16]

History

Main article: History of Georgia (country)

2.1

Prehistory

Main article: Prehistoric Georgia

The territory of modern-day Georgia was inhabited by
Homo erectus since the Paleolithic Era. The protoGeorgian tribes rst appear in written history in the 12th
century BC.[17]

Ancient Georgian states of Colchis and Iberia, 500400 BC

In Greek mythology, Colchis was the location of the

Golden Fleece sought by Jason and the Argonauts in
Apollonius Rhodius' epic tale Argonautica. The incorporation of the Golden Fleece into the myth may have
derived from the local practice of using eeces to sift
gold dust from rivers.[22] Known to its natives as Egrisi
or Lazica, Colchis was also the battleeld of the Lazic
War fought between the Byzantine Empire and Sassanid
Persia.
After the Roman Republic completed its brief conquest
of what is now Georgia in 66 BC, the area became a primary objective of what would eventually turn out to be
over 700 years of protracted Irano-Roman geo-political
rivalry and warfare.[23][24]
From the rst centuries A.D, the cult of Mithras, pagan
beliefs, and Zoroastrianism were commonly practised in
Georgia.[25] In 337 AD King Mirian III declared Christianity as the state religion, giving a great stimulus to
the development of literature, arts, and ultimately playing a key role in the formation of the unied Georgian
nation,[26][27] The acceptance led to the slow but sure decline of Zoroastrianism,[28] which until the 5th century
AD, appeared to have become something like a second
established religion in Iberia (eastern Georgia), and was
widely practised there.[29] In the ensuing period, until the
course of the 7th century, what is now Georgia remained
dominated by the Romans and Sasanians.

The earliest evidence of wine to date has been found

in Georgia, where 8000-year old wine jars were
uncovered.[18][19] Archaeological nds and references in
ancient sources also reveal elements of early political and
state formations characterized by advanced metallurgy
and goldsmith techniques that date back to the 7th century BC and beyond.[17] In fact, early metallurgy started
in Georgia during the 6th millennium BC, associated with
2.3
the Shulaveri-Shomu culture.[20]

2.2

Antiquity

The classical period saw the rise of a number of early

Georgian states, the principal of which was Colchis in the
west and Iberia in the east. In the 4th century BC, a unied kingdom of Georgia an early example of advanced
state organization under one king and an aristocratic hierarchy was established.[21]

Middle Ages up to Early Modern Period

Located on the crossroads of protracted Roman-Persian

Wars, the early Georgian kingdoms disintegrated into
various feudal regions by the early Middle Ages. This
made it easy for the remaining Georgian realms to fall
prey to the early Muslim conquests in the 7th century.
Despite the capture of Tbilisi in 645 AD by Muslims,
Kartli-Iberia retained considerable independence under
local rulers.

2.3

Middle Ages up to Early Modern Period

3
David suppressed dissent of feudal lords and centralized
the power in his hands to eectively deal with foreign
threats. In 1121, he decisively defeated much larger
Turkish armies during the Battle of Didgori and liberated Tbilisi.[35] At the height of its dominance, the Kingdoms inuence spanned from the south of modern-day
Ukraine, to the northern provinces of Persia, while also
maintaining religious possessions in the Holy Land and
Greece.
The 29-year reign of Tamar, the rst female ruler of
Georgia, is considered the most successful in Georgian
history.[36] Tamar was given the title king of kings
(mepe mepeta).[30] She succeeded in neutralizing opposition and embarked on an energetic foreign policy aided by
the downfall of the rival powers of the Seljuks and Byzantium. Supported by a powerful military lite, Tamar was
able to build on the successes of her predecessors to consolidate an empire which dominated the Caucasus, and
extended over large parts of present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia, and eastern Turkey as well as parts of northern
Iran,[37] until its collapse under the Mongol attacks within
two decades after Tamars death in 1213.[38]

Queen Tamar of Georgia presided over the Golden Age of the

medieval Georgian monarchy. Her position as the rst woman to
rule Georgia in her own right was emphasized by the title Mepe
mepeta (King of Kings).[30]

The Kingdom of Georgia reached its zenith in the 12th

to early 13th centuries. This period during the reigns
of David IV (called David the Builder, r. 10891125)
and his granddaughter Tamar (r. 11841213) has been
widely termed as Georgias Golden Age or the Georgian
Renaissance.[31] This early Georgian renaissance, which
preceded its Western European analogue, was characterized by impressive military victories, territorial expansion, and a cultural renaissance in architecture, literature,
philosophy and the sciences.[32] The Golden age of Georgia left a legacy of great cathedrals, romantic poetry and
literature, and the epic poem "The Knight in the Panthers
Skin", the latter which is considered a national epic.[33][34]

Kingdom of Georgia in 11841230 at the peak of its might

The revival of the Kingdom of Georgia was set back after

Tbilisi was captured and destroyed by the Khwarezmian
leader Jalal ad-Din in 1226.[39] The Mongols were expelled by George V of Georgia, son of Demetrius II of
Georgia, who was named Brilliant for his role in restoring the countrys previous strength and Christian culture.
George V was the last great king of the unied Georgian
state. After his death, dierent local rulers fought for
their independence from central Georgian rule, until the
total disintegration of the Kingdom in the 15th century.
Georgia was further weakened by several disastrous invasions by Tamerlane. Invasions continued, giving the
kingdom no time for restoration, with both Black and
White sheep Turkomans constantly raiding its southern
provinces. As a result, the Kingdom of Georgia collapsed
into anarchy by 1466 and fragmented into three independent kingdoms and ve semi-independent principalities.
Neighboring large empires subsequently exploited the internal division of the weakened country, and beginning in
the 16th century up to the late 18th century, Safavid Iran
(and successive Iranian Afsharid and Qajar dynasties) and
Ottoman Turkey subjugated the eastern and western regions of Georgia, respectively.
The rulers of regions that remained partly autonomous
organized rebellions on various occasions. However, subsequent Iranian and Ottoman invasions further weakened
local kingdoms and regions. As a result of incessant
wars and deportations, the population of Georgia dwindled to 250,000 inhabitants at the end of the 18th century. Eastern Georgia (the larger part of Georgia), composed of the regions of Kartli and Kakheti, had been
under Iranian suzerainty since 1555 following the Peace
of Amasya signed with neighbouring rivalling Ottoman
Turkey. With the death of Nader Shah in 1747, both
kingdoms broke free of Iranian control and were reuni-

HISTORY

ed through a personal union under the energetic king

Heraclius (Erekle) II in 1762. Erekle, who had risen to
prominence through the Iranian ranks, was awarded the
crown of Kartli by Nader himself in 1744 for his loyal
service to him.[40] Erekle nevertheless stabilized Eastern
Georgia to a degree in the ensuing period and was able
to guarantee its autonomy throughout the Iranian Zand
period.[41]
In 1783, Russia and the eastern Georgian Kingdom of
Kartli-Kakheti signed the Treaty of Georgievsk, by which
Georgia abjured any dependence on Persia or another
power, and made the kingdom a protectorate of Russia, which guaranteed Georgias territorial integrity and
the continuation of its reigning Bagrationi dynasty in return for prerogatives in the conduct of Georgian foreign
aairs.[42]
However, despite this commitment to defend Georgia,
Russia rendered no assistance when the Iranians invaded
in 1795, capturing and sacking Tbilisi while massacring
its inhabitants, as the new heir to the throne sought to
reassert Iranian hegemony over Georgia.[43] Despite a
punitive campaign subsequently launched against Qajar
Iran in 1796, this period culminated in the 1801 Russian violation of the Treaty of Georgievsk and annexation of eastern Georgia, followed by the abolition of the
royal Bagrationi dynasty, as well as the autocephaly of the
Georgian Orthodox Church. Pyotr Bagration, one of the
descendants of the abolished house of Bagrationi, would
later join the Russian army and rise to be a prominent
general in the Napoleonic wars.

2.4

Georgia in the Russian Empire

Main article: Georgia within the Russian Empire

On 22 December 1800, Tsar Paul I of Russia, at the alleged request of the Georgian King George XII, signed
the proclamation on the incorporation of Georgia (KartliKakheti) within the Russian Empire, which was nalized by a decree on 8 January 1801,[45][46] and conrmed
by Tsar Alexander I on 12 September 1801.[47][48] The
Georgian envoy in Saint Petersburg reacted with a note of
protest that was presented to the Russian vice-chancellor
Prince Kurakin.[49] In May 1801, under the oversight
of General Carl Heinrich von Knorring, Imperial Russia
transferred power in eastern Georgia to the government
headed by General Ivan Petrovich Lazarev.[50] The Georgian nobility did not accept the decree until, on 12 April
1802, when Knorring assembled the nobility at the Sioni
Cathedral and forced them to take an oath on the Imperial
Crown of Russia. Those who disagreed were temporarily
arrested.[51]

King George XII was the last king of Kartli and Kakheti, which
was annexed by Russia in 1801. The Bagrationi royal family
was deported from the kingdom. The current pretenders' restoration to the throne is discussed in Georgian society in the present
day.[44]

ocially nalized with Iran in 1813 following the Treaty

of Gulistan.[52] Following the annexation of eastern Georgia, the western Georgian kingdom of Imereti was annexed by Tsar Alexander I. The last Imeretian king and
the last Georgian Bagrationi ruler, Solomon II, died in exile in 1815, after attempts to rally people against Russia
and to enlist foreign support against the latter, had been in
vain.[53] From 1803 to 1878, as a result of numerous Russian wars now against Ottoman Turkey, several of Georgias previously lost territories such as Adjara were
recovered, and also incorporated into the empire. The
principality of Guria was abolished and incorporated into
the Empire in 1829, while Svaneti was gradually annexed
in 1858. Mingrelia, although a Russian protectorate since
1803, was not absorbed until 1867.[54]

2.5 Declaration of independence

Main article: Democratic Republic of Georgia

After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Georgia declared independence on 26 May 1918, in the midst of
the Russian Civil War. The Menshevik Georgian SocialIn the summer of 1805, Russian troops on the Askerani Democratic Party won the parliamentary election. Its
River near Zagam defeated the Iranian army during the leader, Noe Zhordania, became prime minister.
Russo-Persian War (1804-1813) and saved Tbilisi from The 1918 GeorgianArmenian War, which erupted over
reconquest now that it was ocially part of the Imperial parts of Georgian provinces populated mostly by Armeterritories. Russian suzerainty over eastern Georgia was nians, ended because of British intervention. In 1918

2.7

Georgia after restoration of independence

5
gian Bolshevik Filipp Makharadze.

