Motors and Generators

Learning Outcome
When you complete this module you will be able to:
Describe the operating principles of the various types of AC and DC motors or
generators.

Learning Objectives
Here is what you will be able to do when you complete each objective:
1. Describe the construction and operation of DC generators and motors.
2. Describe the construction and operation of AC generators (alternators) and
motors.
3. Interpret the information on a motor nameplate.
4. Discuss and perform basic calculations relating to power factor and power
factor correction.

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INTRODUCTION
Electrical machines and devices are used in every type of industry. All engineers
and building operators must be familiar with the basic principles involved in order
to operate buildings efficiently and safely. A basic knowledge of electrical
equipment aids in troubleshooting when problems do occur.

DC MACHINES
The capacity of a simple loop generator or motor is severely limited by the
simplicity of its construction. Permanent magnets are used only on small dc
motors and generators. A more practical arrangement of a dc machine is shown in
Fig. 1.

Figure 1
Basic Construction of a DC Machine
In order to produce the strength of magnetic field required in large dc machines,
electromagnets called field poles are used. The field poles are built up of layers of
silicon steel plated called laminations. In Fig. 2, the side of the laminations in
each pole can be seen. Instead of a single loop, coils are laid in slots in the
armature. The ends of the coils are brought to one end of the armature and
connected to commutator bars or segments. The commutator is made of copper
bars mounted in dec, an insulating material. The armature core is built up of
laminations of silicon steel plates mounted on a shaft that is carried in bearings at
each end of the machine.

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Brush gear is used to transfer power to or from the armature, depending on

whether the machine is a generator or a motor. Carbon brushes are mounted in
insulated holders. The brushes are held in contact with the commutator by springs.
Copper wire imbedded in the brushes is used to connect the brushes to the
machines terminals. Carbon is used for brushes because it is softer than the
copper commutator bars and wears to a smooth surface with a low coefficient of
friction. As the brushes wear out, they are replaced. If the brushes and brush gear
are looked after properly, the commutator will last for several years without
having to be resurfaced.
The yoke that contains and supports the main components of the dc machine is
frequently made of cast steel or iron. Ventilation openings are provided at each
end of the machine so that heat buildup is removed by air flowing around the
armature and field poles. A fan is generally mounted on the rotor shaft, providing
forced circulation.

Figure 2
Basic DC Machine
It is interesting to note that a dc generator will run as a dc motor when connected
as a motor. A dc motor will generate electricity when connected as a generator. In
each case, the efficiency may be reduced because of specific design differences in
generators and motors.
DC GENERATORS
DC generators were used almost exclusively during the first years of the electrical
industry. They still have their place in industry in special applications. They are
used where processes or equipment require dc power. Portable electric welding
machines often use dc generators. DC generators are used to supply dc power to
elevators.

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1.

Types of DC Generators

There are three main types of dc generators. They are the series, shunt, and
compound wound types. Fig. 3 shows schematic type diagrams of these three
types. Each of these generators is self-excited; that is, they supply part of the
current that they generate as an exciting current to the field windings.

Figure 3
Self-Excited DC Generators
A fourth type is the separately excited generator, as shown in Fig. 4.

Figure 4
Separately Excited DC Generator
The characteristics of the four types of dc generators at various (current) loads are
as follows:
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Shunt wound: nearly constant output voltage at all loads. The voltage decreases
only slightly from no load to full load conditions. This is due to the fact that the
shunt field winding is connected to the output terminals from the armature, so the
strength of the magnetic field produced is fairly constant.
Series wound: output voltage rises sharply from minimum load to full load
conditions. The armature current, generated to supply the load, flows through the
series field. As load current increases, field strength increases and output voltage
increases.
Compound wound: depending upon the design, this generator may have:
1.
2.
3.

