Inflow Performance Relationships for Vertical Completions

Inflow performance relationships (IPRs) have been developed to model the flow of fluids from the reservoir, through the
formation, and into the well. They are expressed in terms of Pws (static reservoir pressure), Pwf (flowing bottom hole
pressure), and Q (flowrate). PIPESIM offers a comprehensive list of IPR options, for both oil and gas reservoirs, as
follows:
Oil Reservoirs:

Darcy
Data file

Fetkovich & Multi-rate Fetkovich

Hydraulically fractured

Jones & Multi-rate Jones & Jones 4 point test

Normalized back pressure

Pseudo Steady State Equation

Well PI (Productivity Index) & with Vogel below bubble point correction & Multi-rate

Straight line PI & with Vogel below bubble point correction & Multi-rate

Vogel

Multilayer reservoir IPR

Saturation / Permeability tables

Multi-rate test

Transient

Gas and Gas Condensate Reservoirs:

Backpressure Equation & Multi-rate Backpressure Equation

C and n & Multi-rate C and n

Darcy

Forchheimer & Multi-rate Forchheimer

Hydraulically fractured

Jones & Multi-rate Jones

Pseudo Steady State Equation

(Straight line) Well Productivity Index & Multi-rate (Straight line) Well Productivity Index

Multilayer reservoir IPR

Multi-rate test

Transient

See also Completion Options

Productivity Index (PI)

Data required:

PI coefficient. A function of bottom hole flowing pressure (Pwf) , Static reservoir pressure (Pws) and Flowrate
(Q).
Vogel Below bubble point correction: In cases of undersaturated reservoirs where wellbore pressure may be
above or below the bubble the below bubble point correction should be used. Note: The "Well PI with Vogel
correction below the bubble point" completion model is only intended for use when the reservoir pressure is
above the bubble point. If the static reservoir pressure is below the bubble point, then the results will be
erroneous. In this case, for reliable answers, you should use a different completion model, e.g. Vogel or
Fetcovitch which are intended for saturated fluids.
"Calculate/Graph button". The required parameters can be computed from multi-rate test data.

Theory
The (straight line) productivity index relationship is
Q = J(Pws - Pwf) for liquid reservoirs, and
Q = J(Pws2 - Pwf2) for gas reservoirs,
where J = productivity index.
Below the bubble point pressure in liquid reservoirs, the relationship can be modified to take account of evolved gas.
Checking this option changes the liquid equation below the bubble point pressure to
Q = J(Pws - Pb) + (J/2Pb)(Pb2 - Pwf2).
Note: The "Well PI with non-linear correction below the bubble point" completion model is only intended for use when the
reservoir pressure is above the bubble point. If the static reservoir pressure is below the bubble point, then the results will
be erroneous. In this case, for reliable answers, you should use a different completion model, e.g. Vogel or Fetcovitch
which are intended for saturated fluids.
See also multi-rate test, other IPR methods

Vogel's Equation
The Vogel equation was developed to model saturated oil wells.
Data required:

Abs. Open Flow Potential: The maximum oil flowrate that the well could deliver if the bottom hole pressure was
0.
Calculate the Absolute Open Hole Potential

o
o
o
o
o

PI Coefficient: The value is usually around 0.8 (default).

Q: The actual flowrate of the well from a well test.
Pwf: Flowing bottom hole pressure
Pws: Static Reservoir pressure
Calculate AOFP - use the above date to compete the AOFP. This then overwrites any values already
entered for the AOFP.

Theory
The equation is as follows:
Q = Qmax(1 - (1 - C)(Pwf/Pws) - C(Pwf/Pws) 2),
where Qmax is the absolute open flow potential, i.e. the liquid flowrate when the bottom hole pressure is zero, and C is
the PI coefficient.
See also other IPR methods

Fetkovich's Equation
The Fetkovich equation is a development of the Vogel equation to take account of high velocity effects.
Data required:

Open Flow Potential: The wells max. flowrate.

n exponent:
"Calculate/Graph button". The required parameters can be computed from multi-rate test data.