Declaration of independence by the Georgian parliament, 1918

Nevertheless, there remained signicant opposition to the

Bolsheviks, and this culminated in the August Uprising
of 1924. Soviet rule was rmly established only after
this uprising was suppressed.[57] Georgia was incorporated into the Transcaucasian SFSR, which united Georgia, Armenia and Azerbaijan. Later, in 1936, the TSFSR
was disaggregated into its component elements and Georgia became the Georgian SSR.

1919, Georgian general Giorgi Mazniashvili led an attack

against the White Army led by Moiseev and Denikin in
order to claim the Black Sea coastline from Tuapse to
Sochi and Adler for independent Georgia.[55] The countrys independence did not last long. Georgia was under
British protection from 19181920.

2.6

Georgia in the Soviet Union

Main article: Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic

In February 1921, Georgia was attacked by the Red
The 11th Red Army of the Russian SFSR holds a military parade,
25 February 1921 in Tbilisi

Joseph Stalin, an ethnic Georgian born Ioseb Besarionis

Dze Jugashvili ( ) in
Gori, was prominent among the Bolsheviks. Stalin was
to rise to the highest position, leading the Soviet Union
from 3 April 1922 until his death on 5 March 1953.

2.7 Georgia after restoration of independence

On 9 April 1991, shortly before the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Supreme Council of Georgia declared
independence after a referendum held on on 31 March
1991.[58] On 26 May 1991, Gamsakhurdia was elected as
the rst President of independent Georgia. Gamsakhurdia stoked Georgian nationalism and vowed to assert Tbilisis authority over regions such as Abkhazia and South
Ossetia that had been classied as autonomous oblasts under the Soviet Union.
He was soon deposed in a bloody coup d'tat, from 22 December 1991 to 6 January 1992. The coup was instigated
by part of the National Guards and a paramilitary organization called "Mkhedrioni" (horsemen). The country
became embroiled in a bitter civil war, which lasted until
Despite the Soviet takeover, Noe Jordania was recognized as the
nearly 1995. Eduard Shevardnadze (Soviet Minister of
legitimate head of the Georgian Government by France, UK, BelForeign Aairs from 1985 to 1991) returned to Georgia
[56]
gium, and Poland through the 1930s.
in 1992 and joined the leaders of the coup Tengiz KiArmy. The Georgian army was defeated and the Social- tovani and Jaba Ioseliani to head a triumvirate called
Democratic government ed the country. On 25 Febru- The State Council.
ary 1921, the Red Army entered Tbilisi and installed a Simmering disputes within two regions of Georgia, Abkcommunist government loyal to Moscow, led by Geor- hazia and South Ossetia, between local separatists and the

6
majority Georgian populations, erupted into widespread
inter-ethnic violence and wars. Supported by Russia,
Abkhazia, and South Ossetia achieved de facto independence from Georgia, with Georgia retaining control only
in small areas of the disputed territories. In 1995, Shevardnadze was ocially elected as president of Georgia.

HISTORY

was required to vacate after the adoption of the Adapted

Conventional Armed Forces in Europe Treaty during the
1999 Istanbul summit.[65]

2.8 Russo-Georgian War and since

Main article: RussiaGeorgia war
See also: International recognition of Abkhazia and
South Ossetia
Political tensions between Georgia and Russia began
escalating in April 2008.[66][67] On 1 August 2008
South Ossetian separatists blew up a Georgian military vehicle injuring ve Georgian peacekeepers, which
Georgian snipers responded to by killing six South
Ossetian militiamen. Low-level skirmishes followed,
with South Ossetian forces shelling some villages under Georgian control, eliciting responses from Georgian
peacekeepers.[68][69][70][71][72]

The Rose Revolution, 2003

Roughly 230,000 to 250,000 Georgians[59] were

massacred or expelled from Abkhazia by Abkhaz
separatists and North Caucasian volunteers (including
Chechens) in 19921993. Around 23,000 Georgians[60]
ed South Ossetia as well, and many Ossetian families
were forced to abandon their homes in the Borjomi
region and moved to Russia.
In 2003, Shevardnadze (who won re-election in 2000)
was deposed by the Rose Revolution, after Georgian
opposition and international monitors asserted that the
2 November parliamentary elections were marred by
fraud.[61] The revolution was led by Mikheil Saakashvili,
Zurab Zhvania and Nino Burjanadze, former members
and leaders of Shevardnadzes ruling party. Mikheil
Saakashvili was elected as President of Georgia in 2004.
Following the Rose Revolution, a series of reforms
were launched to strengthen the countrys military and
economic capabilities. The new governments eorts
to reassert Georgian authority in the southwestern autonomous republic of Ajaria led to a major crisis early in
2004. Success in Ajaria encouraged Saakashvili to intensify his eorts, but without success, in breakaway South
Ossetia.
These events, along with accusations of Georgian involvement in the Second Chechen War,[62] resulted in a severe deterioration of relations with Russia, fuelled also
by Russias open assistance and support to the two secessionist areas. Despite these increasingly dicult relations, in May 2005 Georgia and Russia reached a bilateral
agreement[63] by which Russian military bases (dating
back to the Soviet era) in Batumi and Akhalkalaki were
withdrawn. Russia withdrew all personnel and equipment
from these sites by December 2007[64] while failing to
withdraw from the Gudauta base in Abkhazia, which it

US Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice holding a joint press conference with Georgian president Mikheil Saakashvili during the
Russo-Georgian war

On 7 August 2008, Georgian forces began shelling the

South Ossetian capital, Tskhinvali; this was followed, on
8 August 2008, by an advance of Georgian Army infantry, tanks, and police commandos into South Ossetia;
the action was supported by artillery and air support,[73]
leading to the capture of a number of key South Ossetian towns and retreat of Russian peacekeepers and South
Ossetian forces.[74][75] However, after a Russian peacekeepers base was shelled and personnel killed, units of
the Russian 58th Army, supported by irregular forces, entered South Ossetia through the Roki Tunnel, thus leading
to a three-day battle which left the city of Tskhinvali in
ruins.[76][77][78] Georgian forces were subsequently forced
to retreat and the Russian Air Force began launching
airstrikes against Georgian forces in South Ossetia, and
multiple targets inside Georgia proper.[79] The Georgian
Air Force resisted and later continued to carry out air
strikes against Russian troops. A second front was opened
when the separatist Republic of Abkhazia, with Russian
support, launched an oensive against Georgian troops
in the Kodori Valley. Georgian troops oered minimal

7
resistance and soon withdrew.[80][81] Russian paratroop- nomic embargo of the two break-away regions have proers launched raids against military bases in Senaki, Geor- duced mixed results.[97]
gia, from Abkhazia, whilst the Russian Navy stationed a
task force o the coast of Abkhazia, and sank a Georgian
Coast Guard cutter.
3 Government and politics
Main article: Politics of Georgia (country)
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Russian Military Bases in Abkhazia as of 2016

Georgia is a representative democratic semi-presidential

republic, with the President as the head of state, and
Prime Minister as the head of government. The executive branch of power is made up of the President and the
Cabinet of Georgia. The Cabinet is composed of ministers, headed by the Prime Minister, and appointed by the
President. Notably, the ministers of defense and interior
are not members of the Cabinet and are subordinated directly to the President of Georgia. Giorgi Margvelashvili
is the current President of Georgia after winning 62.12%
of the vote in the 2013 election. Since 2015, Giorgi
Kvirikashvili has been the prime minister of Georgia.