A rising output voltage vs load

A constant output voltage
A decreasing output voltage vs load

These, characteristics may be designed in by changing the relative percentage of

series and shunt fields during the construction of the generator.
Separately excited: has constant output voltage at all loads. The load current has
no effect on the field excitation, since the field current is supplied by a separate
source.
Shunt, compound, and separately excited dc generators are the types most
frequently used. Compound generators are designed for constant output voltage or
for decreasing output voltage vs load. The latter type is used in dc welding
generators where a high voltage is required to strike an arc, but once the arc is
established, low voltage and high current is desired.
2.

DC Generator Control

As previously mentioned the three factors affecting the electromotive force

developed by a generator are:
1.

The speed with which conductors cut the magnetic lines of force.

2.

The strength of the magnetic field.

3.

The number of conductors cutting the magnetic lines of force.

An increase in any one of these three factors causes an increase in the

electromotive force generated. Most generators are driven by a constant speed
driver. The number of conductors on the armature is determined prior to
construction and is a fixed quantity as far as the operator of a generator is
concerned.
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The only factor left that can easily be used to control the output voltage of a dc
generator is a field regulator, which varies the strength of the field by controlling
the current to the electromagnets of the poles.
A rheostat (variable resistance) (Fig. 5) is connected in series with the shunt field
winding and is used to control the current flow through the shunt field as shown
in Fig. 6. A low value of current flow through the shunt field produces a weak
magnetic field while a high value of field current produces a strong magnetic
field. Through changing the field current (excitation current), the output voltage
of the generator is controlled.

Figure 5
Rheostat

Figure 6
Shunt Generator with Field Regulator
DC MOTORS
DC motors are built in three main types similar to dc generators. The types are
shunt, series, and compound. Shunt and separately excited dc motors are the same
for practical purposes.

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DC Motor characteristics:
Shunt

constant speed.

Series

high speed at low load, low speed at high load. It has a

high starting torque, and is used as a traction motor for
cranes, vehicles, etc.

Compound

may be designed to incorporate characteristics of both

series and shunt motors, as desired for a particular
application.

The compound motor is often used where fairly constant speed is required, as well
as the ability to handle sudden large loads.

1.

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Back Electromotive Force

When a dc motor is running, the armature conductors are cutting the magnetic
lines of force between the field poles. According to the Right Hand Rule for
generators an electromotive force will be induced in the moving armature
conductor. This electromotive force will act in the opposite direction to the
applied electromotive force in the armature conductor that is tending to drive the
motor. It is called a back electromotive force. Since it is in opposition to the
applied electromotive force, it reduces the current flow through the motors
armature. When the motor slows down due to an applied load, the back
electromotive force decreases because the armature conductors are not cutting the
magnetic lines of force as quickly, and armature current increases, increasing the
power output of the motor.

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If the field circuit of a shunt or compound wound motor is suddenly opened

(current to the field coils is cut off), the field strength will drop sharply. All that
remains is the residual magnetism of the pole pieces. The magnetic field is very
weak.
With the loss of the field current, armature current increases sharply since there is
very little back electromotive force generated to oppose it. The motor begins to
speed up quickly. Excessively high speed may cause serious damage and possible
destruction of the motor. Usually, protective devices - fuses or circuit breakers turn off a motor before it has a chance to run away.
Motor speed is inversely proportional to field strength. Increasing the field
strength slows the motor; decreasing the field strength speeds up the motor.

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2.

Applications of DC Motors

Shunt motors are used where approximately constant speed is to be maintained

between no-load and full-load; e.g. lathes, drills, and other machine tools.
Series motors are preferred where a large starting torque is of prime importance,
and where the motor is firmly coupled to a load whose torque decreases with
speed; e.g. hoists, cranes, fans, and automobile starters.
Compound motors are used where high starting torques are required, but where
series motors cannot be used because the load may fall to small values; e.g.
stamping presses, pumps, elevators, conveyors, and escalators.

3.

