Properties of masses of particles Masses of solid particles,

especially when the particles are dry and not sticky, have many of
the properties of a fluid.
They exert pressure on the side of the walls of a container.
They flow through openings or down a chute.
They differ from liquids and gases in several ways unlike most
fluids, granular solids permanently resists distortion when
subjected to a moderate distorting force. When the force is large
enough, failure occurs and one layer of particles slides over
another.
Solid masses have following distinct properties
1. The pressure is not the same in all directions. In general, a
pressure applied in one direction creates some pressure in
other directions.
2. density of the mass may vary, depending on the degree of
packing of the grains. The bulk density is minimum when the
mass is loose. It rises to a maximum when the mass is packed
by vibrating or tamping.
3. When granular solids are piled up on a flat surface, the sides
of the piles are at a definite reproducible angle with the
horizontal. This angle r is called the angle of repose of the
material. For free flowing granular solids r is often between
15o and 30o.

The angle of repose

When bulk granular materials are poured onto a horizontal surface, a conical
pile will form. The internal angle between the surface of the pile and the
horizontal surface is known as the angle of repose and is related to the density,
surface area and shapes of the particles, and the coefficient of friction of the
material. However, a 2011 study shows that the angle of repose is also gravitydependent.[2] Material with a low angle of repose forms flatter piles than
material with a high angle of repose.

The angle of repose

[The coefficient of friction (COF), often symbolized by the Greek letter , is a dimensionless scalar
value which describes the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force pressing them
together. The coefficient of friction depends on the materials used; for example, ice on steel has a low
coefficient of friction, while rubber on pavement has a high coefficient of friction.]
The angle of repose can range from 0 to 90. Smooth, rounded sand grains cannot be piled as steeply as
can rough, interlocking sands.

Material (condition)

Angle of Repose (degrees)

Ashes

40

Bark (wood refuse)

45

Chalk
Clay (dry lump)
Clay (wet excavated)

45
2540
15

Coconut (shredded)
Coffee bean (fresh)

45
3545

Flour (wheat)
Granite
Gravel (loose dry)
Gravel (natural w/ sand)

45
3540
3045
2530

Sand (dry)
Sand (water filled)
Sand (wet)
Snow

34
1530
45
38 [6]

Angle of friction- Powder is contained in a bed with transparent walls and is

allowed to flow out through a slot in the centre of the base. It is found that a
triangular wedge of material in the centre flows out leaving stationary material at

the outside. The angle between the cleavage separating stationary and flowing
material and the horizontal is the angle of friction.

Depending on their flow properties particulate solids are divided into two
classes, cohesive and non-cohesive. Noncohesive materials such as grains, dry
sand and plastic chips flow freely out of storage bins. Cohesive solids such as
wet clay, are characterized by their reluctance to flow through openings.

Storage of Solids
Bulk storage- Coarse solids such as gravel and coal are
stored outside in large piles, unprotected from weather. Out
door storage can lead to environmental problems such as
dusting leaching of soluble material from the pile.

Dusting- may necessitate a protective cover

Leaching- can be controlled by locating it in a shallow

basin with an impervious floor.

Bin storage- Solids that are valuable or too soluble to

expose are stored in bins, hoppers or silos.
A silo is tall and relatively small in diameter.
A bin is not so tall and relatively wide.
A hopper is a small vessel with a sloping bottom, for
temp storage before feeding solids to a process.

Silos are more commonly used for bulk storage of grain, coal, cement, carbon black, woodchips, food
products and sawdust. Storage silos are cylindrical structures, typically 10 to 90 ft (4 to 30 m) in
diameter and 30 to 275 ft (10 to 84 m) in height

Bins
A bin is typically much shorter than a silo, and is typically used for holding dry matter such as concrete
or grain. Bins may be round or square, but round bins tend to empty more easily due to a lack of corners
for the stored material to become wedged.

Hoppers

Pressure in bins and silos- There is friction between

the wall and the solid grains. The vertical pressure on
the vessel floor is much smaller than that exerted by a

column of liquid of the same density and height. When

height of the solid column is greater than about 3 times
the diameter of the container, additional solids have no
effect on the pressure at the base.
In granular solids a high pressure does not always
increase the tendency to flow, as it does in liquid;
instead increased pressure packs the grains more tightly
together and makes flow difficult.
Flow- Solids tend to flow out of any opening near the
bottom of a bin but are best discharged through an
opening in the floor.
a) Flow through a side opening tends to be
uncertain and increases lateral pressure.
b) A bottom outlet is less likely to clog and does not
induce abnormally high pressure on the wall at any
point.

Flow pattern

Mass flow- occurs in cone bottomed bins with tall, steep

cone all the material moves downward uniformly from
the top of the bin.
Tunnel flow-develops in bins with a shallow cone angle
or with vertical wall and a central opening in the floor.
Here a vertical column of solids above the opening
moves downwards without disturbing the material at
the sides. Eventually lateral flow begins. This type of
flow is also called piping or rat holing as a result of this
some solids at the sides may be retained for long
periods in the hopper and may deteriorate. Ideally mass
flow is required.

Rate of flow-with free flowing particles the rate of

.

solids flow

varies approximately with Do3, where Do

is the diameter of the discharge opening. The discharge

opening should be small enough to be readily closed
when solids are flowing, yet not so small that it will
clog. It is best to make the opening large enough to pass
the full desired flow when half open. It can be opened
further to clear a partial choke. If the opening is too
large, however, the shut off valve may be hard to close
and control of the flow rate will be poor.