Russian forces, upon crossing into Georgia proper, soon

entered Gori where Georgian forces had earlier regrouped before retreating to Tbilisi. Irregulars such
as Ossetians, Chechens and Cossacks followed; looting,
killing, and arson was reported.[82][83] Russian troops
removed military equipment abandoned by retreating
Georgian troops in Gori and the port of Poti, where several naval and coast guard vessels moored in the harbour
were scuttled.[84]
On August 12, 2008, President Medvedev announced a
halt to further Russian military operations in Georgia[85]
and ordered a gradual withdrawal from Gori, Poti and
Georgian parliament building in Kutaisi
other established checkpoints. Despite this Russian
forces remained in South Ossetia and Abkhazia,[86][87] Legislative authority is vested in the Parliament of Georthe independence of which it soon recognized.[88]
gia. It is unicameral and has 150 members, known as
Because of the intensive ghting in South Ossetia, there deputies, of whom 75 are elected by plurality to reprewere many disputed reports about the number of ca- sent single-member districts, and 75 are chosen to repsualties on both sides, which targets had fallen under resent parties by proportional representation. Members
aerial attacks, the status of troop movements, and the of parliament are elected for four-year terms. Five parmost current location of the front line between the Geor- ties and electoral blocs had representatives elected to the
gian and Russian-Ossetian units.[89] Since the war, South parliament in the 2008 elections: the United National
Ossetian and Russian ocials have made a number of Movement (governing party), The Joint Opposition, the
claims[77] that the Georgian Army was responsible for Christian-Democrats, the Labour Party and Republican
killing 1,4002,000 South Ossetian civilians. Human Party. On 26 May 2012, Saakashvili inaugurated a new
Rights Watch and European Union investigators in South Parliament building in the western city of Kutaisi, in
Ossetia have subsequently accused Russia of exaggerat- an eort to decentralise power and shift some political
ing the scale of such casualties.[90][91][92][93] All sides sus- control closer to Abkhazia.[98] The elections in October
tained casualties, with Georgia accounting for the greatest 2012 resulted in the victory for the opposition "Georgian
number of military casualties with 170 conrmed dead or Dream Democratic Georgia" coalition, which President
Saakashvili acknowledged on the following day.[99]
missing.[94]
Since the war, Georgia has maintained that Abkhazia and
South Ossetia are under Russian occupation and remain,
legally, part of Georgia.[95][96] Georgia has gained much
international support for this position although attempts
at limiting international access to and enforcing an eco-

Although considerable progress was made since the Rose

revolution, former President Mikheil Saakashvili stated
in 2008 that Georgia is still not a full-edged, very wellformed, crystalized society.[100] The political system remains in the process of transition, with frequent adjust-

3 GOVERNMENT AND POLITICS

ments to the balance of power between the President

and Parliament, and opposition proposals ranging from
transforming the country into parliamentary republic to
re-establishing the monarchy.[101][102] Observers note the
decit of trust in relations between the Government and
the opposition.[103]
Dierent opinions exist regarding the degree of political freedom in Georgia. Saakashvili believed in 2008
that the country is on the road to becoming a European
democracy.[100] Freedom House lists Georgia as a partly
free country.[104]
In preparation for 2012 parliamentary elections, Parliament adopted a new electoral code on 27 December 2011 that incorporated many recommendations from
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the Venice
Commission. However, the new code failed to address the Venice Commissions primary recommendation
to strengthen the equality of the vote by reconstituting
single-mandate election districts to be comparable in size.
On December 28, Parliament amended the Law on Political Unions to regulate campaign and political party nancing. Local and international observers raised concerns about several amendments, including the vagueness of the criteria for determining political bribery and
which individuals and organizations would be subject to
the law. As of March 2012, Parliament was discussing
further amendments to address these concerns.[105]
Pro-NATO poster in Tbilisi.

3.1

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Georgia

Georgia maintains good relations with its direct neighbours (Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Turkey) and is a member of the United Nations, the Council of Europe,
the World Trade Organization, the Organization of the
Black Sea Economic Cooperation, the Organization for
Security and Cooperation in Europe, the Community
of Democratic Choice, the GUAM Organization for
Democracy and Economic Development, and the Asian
Development Bank.
Georgia also maintains political, economic, and military relations with Japan,
Uruguay,[106] South Korea,[107] Israel,[108] Sri Lanka,[109]
Ukraine, and many other countries.
The growing U.S. and European Union inuence in Georgia, notably through proposed EU and NATO membership, the U.S. Train and Equip military assistance program, and the construction of the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan
pipeline have frequently strained Tbilisis relations with
Moscow. Georgias decision to boost its presence in the
coalition forces in Iraq was an important initiative.[110]

stage of Euro-Atlantic Integration. In 2005, by the decision of the President of Georgia, a state commission was
set up to implement the Individual Partnership Action
Plan, which presents an interdepartmental group headed
by the Prime Minister. The Commission was tasked with
coordinating and controlling the implementation of the
Individual Partnership Action Plan.
On 14 February 2005, the agreement on the appointment of Partnership for Peace (PfP) liaison ocer between Georgia and NATO came into force, whereby a
liaison ocer for the South Caucasus was assigned to
Georgia. On March 2, 2005, the agreement was signed
on the provision of the host nation support to and transit
of NATO forces and NATO personnel. On March 69,
2006, the IPAP implementation interim assessment team
arrived in Tbilisi. On April 13, 2006, the discussion of
the assessment report on implementation of the Individual Partnership Action Plan was held at NATO Headquarters, within 26+1 format.[111] In 2006, the Georgian parliament voted unanimously for the bill which calls
for integration of Georgia into NATO. The majority of
Georgians and politicians in Georgia support the push for
NATO membership.

Georgia is currently working to become a full member of

NATO. In August 2004, the Individual Partnership Action Plan of Georgia was submitted ocially to NATO.
On 29 October 2004, the North Atlantic Council of George W. Bush became the rst sitting U.S. president to
NATO approved the Individual Partnership Action Plan visit the country.[112] The street leading to Tbilisi Inter(IPAP) of Georgia, and Georgia moved on to the second national Airport has since been dubbed George W. Bush

3.3

Law enforcement

Avenue.[113] On October 2, 2006, Georgia and the Eu- 3.3 Law enforcement
ropean Union signed a joint statement on the agreed text
of the Georgia-European Union Action Plan within the Main article: Law enforcement in Georgia (country)
European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP). The Action Plan In Georgia, law enforcement is conducted and provided
was formally approved at the EU-Georgia Cooperation
Council session on 14 November 2006, in Brussels.[114]

3.2

Military

Main articles: Georgian Armed Forces and Role of Georgia in the War in Afghanistan (200114)
Georgias military is organized into land and air forces.

Georgian polices new patrol car Ford Taurus Police Interceptor

Georgian built Didgori-2 on a parade in 2011

They are collectively known as the Georgian Armed

Forces (GAF).[5] The mission and functions of the GAF
are based on the Constitution of Georgia, Georgias Law
on Defense and National Military Strategy, and international agreements to which Georgia is signatory. They
are performed under the guidance and authority of the
Ministry of Defense. The military budget of Georgia
for 2016 was 670 million mostly the same as in 2015.
The biggest part, 73% of the military budget was allocated for maintaining armored forces readiness and potency development.[115] After its independence from the
Soviet Union, Georgia began to develop its own military
industry. The rst exhibition of products made by STC
DELTA was in 1999.[116] STC DELTA now produces a
variety of military equipment, including armored vehicles, artillery systems, aviation systems, personal protection equipment, and small arms.[117]
During later periods of the Iraq War Georgia had up to
2,000 soldiers serving in the Multi-National Force.[118]
Georgia also participated in the NATO-led International
Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan. With 1,560
troops in 2013, it was at that time the largest nonNATO[119] and the largest per capita[120][121] troop contributor. Over 11,000 Georgian soldiers have been rotated through Afghanistan.[122] As of 2015, 31 Georgian
servicemen have died in Afghanistan,[123] most during the
Helmand campaign, and 435 were wounded, including 35
amputees.[124][125]

for by the Ministry of Internal Aairs of Georgia. In recent years, the Patrol Police Department of the Ministry
of Internal Aairs of Georgia has undergone a radical
transformation, with the police having now absorbed a
great many duties previously performed by dedicated independent government agencies. New duties performed
by the police include border security and customs functions and contracted security provision; the latter function is performed by the dedicated 'security police'. Intelligence collecting in the interests of national security is
now the remit of the Georgian Intelligence Service.
In 2005, President Mikheil Saakashvili red the entire trac police force (numbering around 30,000 police ocers) of the Georgian National Police due to
corruption.[126][127] A new force was then subsequently
built around new recruits.[126] The US State Department's
Bureau of International Narcotics and Law-Enforcement
Aairs has provided assistance to the training eorts and
continues to act in an advisory capacity.[128]
The new Patruli force was rst introduced in the summer
of 2005 to replace the trac police, a force which was
accused of widespread corruption.[129] The police introduced an 022 (currently 112) emergency dispatch service
in 2004.[130]

3.4 Human rights

Main article: Human rights in Georgia
Human rights in Georgia are guaranteed by the countrys
constitution. There is an independent human rights public defender elected by the Parliament of Georgia to ensure such rights are enforced.[131] Georgia has ratied the
Framework Convention for the Protection of National
Minorities in 2005. NGO Tolerance, in its alternative
report about its implementation, speaks of a rapid decrease in the number of Azerbaijani schools and cases of
appointing headmasters to Azerbaijani schools who don't