Maintenance of DC Machines

All electrical equipment should be kept clean, dry, and vibration free. In addition,
rotating electrical machinery should be free running with minimal friction at the
moving parts. The dc machine, because of its commutator, brushes, and brush
rigging, is particularly vulnerable to dirt, grease, oil, moisture, and corrosive
atmospheres.
Dust and dirt which are allowed to cover electrical machinery form a thermal
blanket which can cause the machine to operate at a higher temperature than is
necessary. High temperatures, even for short periods of time, can seriously affect
insulation materials and reduce the operating life of the equipment.
Protective plates and covers should never be left off machines for longer periods
than is strictly necessary to conduct visual inspection or repairs.
Bearings should be replaced at the first sign of trouble. It should be remembered
that over-lubrication is sometimes worse than lack of lubrication. Grease
lubricated bearings should be filled to about 40% of the capacity of the bearing
housing for shaft sizes up to about 75 mm diameter, and about 60% capacity for
larger sizes. Information concerning the correct grade of lubricating oil or grease
can easily be obtained from the manufacturer of the equipment.
The commutator should be checked periodically for signs of sparking or pitting,
and the brushes should be replaced when worn or chipped. The brushes should
move easily in their holders, and should be vibration free. The tension in the
brushes for industrial machines should be of the order of about 15 kPa (2 psi).

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AC MACHINES
There are basic differences between ac machines and dc machines. For instance,
ac generators use slip rings instead of commutators. Far more ac machines are
used in all phases of industry today than dc machines. It is not economical to
build dc machines in large sizes, but large ac machines are commonly built.
Alternators
Alternators are generators that produce alternating current. Alternators may be
built the same way as the simple loop machine, having a stationary field and
rotating conductors. However, it is more practical to build them with a rotating
field and stationary conductors (Fig. 7). The rotating field is obtained by exciting
windings on the rotor with dc power supplied through a pair of slip rings. Small
portable alternators use a permanent magnet on the rotor. The stationary
conductors are called the stator.
The advantages of having an alternator with a rotating field are:
1.

Brushes and slip rings carry only the excitation current, which has a much
smaller voltage and amperage than the current supplied by the stator to the
output terminals.

2.

The size of the rotating mass is reduced.

3.

Only one pair of slip rings is required for a three-phase rotating field
alternator versus a minimum of three rings for a three-phase stationary
field alternator.

4.

It is easier to insulate the output leads, especially important when

operating at high voltages.
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Figure 7
Two Pole Alternator (Single-Phase)

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1.

Alternator Construction

The stator of an alternator is built of silicon steel laminations mounted in a frame.

The stator windings are placed in slots in the stator. The rotor poles may be built
of laminations of silicon steel mounted on a shaft. The rotor windings are placed
around the poles. This type of construction (Fig. 8) is used for low speed rotors
(1800 r/min and less).

Figure 8
4 Pole Rotor Construction (1800 r/min)
The rotor of an alternator operating at 3600 r/min is constructed of a cylindrical
casting. Slots are cut in the casting for the rotor windings (Fig. 7). The windings
are held in place with wedges.
Both the preceding types of rotor construction use slip rings made of brass or
steel. Brush gear with carbon brushes is used to connect the dc excitation source
to the rotor windings through the slip rings.

2.

Alternator Frequency

A two-pole alternator has two field poles on the rotor (rotating field construction).
Each time the rotor makes one revolution, one complete cycle is produced at the
alternator terminals. In order to produce 60 Hz power, the rotor must turn 60 r/s,
or 3600 r/min.
A four-pole alternator has four field poles so each time the rotor makes one
revolution, two complete cycles are produced at the alternator terminals. Using
the same logic as before, the rotor would have to turn at 1800 r/min to produce 60
Hz power.

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3.

Alternator Voltage Control

The electromotive force developed was stated previously as being proportional to

speed, field strength, and number of conductors. Since the speed must be constant
to maintain a constant frequency, and the number of conductors is fixed, only the
field strength may be adjusted to control the output voltage. The field strength is
adjusted by varying the dc current supplied to the rotating field. This may be done
manually with a field rheostat, or automatically through electronic control.