Theory
The equation is follows:
Q = Qmax(1 - (Pwf/Pws)2)n, where Qmax is the open flow potential, i.e. the oil flowrate when the
bottom hole pressure is zero and n is the PI coefficient.
See also multi-rate test, other IPR methods

Jones' Equation
Data required:

Fluid type; Liquid or Gas: Changes the units of the A and B coefficients.
A (turb): turbulent coefficient, must be => 0
B (lam): laminar coefficient, must be => 0
"Calculate/Graph button. The required parameters can be computed from multi-rate test data.

Jones 4-point test

Select Jones IPR

Select Calculate/Graph
Select multipoint

Enter the static reservoir pressure

Enter the reservoir temperature
Enter up to 4 test rates and associated test pressures
Press the Plot IPR or Plot fit button and the coefficients A and B will be computed.
Select OK

Theory
The Jones equation is
Pws - Pwf = AQ2 + BQ for liquid reservoirs and
Pws2 - Pwf2 = AQ2 + BQ for gas reservoirs.
Where
A = the turbulence coefficient (slope), => 0
B = The laminar coefficient (intercept), =>0
See also multi-rate test, other IPR methods

Backpressure Equation
Rawlins and Schellhardt developed the Backpressure equation in 1935.
Data required:

C: Constant (intercept at log flow rate=1.0)

n: Inverse Slope. For pure laminar flow n=1 and 0.5 for completely turbulent flow. n is limited to 0.5<n<1
"Calculate/Graph button". The required parameters C and n can be computed from multi-rate test data. At least
3 data sets must be supplied.

Back Pressure 4-point test

Select Backpressure IPR

Select Calculate/Graph
Select multipoint
Enter the static reservoir pressure
Enter the reservoir temperature
Enter up to 4 test rates and associated test pressures
Press the Plot IPR or Plot fit button and the coefficients C and n will be computed.
Select OK

Theory
The Backpressure equation is given as follows:
Q = C(Pws2 - Pwf2)n.
See also multi-rate test, other IPR methods

Pseudo Steady-State Equation / Darcy

The PSS/Darcy equation assumes that the fluid is single phase, laminar flow exists and the fluid is (essentially)
incompressible.
In version 1.34 the PSS routine used (Pres^2 - Pbhp^2) for the delta P term in the pseudo steady state equation for Gas.
This is strictly only true for low pressures (< ~ 2,000 psia).
A more accurate way is to use (MPres - MPbhp) instead where MP is the pseudo pressure (which itself is a function of
pressure, Z factor and viscosity). This is more valid over the entire range of pressures (although the difference is small).
Data required:

Basis of IPR calculation: Specify whether the calculation are to be performed on a Liquid or Gas basis

Use Vogel below bubble point - Apply a type-curve equation for calculating the productivity above the
bubble point and the Vogel relationship to calculate the IPR curve below the bubble point. The Vogel
correction is not recommended if the water cut exceeds 60%. Note: This check box is available only if
you selected Liquid as the IPR Basis.
o Use pseudo pressure method. Note: This check box is available only if you selected Gas as the IPR
Basis.
Permeability - Average formation permeability. Typical values.
Thickness: Average formation thickness.
Wellbore diameter: Default 6 inches.
Reservoir Size/Shape - Take into account the effect of the shape of the reservoir (and the position of the well
relative to boundaries), by way of a shape factor. Previously PIPEISM assumed a circular reservoir shape
(shape factor 31.62) and the user entered a drainage radius.

o
o

Drainage Radius: Radius of external boundary of drainage area. Default 2,000 feet. Typical values.
Shape factor: Identify the physical location of a well in relationship to the reservoir boundaries.
Default 31.62 circular reservoir - Shape Factors

Reservoir Area: Area of the reservoir. Typical values

Skin - Skin value has two components, a Mechanical (constant) term and a rate dependent term (e.g. if the rate
is 20 mmscf/d and the constant skin is 3, and the rate dependent skin is 0.1/mmscf/d, then the total skin would
be 5). Often people assume the rate dependent skin is zero. Previously the user could not enter a rate
dependent skin for liquid and for gas it was always calculated with no option for a user defined value.
o Mechanical Skin.
1. 1.
Enter Skin: Dimensionless constant skin factor.
2. 2.
Calculate skin. Model the completion in detail and thus compute the skin factor via
completion options. If the skin is computed then sensitivity cannot be performed directly on
the skin value.
o Rate Dependent Skin.
1. 1.
Enter Skin: Dimensionless Rate dependent skin factor. It is often assumed that the
rate dependent skin is zero
2. 2.
Calculate: If the skin is computed then sensitivity cannot be performed directly on the
skin value.