10

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS

speak the Azerbaijani language.[132]

an unrecognised referendum in the area resulted in a vote

[141]
The government came under criticism for its alleged for independence.
use of excessive force on 26 May 2011 when it dis- In both Abkhazia and South Ossetia large numbers
persed protesters led by Nino Burjanadze, among oth- of people had been given Russian passports, some
ers, with tear gas and rubber bullets after they refused through a process of forced passportization by Russian
to clear Rustaveli avenue for an independence day pa- authorities.[142] This was used as a justication for Rusrade despite the expiration of their demonstration per- sian invasion of Georgia during the 2008 South Osmit and despite being oered to choose an alterna- setia war after which Russia recognised the regions
tive venue.[133][134][135][136] While human rights activists independence.[143] Georgia considers the regions as ocmaintained that the protests were peaceful, the govern- cupied by Russia.[95][144] Both republics have received
ment pointed out that many protesters were masked and minimal international recognition.
armed with heavy sticks and molotov cocktails.[137] Geor- Adjara under local strongman Aslan Abashidze maingian opposition leader Nino Burjanadze said the accu- tained close ties with Russia and allowed a Russian milsations of planning a coup were baseless, and that the itary base to be maintained in Batumi. Upon the elecprotesters actions were legitimate.[136][138]
tion of Mikheil Saakashvili in 2004 tensions rose between Adjara and the Georgian government, leading to
demonstrations in Adjara and the resignation and ight
of Abashidze. The region retains autonomy although, in
4 Administrative divisions
2007, the Georgian Constitutional Court was moved from
and the Russian military base was reMain articles: Administrative divisions of Georgia (coun- T'bilisi to Batumi [145]
turned
to
Georgia.
try), Abkhazia, and Adjara
See also: Occupied territories of Georgia
Georgia is divided into 9 regions, 1 city, and 2 au-

Map of Georgia highlighting the disputed territories of Abkhazia

and Tskhinvali Region (South Ossetia), both of which are uncontrolled by the central government of Georgia.

tonomous republics.[5] These in turn are subdivided into Abkhazia

64 districts and 12 self-governing cities.
SamegreloGeorgia contains two ocial autonomous regions, of Zemo Svaneti
which one has declared independence. Ocially au- Guria
tonomous within Georgia,[139] the de facto independent Adjara
region of Abkhazia declared independence in 1999.[140] SamtskheIn addition, another territory not ocially autonomous Javakheti
has also declared independence. South Ossetia is o- Imereti
cially known by Georgia as the Tskinvali region, as it Racha-Lechkhumi
views South Ossetia as implying political bonds with and Kvemo Svaneti
Russian North Ossetia.[141] It was called South Ossetian Shida
Autonomous Oblast when Georgia was part of Soviet Kartli
Union. Its autonomous status was revoked in 1990. De Kvemo Kartli
facto separate since Georgian independence, oers were Mtskhetamade to give South Ossetia autonomy again, but in 2006 Mtianeti

5.1

Topography

11

Tbilisi
Kakheti

Geography and climate

Main article: Geography of Georgia (country)

See also: Borders of the continents
Georgia is situated in the South Caucasus,[146][147] beWarm oceanic climate/
Humid subtropical climate (Cfa)
Temperate oceanic climate (Cfb)
Temperate continental climate/
Humid continental climate (Dfb)

Tusheti region in northeast Georgia

Warm continental climate/

Humid continental climate (Dfa)

The term Lesser Caucasus Mountains is often used to

describe the mountainous (highland) areas of southern
Georgia that are connected to the Greater Caucasus
Mountain Range by the Likhi Range.[148] The area can
be split into two separate sub-regions; the Lesser Caucasus Mountains, which run parallel to the Greater Caucasus Range, and the Southern Georgia Volcanic Highland,
Kppen climate classication map of Georgia.
which lies immediately to the south of the Lesser Caucatween latitudes 41 and 44 N, and longitudes 40 and 47 sus Mountains.
E, with an area of 67,900 km2 (26,216 sq mi). It is a very The overall region can be characterized as being made
mountainous country. The Likhi Range divides the coun- up of various, interconnected mountain ranges (largely
try into eastern and western halves.[148] Historically, the of volcanic origin) and plateaus that do not exceed 3,400
western portion of Georgia was known as Colchis while meters (11,155 ft) in elevation. Prominent features of the
the eastern plateau was called Iberia. Because of a com- area include the Javakheti Volcanic Plateau, lakes, includplex geographic setting, mountains also isolate the north- ing Tabatskuri and Paravani, as well as mineral water and
ern region of Svaneti from the rest of Georgia.
hot springs. Two major rivers in Georgia are the Rioni
The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range forms the north- and the Mtkvari. The Southern Georgia Volcanic Highern border of Georgia.[148] The main roads through the land is a young and unstable geologic region with high
mountain range into Russian territory lead through the seismic activity and has experienced some of the most
Roki Tunnel between Shida Kartli and North Ossetia and signicant earthquakes that have been recorded in Georthe Darial Gorge (in the Georgian region of Khevi). The gia.
Roki Tunnel was vital for the Russian military in the
2008 South Ossetia war because it is the only direct route
through the Caucasus Mountains. The southern portion
of the country is bounded by the Lesser Caucasus Mountains.[148] The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range is much
higher in elevation than the Lesser Caucasus Mountains,
with the highest peaks rising more than 5,000 meters
(16,404 ft) above sea level.

The Krubera Cave is the deepest known cave in the world.

It is located in the Arabika Massif of the Gagra Range,
in Abkhazia. In 2001, a RussianUkrainian team had set
the world depth record for a cave at 1,710 meters (5,610
ft). In 2004, the penetrated depth was increased on each
of three expeditions, when a Ukrainian team crossed the
2,000-meter (6,562 ft) mark for the rst time in the history of speleology. In October 2005, an unexplored part
The highest mountain in Georgia is Mount Shkhara at was found by the CAVEX team, further increasing the
5,068 meters (16,627 ft), and the second highest is Mount known depth of the cave. This expedition conrmed the
Janga (Dzhangi-Tau) at 5,059 m (16,598 ft) above sea known depth of the cave at 2,140 meters (7,021 ft).
level. Other prominent peaks include Mount Kazbek at
5,047 m (16,558 ft), Shota Rustaveli 4,860 m (15,945
ft), Tetnuldi 4,858 m (15,938 ft), Mt. Ushba 4,700 m 5.1 Topography
(15,420 ft), and Ailama 4,547 m (14,918 ft).[148] Out of
the abovementioned peaks, only Kazbek is of volcanic The landscape within the nations boundaries is quite varorigin. The region between Kazbek and Shkhara (a dis- ied. Western Georgias landscape ranges from low-land
tance of about 200 km (124 mi) along the Main Caucasus marsh-forests, swamps, and temperate rainforests to eterRange) is dominated by numerous glaciers. Out of the nal snows and glaciers, while the eastern part of the coun2,100 glaciers that exist in the Caucasus today, approxi- try even contains a small segment of semi-arid plains.
Forests cover around 40% of Georgias territory while
mately 30% are located within Georgia.

12

5 GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

metres (9,843 ft) above sea level. The eternal snow and
glacier zone lies above the 3,000 metre line.

Relief map of Georgia

the alpine/subalpine zone accounts for roughly around 10

percent of the land.
Much of the natural habitat in the low-lying areas of
western Georgia has disappeared during the past 100
years because of the agricultural development of the
land and urbanization. The large majority of the forests
that covered the Colchis plain are now virtually nonexistent with the exception of the regions that are included in the national parks and reserves (e.g. Lake
Paliastomi area). At present, the forest cover generally remains outside of the low-lying areas and is mainly located
along the foothills and the mountains. Western Georgias
forests consist mainly of deciduous trees below 600 meters (1,969 ft) above sea level and contain species such as
oak, hornbeam, beech, elm, ash, and chestnut. Evergreen
species such as box may also be found in many areas. Ca.
1000 of all 4000 higher plants of Georgia are endemic in
this country.[149]

Eastern Georgias landscape (referring to the territory

east of the Likhi Range) is considerably dierent from
that of the west, although, much like the Colchis plain
in the west, nearly all of the low-lying areas of eastern
Georgia including the Mtkvari and Alazani River plains
have been deforested for agricultural purposes. In addition, because of the regions relatively drier climate, some
of the low-lying plains (especially in Kartli and southeastern Kakheti) were never covered by forests in the rst
place.
The general landscape of eastern Georgia comprises numerous valleys and gorges that are separated by mountains. In contrast with western Georgia, nearly 85 percent of the forests of the region are deciduous. Coniferous forests only dominate in the Borjomi Gorge and in
the extreme western areas. Out of the deciduous species
of trees, beech, oak, and hornbeam dominate. Other deciduous species include several varieties of maple, aspen,
ash, and hazelnut. The Upper Alazani River Valley contains yew forests.
At higher elevations above 1,000 metres (3,281 ft) above
sea level (particularly in the Tusheti, Khevsureti, and
Khevi regions), pine and birch forests dominate. In general, the forests in eastern Georgia occur between 500
2,000 metres (1,6406,562 ft) above sea level, with the
alpine zone extending from 2,0002,300 to 3,0003,500
metres (6,5627,546 to 9,84311,483 ft). The only remaining large, low-land forests remain in the Alazani Valley of Kakheti. The eternal snow and glacier zone lies
above the 3,500-metre (11,483 ft) line in most areas of
eastern Georgia.