Figure 9
Schematic Representation of an Alternator
Three-Phase Alternators
In the case of the three-phase alternator, the coil windings are connected in three
different groups, one for each phase. In this manner, three different voltages,
identical in magnitude but displaced from each other by 120 are produced.
There are two distinct ways of connecting these coil groupings. Fig. 10 uses a
single coil symbol to represent each phase grouping, (a) illustrating the star or
wye connection, and (b) showing the delta connection.

Star Connection
(a)

Delta Connection
(b)

Figure 10
Three-Phase Alternator Coil Windings
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This module will not be concerned with the comparative merits of these two
connections. Each of them can be used to supply three-phase loads.
Paralleling Alternators
The process of connecting an alternator in parallel with other alternators or a
system already in operation is sometimes referred to as synchronizing, and
requires fulfillment of the following conditions by the alternator to be
synchronized at the moment of synchronization with the operating system.

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1.

The alternator to be connected must be producing the same voltage as

the system.

2.

Its phase sequence must be the same as the system.

3.

It must be in phase with the system.

4.

Alternator frequency and system frequency must be the same.

Synchronization of phase and frequency is usually done by means of a

synchroscope, which will indicate if an alternator must be speeded up or slowed
down to achieve synchronization. Its operation is relatively simple, but building
operators should receive expert instruction from an electrical technician before
attempting synchronization. In buildings, synchronization will be done when a
building is generating some of its own power (such as with the emergency
generator), and the power is being fed into non-isolated circuits that are connected
to the regular power supply.

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Disconnecting an Alternator
To take an alternator off the line in a system involving two or more alternators,
the driving torque of the prime mover of the alternator to be removed should be
reduced until the alternator is supplying zero current to the system. At this point
the alternators main disconnect switch can be opened, disconnecting the machine
from the system. The output voltage is then reduced to a minimum by means of
the field rheostat, and the dc field excitation switch is opened. The prime mover
can now be stopped.

THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS
Three-phase induction motors are superior to single-phase motors in a number of
respects. They are self-starting, smaller in dimensions for a given power rating
have better power factors and higher efficiencies.
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1.

Principle of Operation

The stator of the induction motor is identical to that of the three-phase alternator.
In the alternator, a magnetic field produced by supplying the rotor with dc current
is rotated and produces three-phase voltages in the stator winding. As in many
other electrical devices, this effect is reversible. Supplying a three-phase stator
from a three-phase supply causes a rotating field of constant magnitude and
constant speed to be produced inside the stator.
The most common type of rotor used in induction motors is the squirrel cage
rotor. This rotor consists of heavy copper or aluminum bars fitted into slots in the
rotor iron. All the bars are shorted together at each end of the rotor by shorting
rings of the same material as the bars. All the iron of the magnetic circuit is
laminated to minimize eddy currents.
As the magnetic field rotates, it cuts the conductors of the squirrel cage rotor
inducing currents in the rotor bars. These currents in turn produce magnetic fields
which distort the main field, which, in attempting to straighten out, tries to push
the bars away from the field in the same direction as the field is travelling. Thus
torque is produced, the rotor rotates and tries to attain the same speed as the
magnetic field. It can never do this, however, because if it did rotate at the same
speed, there would be no relative movement between the rotating field and the
rotor bars, hence induction of voltage would cease, rotor current and, therefore,
torque would cease, the rotor would slow down, and relative movement between
field and rotor would again exist, producing torque.

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In practice, the rotor always rotates at a slower speed than the field, and the
difference in speed between the two is called the slip speed. The slip speed is
always just enough to produce the necessary voltage, and therefore current and
torque to satisfy the load on the motor.
2.

The Wound-Rotor (Slip-Ring) Induction Motor

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The stator of a wound-rotor motor is identical to that of a normal induction motor.

The rotor consists of coils of many turns instead of the heavy bars of the squirrel
cage rotor. The ends of the wound-rotor winding are connected to slip-rings
mounted on the rotor shaft. An external resistance may be connected to the slip
rings in order to control the rotor current. Increased resistance in the rotor circuit
during starting reduces the starting current the motor draws, and allows control of
starting torque. As the motor comes up to operating speed, the resistance is
gradually shorted out.
The resistance in the rotor circuit may be used to control the speed of the motor
during operation, though the efficiency of the motor is reduced.

