Formula Notes (Control Systems)

Control Systems

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Open Loop Control System:

In this system the output is not feedback for comparison with the input.
Open loop system faithfulness depends upon the accuracy of input calibration.

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When a designer designs, he simply design open loop system.

Closed Loop Control System: It is also termed as feedback control system. Here
the output has an effect on control action through a feedback. Ex. Human being
Transfer Function:

Transfer function =

C(s)
G(s)

R(s) 1 + G(s)H(s)

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Comparison of Open Loop and Closed Loop control systems:

Open Loop:
1. Accuracy of an open loop system is defined by the calibration of input.
2. Open loop system is simple to construct and cheap.
3. Open loop systems are generally stable.
4. Operation of this system is affected due to presence of non-linearity in its
elements.

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Closed Loop:
1. As the error between the reference input and the output is continuously
measured through feedback. The closed system works more accurately.
2. Closed loop systems is complicated to construct and it is costly.
3. It becomes unstable under certain conditions.
4. In terms of performance the closed loop system adjusts to the effects of nonlinearity present.
Transfer Function: The transfer function of an LTI system may be defined as the
ratio of Laplace transform of output to Laplace transform of input under the
assumption
Y(s)
G(s) =
X(s)
The transfer function is completely specified in terms of its poles and zeros and
the gain factor.

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Formula Notes (Control Systems)

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The T.F. function of a system depends on its elements, assuming initial

conditions as zero and is independent of the input function.
To find a gain of system through transfer function put s = 0
4
s4
Example:
G(s) = 2
Gain =
9
s 6s 9
If a step, ramp or parabolic response of T.F. is given, then we can find Impulse
Response directly through differentiation of that T.F.
d
(Parabolic Response) = Ramp Response
dt
d
(Ramp Response) = Step Response
dt
d
(Step Response) = Impulse Response
dt
Block Diagram Reduction:
Rule
Original Diagram
Equivalent Diagram
X 1 G 1 G2
X
G
G
X1
1. Combining
1 1 2
X1G1
X1
G
G
1 2
blocks in cascade
G1
G2

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2.. oving a
summing point
after a block

3. Moving a
summing point
ahead of block

X1

4. Moving a take
off point after a
block
X1

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X1 G

X1

X1

1/G

X1 G

Formula Notes (Control Systems)

X1

5. Moving a take
off point ahead of
a block

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X 1G

X1
X 1G

X 1G

6. Eliminating a
feedback loop

X1

X 1G

X2

1GH

(GX1 X2 )

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Signal Flow Graphs:

It is a graphical representation of control system.
Signal Flow Graph of Block Diagram:

pk k

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Masons Gain Formula:

Transfer function =

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pk Path gain of k th forward path

1 [Sum of all individual loops] + [Sum of gain products of two non-touching
loops] [Sum of gain products of 3 non-touching loops] + ..
k Value of obtained by removing all the loops touching k th forward path as
well as non-touching to each other

Some Laplace and Z Transforms

F (s)

f (nT )

F (z)

1
s

1(nT )

1
s2

z
z1

nT

1
s+a

eanT

a
s(s + a)

1 eanT

a
+ a)

s2 (s

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(anT 1 + eanT )/a

Tz
(z 1)2

z
z eaT

z(1 eaT )
(z 1)(z eaT )

z[z(aT 1 + eaT ) + (1 (1 + aT )eaT )]

a(z 1)2 (z eaT )

Formula Notes (Control Systems)

Laplace Transform:

Inverse Laplace Transform:

Fourier Transform:

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Inverse Fourier Transform:

Star Transform:

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Inverse Z Transform:

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Z Transform:

Modified Z Transform:

Final Value Theorem:

Initial Value Theorem:

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Formula Notes (Control Systems)

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Unit Step Function:

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Unit Ramp Function:

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Unit Parabolic Function:

Closed-Loop Transfer Function:

Open-Loop Transfer Function:

Characteristic Equation:

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Formula Notes (Control Systems)

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Time Response of 2nd order system :

Step i/P :
e n t

C(t) = 1-

e(t) =

ess = lim

12

e n t
12

12

(sin n 1 2 t tan1
12

sin tan1

e n t

12

sin tan1

12

Damping ratio ; n Damping factor

< 1(Under damped ) :e n t
12

Sin tan1

12

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C(t) = 1- =

= 0 (un damped) :c(t) = 1- cos n t

= 1 (Critically damped ) :-

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C(t) = 1 - en t (1 + n t)
> 1 (over damped) :-

T=

gr

C(t) = 1 -

Tundamped > Toverdamped > Tunderdamped > Tcriticaldamp

Time Domain Specifications :

Rise time t r =

Peak time t p =

n
n
d

12

Max over shoot % Mp = en/1 100

Settling time t s = 3T
5% tolerance
= 4T

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12

= tan1

2% tolerance

Formula Notes (Control Systems)

1+0.7
n

Delay time t d =

Time period of oscillations T =

Damping factor 2 2 =

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(ln Mp )2
2
+ (ln Mp )2

2
d
ts d
2

s
No of oscillations = 2/
=
d

t r 1.5 t d t r = 2.2 T
Resonant peak Mr =

212

>

>

; r = n 1 22

Bandwidth b = n (1 22 + 4 4 4 2 + 2)1/2

r < n < b

Static error coefficients :

1
1+KP

Ramp i/p (t) : ess =

(positional error)

1
Kv

Parabolic i/p (t 2 /2) : ess = 1/ K a

Type < i/p ess =

Type = i/p ess finite
Type > i/p ess = 0
Sensitivity S =

K p = lim () ()
0

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ess =

K v = lim ()()
0

K a = lim s 2 ()()
0

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()
0 1+

Step i/p : ess = lim () = lim () = lim

A/A
K/K

sensitivity of A w.r.to K.

Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t forward path T/F G(s) :

Open loop:
S =1

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Closed loop :

S=

1
1+G(s)H(s)

Minimum S value preferable

Sensitivity of over all T/F w.r.t feedback T/F H(s) : S =

Stability RH Criterion :

G(s)H(s)
1+G(s)H(s)

Take characteristic equation 1+ G(s) H(s) = 0

All coefficients should have same sign
There should not be missing s term . Term missed means presence of at least one +ve real part root

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Formula Notes (Control Systems)

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If char. Equation contains either only odd/even terms indicates roots have no real part & posses only
imag parts there fore sustained oscillations in response.
Row of all zeroes occur if
(a) Equation has at least one pair of real roots with equal image but opposite sign
(b) has one or more pair of imaginary roots
(c) has pair of complex conjugate roots forming symmetry about origin.

Position Error Constant:

Acceleration Error Constant:

Convolution Description:

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General System Description:

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Transfer Function Description:

State-Space Equations:

Transfer Matrix:

Transfer Matrix Description:

Mason's Rule:

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Velocity Error Constant:

Formula Notes (Control Systems)

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State-Space Methods:

1.General State Equation Solution:

2. General Output Equation Solution:

The Magnitude Equation:

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Root Locus:

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4. Impulse Response Matrix:

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3. Time-Variant General Solution:

The Angle Equation:

Number of Asymptotes:
Angle of Asymptotes:

Breakaway Point Locations:

or

Controllers and Compensators:

PID:

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