5.2 Climate
Main article: Climate of Georgia (country)
The climate of Georgia is extremely diverse, considering
the nations small size. There are two main climatic zones,
roughly corresponding to the eastern and western parts
of the country. The Greater Caucasus Mountain Range
View of the cave city of Vardzia and the valley of the Kura River plays an important role in moderating Georgias climate
below
and protects the nation from the penetration of colder air
The west-central slopes of the Meskheti Range in Ajaria masses from the north. The Lesser Caucasus Mountains
as well as several locations in Samegrelo and Abkhazia partially protect the region from the inuence of dry and
are covered by temperate rain forests. Between 600 hot air masses from the south.
1,000 metres (1,9693,281 ft) above sea level, the de- Much of western Georgia lies within the northern periphciduous forest becomes mixed with both broad-leaf and ery of the humid subtropical zone with annual precipitaconiferous species making up the plant life. The zone is tion ranging from 1,0004,000 mm (39.4157.5 in). The
made up mainly of beech, spruce, and r forests. From precipitation tends to be uniformly distributed throughout
1,5001,800 metres (4,9215,906 ft), the forest becomes the year, although the rainfall can be particularly heavy
largely coniferous. The tree line generally ends at around during the Autumn months. The climate of the region
1,800 metres (5,906 ft) and the alpine zone takes over, varies signicantly with elevation and while much of the
which in most areas, extends up to an elevation of 3,000 lowland areas of western Georgia are relatively warm

13

Caucasian Shepherd Dog

The Black Sea coast of Batumi, western Georgia.

which has been widely introduced throughout the rest of

the world as an important game bird. The species number of invertebrates is considered to be very high but data
is distributed across a high number of publications. The
spider checklist of Georgia, for example, includes 501
species.[151]

throughout the year, the foothills and mountainous areas

(including both the Greater and Lesser Caucasus Mountains) experience cool, wet summers and snowy winters
(snow cover often exceeds 2 meters in many regions).
Ajaria is the wettest region of the Caucasus, where the
Mt. Mtirala rainforest, east of Kobuleti, receives around Slightly more than 6,500 species of fungi, including lichen-forming species, have been recorded from
4,500 mm (177.2 in) of precipitation per year.
Georgia,[152][153] but this number is far from complete.
Eastern Georgia has a transitional climate from humid
The true total number of fungal species occurring in
subtropical to continental. The regions weather patterns
Georgia, including species not yet recorded, is likely to
are inuenced both by dry Caspian air masses from the
be far higher, given the generally accepted estimate that
east and humid Black Sea air masses from the west. The
only about seven percent of all fungi worldwide have so
penetration of humid air masses from the Black Sea is
far been discovered.[154] Although the amount of availoften blocked by mountain ranges (Likhi and Meskheti)
able information is still very small, a rst eort has
that separate the eastern and western parts of the nabeen made to estimate the number of fungal species ention. Annual precipitation is considerably less than that of
demic to Georgia, and 2,595 species have been tentawestern Georgia and ranges from 4001,600 mm (15.7
tively identied as possible endemics of the country.[155]
63.0 in).
1,729 species of plants have been recorded from Georgia
The wettest periods generally occur during spring and au- in association with fungi.[153] The true number of plant
tumn, while winter and summer months tend to be the species occurring in Georgia is likely to be substantially
driest. Much of eastern Georgia experiences hot sum- higher.
mers (especially in the low-lying areas) and relatively cold
winters. As in the western parts of the nation, elevation
plays an important role in eastern Georgia where climatic 6 Economy
conditions above 1,500 metres (4,921 ft) are considerably colder than in the low-lying areas. The regions that
Main articles: Economy of Georgia (country) and
lie above 2,000 metres (6,562 ft) frequently experience
Agriculture in Georgia (country)
frost even during the summer months.
Archaeological research demonstrates that Georgia has
been involved in commerce with many lands and empires
since ancient times, largely due its location on the Black
5.3 Biodiversity
Sea and later on the historical Silk Road. Gold, silver,
copper
and iron have been mined in the Caucasus MounSee also: List of non-marine molluscs of Georgia (countains.
Georgian
wine making is a very old tradition and
try) and List of sh of the Black Sea
a
key
branch
of
the
countrys economy. The country has
Because of its high landscape diversity and low lati[156]
hydropower
resources.
Throughout Georgias
sizable
tude, Georgia is home to about 5,601 species of animals,
modern
history
agriculture
and
tourism
have been prinincluding 648 species of vertebrates (more than 1% of
cipal
economic
sectors,
because
of
the
countrys
climate
the species found worldwide) and many of these species
[5]
and
topography.
[150]
A number of large carnivores live in
are endemics.
the forests, namely Brown bears, wolves, lynxes and For much of the 20th century, Georgias economy was
Caucasian Leopards. The common pheasant (also known within the Soviet model of command economy. Since the
as the Colchian Pheasant) is an endemic bird of Georgia fall of the USSR in 1991, Georgia embarked on a major

14

6 ECONOMY

try was mainly triggered by external reasons, including

Russias economic embargo.[160] The Georgian authorities expected that the current account decit due to the
embargo in 2007 would be nanced by higher foreign exchange proceeds generated by the large inow of foreign
direct investment and an increase in tourist revenues.[161]
The country has also maintained a solid credit in international market securities.[162] Georgia is becoming more
integrated into the global trading network: its 2006 imports and exports account for 10% and 18% of GDP
The Georgian Railways represent a vital artery linking the Black respectively.[5] Georgias main imports are natural gas, oil
Sea and Caspian Sea the shortest route between Europe and products, machinery and parts, and transport equipment.
Central Asia.

structural reform designed to transition to a free market

economy. As with all other post-Soviet states, Georgia
faced a severe economic collapse. The civil war and military conicts in South Ossetia and Abkhazia aggravated
the crisis. The agriculture and industry output diminished. By 1994 the gross domestic product had shrunk
to a quarter of that of 1989.[157] The rst nancial help
from the West came in 1995, when the World Bank and
The most visited ski resort of Georgia, Gudauri.
International Monetary Fund granted Georgia a credit of
USD 206 million and Germany granted DM 50 million.
Tourism is an increasingly signicant part of the Georgian economy. About a million tourists brought US$313
million to the country in 2006.[163] According to the government, there are 103 resorts in dierent climatic zones
in Georgia. Tourist attractions include more than 2,000
mineral springs, over 12,000 historical and cultural monuments, four of which are recognised as UNESCO World
Heritage Sites (Bagrati Cathedral in Kutaisi and Gelati
Monastery, historical monuments of Mtskheta, and Upper Svaneti).[164]
Georgia is developing into an international transport corridor through Batumi and Poti ports, an oil pipeline from
Baku through Tbilisi to Ceyhan, the Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan
pipeline (BTC) and a parallel gas pipeline, the South Caucasus Pipeline.
The production of wine is a traditional component of the Georgian economy.

Since the early 21st century visible positive developments

have been observed in the economy of Georgia. In 2007,
Georgias real GDP growth rate reached 12 percent making Georgia one of the fastest growing economies in Eastern Europe.[5] The World Bank dubbed Georgia the
number one economic reformer in the world because
it has in one year improved from rank 112th to 18th
in terms of ease of doing business.[158] The country has
a high unemployment rate of 12.6% and has fairly low
median income compared to European countries.

Since coming to power Saakashvili administration accomplished a series of reforms aimed at improving tax
collection. Among other things a at income tax was introduced in 2004.[165] As a result, budget revenues have
increased fourfold and a once large budget decit has
turned into surplus.[166][5][167]

As of 2001, 54 percent of the population lived below the

national poverty line but by 2006 poverty decreased to
34 percent. In 2005, the average monthly income of a
household was GEL 347 (about USD $200).[168] 2013
estimates place Georgias nominal GDP at US$15.98 billion. Georgias economy is becoming more devoted to
moving
The 2006 ban on imports of Georgian wine to Russia, one services (now representing 65 percent of GDP),[169]
away
from
the
agricultural
sector
(10.9
percent).
of Georgias biggest trading partners, and break of nancial links was described by the IMF Mission as an ex- In regards to telecommunication infrastructure, Georgia
ternal shock.[159] In addition, Russia increased the price is ranked second to last among its bordering neighbors in
of gas for Georgia. Around the same time, the National the World Economic Forums Network Readiness Index
Bank of Georgia stated that ongoing ination in the coun- (NRI) an indicator for determining the development

15
level of a countrys information and communication tech- ganisation in the near future.[175] Additional projects also
nologies. Georgia ranked number 60 overall in the 2014 include the construction of the economically important
NRI ranking, up from 65 in 2013.[170]
KarsTbilisiBaku railway, which for the rst time will
connect much of the Caucasus with Turkey by standard
gauge railway.[176]

6.1

Transport

Main article: Transport in Georgia (country)

Today transport in Georgia is provided by means of rail,

Port of Batumi

A green directional sign on the 1 motorway, denoting it as such.

road, shipping and air travel. Total length of roads excluding occupied territories is 19,060 kilometers and railways 1,576 km.[171] Positioned in the Caucasus and
on the coast of the Black Sea, Georgia is a key country through which energy imports to the European Union
from neighbouring Azerbaijan pass. Traditionally the
country was located on an important north-south trade
route between European Russia and the Near East and
Turkey.

Air and maritime transport is developing in Georgia, with

the former mainly used by passengers and the latter for
transport of freight. Georgia currently has four international airports; the largest of which is by far Tbilisi International Airport, hub for Georgian Airways, which oers
connections to many large European cities. Other airports
in the country are largely underdeveloped or lack scheduled trac, although, as of late, eorts have been made
to solve both these problems.[177] There are a number of
seaports along Georgias Black Sea coast, the largest and
most busy of which is the Port of Batumi; whilst the town
is itself a seaside resort, the port is a major cargo terminal in the Caucasus and is often used by neighbouring
Azerbaijan as a transit point for making energy deliveries to Europe. Scheduled and chartered passenger ferry
services link Georgia with Ukraine and Turkey.