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In any induction motor, in order to develop high starting torque with low starting
current, the rotor resistance needs to be high. As the machine speeds up, the
resistance of the rotor needs to be reduced in order to maintain a high level of
torque. The resistance of a squirrel cage rotor is fixed, and a high resistance rotor
giving high starting torque unfortunately also gives high slip when fully
accelerated.
The wound-rotor enables external resistance to be inserted into the rotor circuit
during starting and gradually taken out as the motor accelerates. The wound-rotor
motor thus enables a high torque to be maintained during the starting period.
Wound-rotor motors are also used for speed control; higher rotor circuit resistance
causes higher slip and therefore lower motor speed. It is a very inefficient method
of speed control due to the heating losses within the rotor circuit resistors,
although inexpensive in terms of capital cost of equipment. Fig. 11 shows a
schematic arrangement of the wound rotor motor.

Figure 11
Wound Rotor Induction Motor Schematic
3.

Synchronous Motors

The synchronous motor is identical in construction to the alternator. Any

synchronous machine can be run as an alternator or a motor. Both require a dc
supply to the rotor. The difference is that the alternator is driven by a prime mover
and generates an ac electromotive force in the stator windings. The synchronous
motor on the other hand has an ac supply connected to the stator windings. In the
case of the three-phase synchronous motor a rotating field of constant speed and
constant magnitude is produced as in the three-phase induction motor. Unlike the
induction motor rotor which depends on slip for its torque, the dc rotor field
locks in to the rotating field of the stator causing the rotor to rotate at
synchronous speed from no-load to full-load.

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If the synchronous motor is too heavily overloaded, it will not run at reduced
speeds as will the induction motor; it simply drops out of synchronism, producing
heavy currents which cause the circuit protective devices to trip it out of the
circuit.
One of the main advantages of the synchronous motor is that it can be run at a
leading power factor unlike other motors which run at a lagging power factor. If a
facility has a poor power factor, which is often the case due to the number of
motor loads with lagging power factors, a penalty is levied by the electrical
supply company, causing the electrical energy used to be more expensive. If the
dc supply to the synchronous motors in the facility is increased, causing
overexcitation and a leading power factor for such motors, this will help to
improve the overall power factor, thus decreasing the cost of energy.

SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTORS
Single-phase motors are more commonly found in ratings not exceeding
500 watts output, although larger ratings do exist. Apart from the commutator
type motors, such as the universal series motor and the repulsion motor, singlephase motors require special starting windings.

AC Motor Speed Control

Speed control of ac motors in the past was fairly limited. It was accomplished in
wound rotor motors at the cost of poor efficiency by introducing resistance into
the rotor circuit, thus reducing the current in the rotor conductors and hence the
strength of the rotors magnetic field, causing the motor to run slow as if
overloaded.
Squirrel cage induction motors were designed with several fields and connections,
so that the speed could be stepped by changing from four-pole to two-pole or
other configurations.
Modern electronics has reduced the cost of frequency-changing equipment to the
point where it has become economical to supply a motor with a variable
frequency power supply so that the motor speed can be smoothly increased or
decreased. An important application of this equipment is the use of variable speed
pumps and fans to control flows rather than constant speed pumps and fans in
combination with control valves and dampers. The motor drive is operated just
fast enough to provide the required flows, rather than wasting power by throttling
across valves or dampers.

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In general, the percentage drop in frequency is proportional to the percentage drop

in motor speed. For example, an induction motor that rotates at
1725 r/min when supplied with ac power at 60 Hz, will operate at 1581 r/min (a
reduction of 8.33%) when supplied with ac power at 55 Hz (a reduction of 8.33%
in frequency).
As long as the frequency change is not too great, standard induction motors may
be used. Larger speed changes require some redesign of the motor.