In recent years Georgia has invested large amounts of

money in the modernization of its transport networks.
The construction of new highways has been prioritized
and, as such, major cities like Tbilisi have seen the quality
of their roads improve dramatically; despite this however, 7 Demographics
the quality of inter-city routes remains poor and to date
only one motorway-standard road has been constructed Main article: Demographics of Georgia (country)
the 1.[172]
Languages of Georgia redirects here. For languages of
The Georgian railways represent an important transport the U.S. state of Georgia, see Georgia (U.S. state) Lanartery for the Caucasus as they make up the largest pro- guages.
Like most native Caucasian peoples, the Georgians do
portion of a route linking the Black and Caspian Seas, this
not
t into any of the main ethnic categories of Europe or
in turn has allowed them to benet in recent years from inAsia.
The Georgian language, the most pervasive of the
creased energy exports from neighbouring Azerbaijan to
Kartvelian
languages, is neither Indo-European, Turkic
[173]
the European Union, Ukraine and Turkey.
Passenger
nor
Semitic.
The present day Georgian or Kartvelian
services are operated by the state-owned Georgian Railnation
is
thought
to have resulted from the fusion of
ways whilst freight operations are carried out by a numautochthonous
inhabitants with immigrants
aboriginal,
ber of licensed operators. Since 2004 the Georgian Railwho
moved
into
South
Caucasus
from the direction of
ways have been undergoing a rolling program of eet[178]
Anatolia
in
remote
antiquity.
renewal and managerial restructuring which is aimed at
making the service provided more ecient and comfortable for passengers.[174] Infrastructural development has
also been high on the agenda for the railways, with the key
Tbilisi railway junction expected to undergo major reor-

Ethnic Georgians form about 86.8 percent of

Georgias current population of 3,713,804 (2014
census).[180][lower-alpha 1] Other ethnic groups include
Abkhazians, Armenians, Assyrians, Azerbaijanis,

16

7 DEMOGRAPHICS
In the early 1990s, following the dissolution of the Soviet Union, violent separatist conicts broke out in the
autonomous region of Abkhazia and Tskhinvali Region.
Many Ossetians living in Georgia left the country, mainly
to Russias North Ossetia.[185] On the other hand, more
than 150,000 Georgians left Abkhazia after the breakout of hostilities in 1993.[186] Of the Meskhetian Turks
who were forcibly relocated in 1944 only a tiny fraction
returned to Georgia as of 2008.[187]
The most widespread language group is the Kartvelian
family, which includes Georgian, Svan, Mingrelian and
Laz. The ocial languages of Georgia are Georgian, with
Abkhaz having ocial status within the autonomous region of Abkhazia. Georgian is the primary language of
87.7 percent of the population, followed by 6.2 percent
speaking Azerbaijani, 3.9 percent Armenian, 1.2 percent
Russian, and 1 percent other languages.[188][lower-alpha 1]

Georgian youth in the Chokha, a traditional costume.

Rostov

Ukraine

Kazakhstan

Rostov
Sea
of
Azov

Astrakhan'
28

Elista

Krasnodar
Kray

21

Astrakhan'

Kalmykia

28

21

28

7.1 Religion

27

Krasnodar

Stavropol'

Stavropol' Kray

Russia

Adygea

A
Maykop'

16

26

Caspian

Cherkessk

26

Karachay- 24
Cherkessia
16
5

21

Black

23

1 Abkhazia

Sukhumi

KabardinoBalkaria
5

15

Nazran'
19 R
North Vladikavkaz

23

Groznyy l

14
25

Ossetia

Sea

K'ut'aisi

R Adjara
Bat'umi

19

22

O
T'bilisi

Ts'khinvali

Georgia

Makhachkala
R

Dagestan

South Ossetia

O
5

6
7

Main article: Religion in Georgia (country)

26

Ingushetia

Sea

21

Chechnya
R R

Nal'chik

12

11

13

10

17

Caucasian
Peoples

Indo-European
Peoples

Abkhaz
Abkhaz

Armenian
16

Circasian
2
3
4

A Adygey
Cherkess
Kabardin

Georgian
5

G Georgian

19
20

7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Agul
Avar
D Dargin
l Lak
L Lezgin
Rutul
Tabasaran
Tsakhur

Veinakh
Chechen
Ingush

14
15

Other

22

K Kurd
O Ossetian
Talysh

21

Naxcivan

T
T
T

R Russian

23
24
25
26
27

Nagorno- Xanknd
Karabakh (Stepanakert)

a
K

T
R
Naxvan Azer.
(Nakhichevan)

R
Baku

22

Z
Z

18

Z Azeri
Balkar
Karachay
Kumyk
Nogay
T Turkmen

16

Turkey

Turkic
22

L L

Azerbaijan

Yerevan
16

Slavic

Altaic Peoples

18

Greek

Iranian
18

17

Greek

Armenia

a Armenian

17

Dagestani
6

Iran
20

22

Republic, oblast, or kray boundary

Mongol
28

Kalmyk

Sparsely populated or uninhabited areas are shown in white

0
0

100 Kilometers
100 Miles

Ethno-linguistic groups in the Caucasus region[179]

Main religions (2014)[190]

Orthodox Christian (83.4%)

Muslim (10.7%)
Armenian Apostolic (2.9%)
Greeks, Jews, Kists, Ossetians, Russians, Ukrainians, Roman Catholic (1%)
Yezidis and others.[180][lower-alpha 1] The Georgian Jews Others (2%)
are one of the oldest Jewish communities in the world.
Once Georgia was also home to signicant ethnic Today 83.4 percent of the population practices
German communities, but most Germans were deported Eastern Orthodox Christianity, with the majority
during World War II.
of these adhering to the national Georgian Orthodox
The 1989 census recorded 341,000 ethnic Russians, or Church.[191][lower-alpha 1] The Georgian Orthodox Church
6.3 percent of the population,[181] 52,000 Ukrainians and is one of the worlds most ancient Christian Churches,
100,000 Greeks in Georgia.[182] Since 1990, 1.5 mil- and claims apostolic foundation by Saint Andrew.[192]
lion Georgian nationals have left.[182] At least 1 mil- In the rst half of the 4th century, Christianity was
lion emigrants from Georgia legally or illegally reside adopted as the state religion of Iberia (present-day
in Russia.[183] Georgias net migration rate is 4.54, ex- Kartli, or eastern Georgia), following the missionary
cluding Georgian nationals who live abroad. Georgia has work of Saint Nino of Cappadocia.[193][194] The Church
nonetheless been inhabited by immigrants from all over gained autocephaly during the early Middle Ages; it was
the world throughout its independence. According to abolished during the Russian domination of the country,
2014 statistics, Georgia gets most of its immigrants from restored in 1917 and fully recognised by the Ecumenical
Patriarchate of Constantinople in 1990.
Russia, 51.6 percent of all immigrants.[184][lower-alpha 1]

17
The special status of the Georgian Orthodox Church is
ocially recognised in the Constitution of Georgia and
the Concordat of 2002, although religious institutions are
separate from the state, and every citizen has the right of
religion.
Religious minorities of Georgia include Muslims (10.7
percent), Armenian Christians (2.9 percent) and Roman Catholics (0.5 percent).[191][lower-alpha 1] 0.7 percent
of those recorded in the 2014 census declared themselves
to be adherents of other religions, 1.2 percent refused or
did not state their religion and 0.5 percent declared no
Higher Education Institutions in Georgia
religion at all.[191][lower-alpha 1]
Islam is represented by both Azerbaijani Shia Muslims
(in the south-east) ethnic Georgian Sunni Muslims in
Adjara, and Laz-speaking Sunni Muslims as well as
Sunni Meskhetian Turks along the border with Turkey.
There are also smaller communities of Greek Muslims
(of Pontic Greek origin) and Armenian Muslims, both of
whom are descended from Ottoman-era converts to Turkish Islam from Eastern Anatolia who settled in Georgia
following the Lala Mustafa Pashas Caucasian campaign
that led to the Ottoman conquest of the country in 1578.
Georgian Jews trace the history of their community to the
6th century BC; their numbers have dwindled in the last
decades due to high levels of immigration to Israel.[195]
Despite the long history of religious harmony in
Georgia,[196] there have been instances of religious discrimination and violence against nontraditional faiths,
such as Jehovahs Witnesses, by followers of the
defrocked Orthodox priest Basil Mkalavishvili.[197]

ing modernizing, although controversial, reforms since

2004.[200][201] Education in Georgia is mandatory for all
children aged 614.[202] The school system is divided into
elementary (six years; age level 612), basic (three years;
age level 1215), and secondary (three years; age level
1518), or alternatively vocational studies (two years).
Students with a secondary school certicate have access
to higher education. Only the students who have passed
the Unied National Examinations may enroll in a stateaccredited higher education institution, based on ranking
of the scores received at the exams.
Most of these institutions oer three levels of study: a
Bachelors Program (three to four years); a Masters Program (two years), and a Doctoral Program (three years).
There is also a Certied Specialists Program that represents a single-level higher education program lasting from
three to six years.[202][203] As of 2016, 75 higher education institutions are accredited by the Ministry of Education and Science of Georgia.[204] Gross primary enrollment ratio was 117 percent for the period of 20122014,
the 2nd highest in Europe after Sweden.[205]

In addition to traditional religious organizations, Georgia

retains secular and irreligious segments of society (0.5
percent),[198] as well as a signicant portion of religiously
aliated individuals who do not actively practice their
faith.[199]
Tbilisi has become the main artery of the Georgian educational system, particularly since the creation of the
First Georgian Republic in 1918 permitted the establish7.2 Education
ment of modern, Georgian-language educational institutions. Tbilisi is the home to several major institutions
of higher education in Georgia, notably the Tbilisi State
Medical University, which was founded as Tbilisi Medical Institute in 1918, and the Tbilisi State University
(TSU), which was established in 1918 and remains the
oldest university in the entire Caucasus region.[206] With
enrollment of over 35,000 students, the number of faculty
and sta (collaborators) at TSU is approximately 5,000.
Georgias main and largest technical university, Georgian
Technical University, as well as The University of Georgia (Tbilisi), Caucasus University and Free University of
Tbilisi are also in Tbilisi.

8 Culture
Tbilisi State University, Corpus I

The education system of Georgia has undergone sweep-

Main article: Culture of Georgia (country)

Georgian culture evolved over thousands of years from its

18

8 CULTURE
the 20th century include Niko Pirosmani, Lado Gudiashvili, Elene Akhvlediani; notable ballet choreographers include George Balanchine, Vakhtang Chabukiani,
and Nino Ananiashvili; notable poets include Galaktion
Tabidze, Lado Asatiani, and Mukhran Machavariani; and
notable theatre and lm directors include Robert Sturua,
Tengiz Abuladze, Giorgi Danelia and Otar Ioseliani.[213]

8.1 Architecture and arts

Ancient Colchian riders pendants, Georgian National Museum.

foundations in the Iberian and Colchian civilizations.[207]

Georgian culture enjoyed a renaissance and golden age
of classical literature, arts, philosophy, architecture and
science in the 11th century.[208] Georgian culture was inuenced by Classical Greece, the Roman Empire, the
Byzantine Empire, the various Iranian empires (notably
the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sassanian, Safavid and Qajar
empires),[209][210][211][212] and later, from the 19th century, by the Russian Empire.
Old Tbilisi Architecture in Georgia is in many ways a fusion of
European and Asian.

Georgian architecture has been inuenced by many civilizations. There are several dierent architectural styles
for castles, towers, fortications and churches. The Upper Svaneti fortications, and the castle town of Shatili
in Khevsureti, are some of the nest examples of medieval Georgian castle architecture. Other architectural
aspects of Georgia include Rustaveli avenue in Tbilisi in
the Hausmann style, and the Old Town District.

Georgian traditional dance Khevsuruli

The Georgian language, and the Classical Georgian literature of the poet Shota Rustaveli, were revived in the
19th century after a long period of turmoil, laying the
foundations of the romantics and novelists of the modern era such as Grigol Orbeliani, Nikoloz Baratashvili,
Ilia Chavchavadze, Akaki Tsereteli, Vazha-Pshavela.[213]
The Georgian language is written in three unique scripts,
which according to traditional accounts were invented by
King Pharnavaz I of Iberia in the 3rd century BC.[214][215]
Georgia is known for its folklore, traditional music,
dances, theatre, cinema, and art. Notable painters from

Georgian ecclesiastic art is one of the most notable aspects of Georgian Christian architecture, which combines the classical dome style with the original basilica
style, forming what is known as the Georgian crossdome style. Cross-dome architecture developed in Georgia during the 9th century; before that, most Georgian churches were basilicas. Other examples of Georgian ecclesiastic architecture can be found outside Georgia: Bachkovo Monastery in Bulgaria (built in 1083
by the Georgian military commander Grigorii Bakuriani), Iviron monastery in Greece (built by Georgians in
the 10th century), and the Monastery of the Cross in
Jerusalem (built by Georgians in the 9th century). One
of the most famous late 19th/early 20th century Georgian
artists was primitivist painter Niko Pirosmani.[216]

8.4

8.2

Cuisine

Media

Main article: Media of Georgia

19

8.4 Cuisine
Main article: Georgian cuisine
Georgian cuisine and wine have evolved through the cen-

Television, magazines, and newspapers in Georgia are

all operated by both state-owned and for-prot corporations which depend on advertising, subscription, and
other sales-related revenues. The Constitution of Georgia
guarantees freedom of speech. As a country in transition,
the Georgian media system is under transformation.
The media environment of Georgia remains the freest and
most diverse in the South Caucasus,[217] despite the longterm politicisation and polarisation aecting the sector.
The political struggle for control over the public broadcaster have left it without a direction in 2014 too.[218]
A large percentage of Georgian households have a television, and most have at least one radio. Most of Georgias media companies are headquartered in its capital and
largest city, Tbilisi.
From the top right to the left and below: Adjarian Khachapuri,
Mtsvadi, Khinkali, Imeretian Khachapuri, Pkhali, Churchkhela,
Shotis puri, Elarji, Mchadi, Satsivi

8.3

Music

turies, adapting traditions in each era. One of the most

unusual traditions of dining is supra, or Georgian table,
which is also a way of socialising with friends and famMain article: Music of Georgia (country)
Georgia has an ancient musical tradition, which is pri- ily. The head of supra is known as tamada. He also
conducts the highly philosophical toasts, and makes sure
that everyone is enjoying themselves. Various historical regions of Georgia are known for their particular
dishes: for example, khinkali (meat dumplings), from
eastern mountainous Georgia, and khachapuri, mainly
from Imereti, Samegrelo and Adjara. In addition to traditional Georgian dishes, the foods of other countries
have been brought to Georgia by immigrants from Russia,
Greece, and recently China.

8.5 Sports
Main article: Sport in Georgia
The most popular sports in Georgia are football,
Georgian Folk Singers

marily known for its early development of polyphony.

Georgian polyphony is based on three vocal parts, a
unique tuning system based on perfect fths, and a harmonic structure rich in parallel fths and dissonances.
Three types of polyphony have developed in Georgia: a
complex version in Svaneti, a dialogue over a bass background in the Kakheti region, and a three-part partiallyimprovised version in western Georgia.[219] The Georgian
folk song "Chakrulo" was one of 27 musical compositions
included on the Voyager Golden Records that were sent
Georgia vs. Romania in the Rugby World Cup 2011.
into space on Voyager 2 on 20 August 1977.[220]

20

12

basketball, rugby union, wrestling, judo, and

weightlifting.
Historically, Georgia has been famous for its physical education; the Romans were
fascinated with Georgians physical qualities after seeing
the training techniques of ancient Iberia.[221] Wrestling
remains a historically important sport of Georgia, and
some historians think that the Greco-Roman style of
wrestling incorporates many Georgian elements.[222]
Within Georgia, one of the most popularized styles of
wrestling is the Kakhetian style. There were a number
of other styles in the past that are not as widely used today. For example, the Khevsureti region of Georgia has
three dierent styles of wrestling. Other popular sports
in 19th century Georgia were polo, and Lelo, a traditional
Georgian game later replaced by rugby union.

REFERENCES

10 See also
Outline of Georgia (country)
Index of Georgia (country)-related articles

11 Notes
[1] Data not including Abkhazia and South Ossetia

12 References
[1] Article 8, Constitution of Georgia. In Abkhazia, also
Abkhazian.
[2] Population. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
[3] 2014 General Population Census Main Results General
Information National Statistics Oce of Georgia"
(PDF). Retrieved 2 May 2016.
[4] World GDP Ranking 2015. Retrieved 13 May 2016.
[5] Georgia. Cia.gov. Retrieved 2 May 2016.
[6] GDP of Georgia (PDF). GEOSTAT. Retrieved 13 May
2016.

A race at the Rustavi International Motorpark

The rst and only race circuit in the Caucasian region

is located in Georgia. Rustavi International Motorpark
originally built in 1978 was re-opened in 2012 after total reconstruction[223] costing $20 million. The track
satises the FIA Grade 2 requirements and currently
hosts the Legends car racing series and Formula Alfa
competitions.[224]
Basketball was always one of the notable sports in Georgia, and Georgia had a few very famous Soviet Union national team members, such as Otar Korkia, Mikhail Korkia, Zurab Sakandelidze and Levan Moseshvili. Dinamo
Tbilisi won the prestigious Euroleague competition in
1962. Georgia had ve players in the NBA: Vladimir
Stepania, Jake Tsakalidis, Nikoloz Tskitishvili, Tornike
Shengelia and current Milwaukee Bucks member Zaza
Pachulia. Other notable basketball players are two times
Euroleague champion Giorgi Shermadini and Euroleague
players Manuchar Markoishvili and Viktor Sanikidze.
Sport is regaining its popularity in the country in recent years. Georgia national basketball team qualied to
EuroBasket during the last three tournaments since 2011.

International rankings

The following are links to international rankings of Georgia.