MOTOR NAMEPLATE INFORMATION

Electric motors nameplates contain information relative to their construction,
application, and service, as well as the manufacturers name. The following items
are included.
Frame Number

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Motor frames are assigned numbers, which designate a specific set of external
dimensions and a particular horsepower at a given speed. This means that all
motors with the same frame number, even though marketed by different
manufacturers, can be used for a specific application. They are interchangeable.
The frame number is always indicated on the identification tag attached to the
motor.
Frame numbers are illustrated in Table 1 for three-phase motors up to 112 kW
(150 hp) size.

Type
This is a manufacturers designation, which indicates the enclosure. Enclosures
are open, drip-proof, totally enclosed, fan-cooled, or explosion proof. During
operation, the internal temperature of a motor will rise considerably, and, in order
to keep this temperature rise within reasonable limits, this heat must be removed.
Most motors are therefore air-cooled.
In open-type motors, the cooling air is drawn directly from the surrounding
atmosphere by a fan and is then forced through the motor. This fan forms either
an integral part of the rotor, or it is separately mounted on the shaft. This
arrangement requires that the motor be equipped with sufficient air openings,
usually in the end bells, to allow the air to pass through. Screens or guards are
provided to prevent access to moving or live parts.

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The totally enclosed motor is not open to the atmosphere. Instead, the required
cooling air is either supplied by an outside source, or is recirculated inside the
motor and is cooled by some form of heat exchange.

Table 1
Frame Sizes Three-Phase Motors

Open type motors are commonly used for most nonindustrial building services.
Since the possibility exists that water may enter the motor, the size, location, and
shape of the air openings vary so as to prevent the entrance of water by any means
other than flooding.
Open type motors are divided into the following National Electrical
Manufacturers Association (NEMA) classifications according to the increasing
protection they offer against water infiltration:
Drip proof: an open enclosure where water or solid particles falling on the motor
at any angle from vertical to 15 from vertical are prevented from entering the
motor. Screens or guards may be included.
Splash proof: built similar to the above except entry angle is restricted in the
range of vertical to 100 from the vertical.

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Weather protected: construction is arranged to prevent or minimize entrance of

rain, snow, or other particles from contacting live or rotating parts.
Waterproof: construction is totally enclosed, arranged to prevent ingress of
water. It is tested by applying a stream of water from a hose. A check valve or
tapped drain is provided to drain the enclosure. Waterproof enclosures are used in
applications such as cooling tower fans.
Other types of enclosures used for special applications include externally
ventilated, and explosion proof.

Insulation
Many different materials are available for the electrical insulation of stator and
rotor windings. Since one of the most important factors in the selection of an
insulation is the ability to withstand high temperatures, these materials are divided
into classes A, B, F, and H, according to their increasing thermal endurance.
The internal temperature of all motors will rise during operation, but this rise
should be restricted to prevent deterioration of the insulation. For instance, the
older, open type, general service motors used in buildings are equipped with Class
A insulation.
When operated in 40C ambient temperature, the internal temperature is allowed
to rise 40 to 50C maximum above the ambient temperature. Any increase above
this limit would shorten the life expectancy of the insulation considerably. Late
model, general service motors are equipped with Class B insulation which has a
much better heat resistance. The internal temperature is now allowed to rise 70 to
80C above the ambient temperature of 40C. As a general rule, it can be
expected that life expectancy of insulation is halved for each 10 degree rise in
temperature. The maximum allowable internal temperature rise is usually
indicated on the motor identification tag as maximum allowable temperature
rise, in C.
Duty
Motors are designed for either continuous or intermittent duty.
Service Factor
This indicates permissible overload. It is often 15% for short periods of time. If
nameplate voltage and frequency conditions are maintained, the motor may be
loaded up to the power output obtained by multiplying the nameplate power by
the service factor. The maximum allowable temperature may, however, be
reduced.
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Horsepower or Kilowatts
This is the power delivered by the motor.
R/Min
This is the speed at which the motor operates.