[7] Gini Index. World Bank. Retrieved December 23,

2016.
[8] 2015 Human Development Report (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 2015. Retrieved 15 December 2015.
[9] The Law of Georgia on Occupied Territories (431-IIs)"
(PDF). State Ministry for Reintegration. 23 October
2008. Retrieved 1 February 2015.
[10] Peradze, Gregory. The Pilgrims derivation of the name
Georgia. Georgica, Autumn, 1937, nos. 4 & 5, 208209
[11] Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997). Historical,
Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies. Walter de
Gruyter. p. 211. ISBN 978-3110128840.
[12] Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of
Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littleeld. p. 3. ISBN 9781442241466.
[13] Boeder; et al. (2002). Philology, typology and language
structure. Peter Lang. p. 65. ISBN 978-0820459912.
The Russian designation of Georgia (Gruziya) also derives
from the Persian gurg.
[14] Rapp Jr., Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through
Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth
in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing.
p. 21. ISBN 978-1472425522.
[15] Constantine Porphyrogenitus (1967). Gyula Moravcsik,
eds. De Administrando Imperio. translated by R.J.H Jenkins. Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies.

21

[16] David Braund (1994). A History of Colchis and Transcaucasian Iberia, 550 BC-AD 562. Oxford University Press.
pp. 1718. ISBN 978-0198144731.
[17] Phoenix: The Peoples of the Hills: Ancient Ararat
and Caucasus by Charles Burney, David Marshall Lang,
Phoenix Press; New Ed edition (December 31, 2001)
[18] Keys, David (28 December 2003). Now thats what
you call a real vintage: professor unearths 8,000-year-old
wine. The Independent.
[19] Evidence of ancient wine found in Georgia a vintage
quaed some 6,000 years BC. Euronews. 21 May 2015.
Retrieved 24 May 2015.
[20] Thomas Stllner, Irina Gambaschidze (2014) THE
GOLD MINE OF SAKDRISI AND EARLIEST MINING AND METALLURGY IN THE TRANSCAUCASUS AND THE KURA-VALLEY SYSTEM
[21] David Marshall Lang (1997). Lives and Legends of the
Georgian Saints (2 ed.). St. Vladimirs Seminary Press.
ISBN 978-0913836293.
[22] Christianity and the Georgian Empire (early history)
Library of Congress, March 1994, webpage:LCweb2ge0015.
[23] Ronald Grigor Suny. Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia
Christianity and the Georgian Empire. DIANE Publishing, Apr 1, 1996, p. 158
[24] Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of
Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littleeld. pp. 527529.
ISBN 978-1442241466.

[34] Suny, Ronald Grigor (1996). Armenia, Azerbaijan, and

Georgia. DIANE Publishing. p. 184. ISBN 9780788128134. The Knight in the Panther Skin occupies
a unique position as the Georgian national epic.
[35] (Georgian) Javakhishvili, Ivane (1982), k'art'veli eris istoria (The History of the Georgian Nation), vol. 2, pp.
184187. Tbilisi State University Press.
[36] Antony Eastmond (2010). Royal Imagery in Medieval
Georgia. Penn State Press. p. 93. ISBN 9780271016283.
[37] Imagining history at the crossroads: Persia, Byzantium,
and the architects of the written Georgian past, Volume 2
p 652. University of Michigan 1997. Retrieved September 25, 2016.
[38] Eastmond, p. 93-95.
[39] Rene Grousset, Rene (1991). 'The Empire of the Steppes.
Rutgers University Press. p. 260.
[40] Ronald Grigor Suny. The Making of the Georgian Nation Indiana University Press, 1994. p 55
[41] Fisher et al. 1991, p. 328.
[42] [Treaty of Georgievsk] (in Russian). Moscow State University. 24 July 1783. Retrieved
1 February 2015.
[43] Relations between Tehran and Moscow, 17972014.
Retrieved 17 May 2015.
[44] Giorgi Lomsadze (11 October 2007). Time for a King
for Georgia?". Eurasianet. Retrieved 1 February 2015.

[25] GEORGIA iii. Iranian elements in Georgian art and

archeology. Retrieved 22 April 2015.

[45] Gvosdev (2000), p. 85

[26] Cyril Toumano (1967). Studies in Christian Caucasian

History. Georgetown University Press. pp. 8384, 377.

[47] Gvosdev (2000), p. 86

[46] Avalov (1906), p. 186

[48] Lang (1957), p. 249

[27] Sketches of Georgian Church History by Theodore Edward Dowling
[28] Dr Stephen H Rapp Jr. The Sasanian World through
Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth
in Late Antique Georgian Literature Ashgate Publishing,
Ltd., 28 sep. 2014. ISBN 1472425529 p 160
[29] Ronald Grigor Suny. The Making of the Georgian Nation
Indiana University Press, 1994 ISBN 0253209153 p 22
[30] Eastmond, p. 109.
[31] David Marshall Lang (1976). Modern History of Soviet
Georgia. London: Greenwood Press. p. 29. ISBN 9780837181837.
[32] Ivana Markov, Alex Gillespie, eds. (2011). Trust and
Conict: Representation, Culture and Dialogue. Cultural
Dynamics of Social Representation. p. 43. ISBN 9780415593465.
[33] Howard Aronson; Dodona Kiziria (1999). Georgian Literature and Culture. Slavica. p. 119. ISBN 9780893572785.

[49] Lang (1957), p. 251

[50] Lang (1957), p. 247
[51] Lang (1957), p. 252
[52] Timothy C. Dowling Russia at War: From the Mongol
Conquest to Afghanistan, Chechnya, and Beyond pp 728
ABC-CLIO, 2 dec. 2014 ISBN 1598849484
[53] Suny, Ronald Grigor (1994), The Making of the Georgian Nation: 2nd edition, p. 64. Indiana University Press,
ISBN 0253209153
[54] Allen F. Chew. An Atlas of Russian History: Eleven
Centuries of Changing Borders, Yale University Press,
1970, p. 74
[55] , . .; , . . (2010).
(in Russian).
Sochi.
[56] Stefan Talmon (1998), Recognition of Governments in International Law, p. 289-290. Oxford University Press,
ISBN 0-19-826573-5.

22

[57] Knight, Amy. Beria: Stalins First Lieutenant, Princeton

University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, p. 237, ISBN
978-0-691-01093-9.
[58] Government of Georgia:About Georgia. gov.ge. Retrieved August 9, 2016.
[59] Georgia/Abchasia: Violations of the laws of war and
Russias role in the conict. Hrw.org. March 1995.
[60] Russia The Ingush-Ossetian conict in the Prigorodnyi
region. Human Rights Watch/Helsinki. May 1996.
[61] EurasiaNet Eurasia Insight Georgias Rose Revolution:
Momentum and Consolidation. Eurasianet.org. Retrieved May 5, 2009.
[62] Gorshkov, Nikolai (September 19, 2002). Duma prepares for Georgia strike. BBC News. Retrieved July 24,
2009.
[63] Russia, Georgia strike deal on bases. Civil Georgia,
Tbilisi. May 30, 2005.
[64] Russia Hands Over Batumi Military Base to Georgia.
Civil Georgia, Tbilisi. November 13, 2007. Retrieved
July 24, 2009.
[65] Russias retention of Gudauta base An unfullled CFE
treaty commitment Socor, Vladirmir. The Jamestown
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[66] Russia criticised over Abkhazia. BBC News. 24 April
2008. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
[67] Russia says UN Abkhazian refugee resolution counterproductive. RIA Novosti. 16 May 2008. Retrieved 27
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[68] Brian Whitmore (12 September 2008). Is The Clock
Ticking For Saakashvili?'". RFE/RL. Retrieved 27 June
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[69] Countdown in the Caucasus: Seven days that brought
Russia and Georgia to war. Financial Times. 26 August
2008. Archived from the original on 20 September 2008.
Retrieved 27 June 2016.
[70] Marc Champion; Andrew Osborn (16 August 2008).
Smoldering Feud, Then War. The Wall Street Journal.
Retrieved 27 June 2016.
[71] Luke Harding (19 November 2008). Georgia calls on EU
for independent inquiry into war. The Guardian.
[72] Roy Allison (2008). Russia resurgent? Moscows campaign to 'coerce Georgia to peace'" (PDF). International
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[74] C. J. Chivers; Ellen Barry (6 November 2008). Georgia
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12

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[76] Armaments, Disarmament and International Security,
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[82] Harding, Luke (13 August 2008). Georgian villages
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[83] Harding, Luke (13 August 2008). Russias cruel intention. The Guardian. London. Retrieved 7 October 2008.
[84] Lessons And Losses Of Georgia'S Five-Day War With
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[85] Russian President Orders Halt To Military Operations
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[86] Russia hands over control of Georgian buer zones to
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[87] 00:52. RIA Novosti Russia Russia fully stas bases
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[88] Russia recognised the independence of Abkhazia and
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[90] Partt, Tom (13 August 2008). Russia exaggerating
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23

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[95] Resolution of the Parliament of Georgia declaring Abk- [114] EU, Georgia Sign ENP Action Plan, Civil Georgia, October 2, 2006.
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Melville, C. (1991). The Cambridge History of Iran.
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Ministry of Foreign Aairs of Georgia
Department of Tourism and Resorts
American Chamber of Commerce in Georgia
Chief of State and Cabinet Members
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Georgia. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.

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Geographic data related to Georgia (country) at
OpenStreetMap

27
Association of Modern Scientic Investigation
(AMSI)
News media
Civil Georgia, daily news about Georgia
Crisis prole, Georgia, Abkhazia, S. Ossetia From
Reuters Alertnet
Georgian Daily, all the latest news from Georgia and
related to Georgia
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the NewsGeorgia (Russian Language) site
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28

15

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