POWER FACTOR
The power in a dc current is equal to the product of voltage and current, thus P =
EI (watts). The same formula can be used for an ac circuit containing only
resistance since voltage and current are in phase.
Many ac circuits contain, besides resistance, capacitance or inductance, and the
current in these circuits will be either leading or lagging behind the voltage. This
means that part of the current in these circuits will not do any useful work, as it
simply surges back and forth in the circuit, heating it. This surging current is
called the wattless current and the power being lost this way is called the wattless
power. The power doing actual work is called actual power, while the power
supplied to the system is called apparent power, the sum of actual and wattless
power.
The ratio of actual power and apparent power is called the power factor, thus
power factor =

actual power
apparent power

The power apparently supplied to a circuit with inductance or capacitance is

expressed in volt amperes (VA) or kilovolt amperes (kVA), the product of applied
voltage and current. The actual power is expressed in watts or kilowatts and is the
product of voltage, current, and power factor, thus

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actual power (P) = EI power factor (watts)

This is the power recorded by the wattmeter and kWh meter.

Example:
Power is supplied to a circuit at 240 V. The current drawn is 100 A, while the
current doing actual work is 80 A. What is the power factor, the apparent power,
the actual power and the wattless power?
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Solution:
actual power
power factor = apparent power
actual power
I actual
apparent power = EI apparent
power factor = 240 V 80 A
240 V 100 A
power factor = 0.8 (Ans.)
apparent power = EI
= 240 V 100 A
= 24000 VA or 24kVA (Ans.)
actual power = EI power factor
= 240 V 100 A 0.8
= 19200 W or 19.2 kW (Ans.)
wattless power = 240 V (100 80 A)
= 4800 W or 4.8 kW (Ans.)

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POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Low power factor (pf) in general is due to the number of induction motors and
other inductive equipment connected to the ac distribution system.
The greater the proportion of inductive current flow compared to resistive current
flow, the greater is the line current. Power losses in the distribution system are
equal to I2R where I is the line current flowing in the system, and R is the
resistance of the distribution system. Power system losses increase according to
the square of the current flow (I2).
If the electrical users system power factor is kept close the unity (1), the system
losses are decreased. Users that have a poor power factor (less than 0.8) are
penalized by the utility for the distribution losses by increased power rates.

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Capacitor Correction
Capacitive reactance will cancel inductive reactance. Power factor correction is
accomplished by placing capacitors in parallel with inductive circuits.
In some systems, the power factor correction capacitors are connected to the main
supply. If this is the case, the system power factor may change to a leading power
factor with the distribution voltage rising as induction motors are shut off.
Overcorrection beyond unity power factor causes high voltage and poor voltage
regulation as well as increasing the line current. Cases have been documented
where overcorrection has eliminated any savings that may have been attained by
use of the proper amount of correction.
Power factor correction capacitors are generally sized to yield a power factor of
0.95. The additional cost of capacitors is not warranted against the savings
achieved obtaining a unity (1.0) power factor.
Synchronous Motor Correction
Power factor correction may also be accomplished through the operation of
synchronous motors. Induction motors take their excitation current from the ac
supply line as reactive power. Synchronous motors use a separate dc power
supply to provide excitation current. The level of dc excitation current may be
adjusted to underexcite, provide unity power factor, or to overexcite the
synchronous motor.
If the synchronous motor is under excited, it will draw reactive power from the ac
system, yielding a lagging power factor similar to induction motors. As the level
of dc excitation is increased, the power factor increases until the motor receives
all its excitation power from the dc supply, and the power factor is equal to one. If
the excitation is further increased, the power factor will be leading. Synchronous
motor operation with a leading power factor (overexcited) will supply reactive
power to the system, correcting the lagging power factor of induction motors.
Power Factor Control Through Proper Selection of Induction Motors
Proper selection of induction motors aids in maintaining a high system power
factor. Induction motors operating at low loads cause low power factors, yet at
full load will provide a power factor of approximately 0.85. Many motors have
been installed with lots of spare capacity, so the motor will never be overloaded,
and will have a long life span. However, the motors operating costs would be
reduced substantially by sizing the motor to meet its highest expected load, and
operating it fully loaded.

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Notes:

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