Theory
The Pseudo Steady-state equation is given as follows:
Q = kh(Pws - Pwf)/(141.2oBo(ln(Re/Rw) - 0.75 + s))) for oil reservoirs and
Q = kh(Pws2 - Pwf2)/(1422Tzo(ln(Re/Rw) - 0.75 + s + DQ))) for gas reservoirs
where
s is the skin
k is the formation permeability

h is the formation thickness

is the liquid or gas viscosity
B is the formation volume factor
Re is the drainage radius
Rw is the wellbore radius
T is the temperature
Z is the z factor
See also other IPR methods, Table of "water saturation vs. Oil Relative permeability vs. water relative permeability

Completion Options
Model the completion is detail [only available if the Pseudo Steady State IPR is selected]

None (default): Skin value must be as entered on the previous screen, otherwise a value of 0 will be used.

Open Hole: The skin factor and turbulence coefficients will be computed assuming that the well in not
cemented. Requires data for;

Damaged zone See diagram

Diameter: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = well bore diameter, i.e.
damaged zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = formation permeability.

Open Hole Gravel Pack

o Damaged zone See diagram

Diameter: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = well bore diameter, i.e.
damaged zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = formation permeability
Gavel pack
Sieve Size: Gravel pack sieve size (US No.) Default = 30. Typical values.

Permeability: Of the gravel pack. Default = estimated according to the sieve size. Typical
values.

Tunnel: Length of the tunnel, which is usually the sum of the thickness of cement, casing
and annulus. Default = 0

Perforated: See diagram. The skin factor and turbulence coefficients will be computed using the McLeod
method. Requires data for;
o o Damaged zone See diagram

o
o

o
o

Diameter: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = well bore diameter, i.e.
damaged zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = formation permeability.
Compacted zone
Diameter: Of the compacted zone (or crushed zone) around the perforation. Default =
diameter of the perforation i.e. compacted zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the compacted zone (or crushed zone) around the perforation. Default =
permeability of the damaged zone.
Completion
Interval: Completion interval length. Default = formation thickness.

Permeability: In the vertical direction. Default = permeability of the formation zone.

Perforation

Diameter: Of the perforation into the formation. Default = 0.5 inches, 12.7 mm

Length: Of the perforation into the formation. Default = infinity (which will result in a zero
skin due to perforation)

Shot Density: Shot density. Default = 4 shots/ft, 13.12 shots/m

Gravel Packed and Perforated: See diagram. The skin factor and turbulence coefficients will be computed
using the Jones method. Requires data for;
o o Damaged zone See diagram

o
o

o
o

Interval: Completion interval length. Default = formation thickness.

Diameter: Of the perforation into the formation. Default = 0.5 inches, 12.7 mm

Sieve Size: Gravel pack sieve size (US No.) Default = 30. Typical values.

Diameter: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = well bore diameter, i.e.
damaged zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the damaged zone around the well bore. Default = formation permeability
Compacted zone
Diameter: Of the compacted zone (or crushed zone) around the perforation. Default =
diameter of the perforation i.e. compacted zone does not exist.

Permeability: Of the compacted zone (or crushed zone) around the perforation. Default =
permeability of the damaged zone..
Completion
Permeability: In the vertical direction. Default = permeability of the formation zone.
Perforation

Length: Of the perforation into the formation. Default = infinity (which will result in a zero
skin due to perforation)

Shot Density: Shot density. Default = 4 shots/ft, 13.12 shots/m
Gavel pack

Permeability: Of the gravel pack. Default = estimated according to the sieve size. Typical
values.

Tunnel: Length of the tunnel, which is usually the sum of the thickness of cement, casing
and annulus. Default = 0

Other Completions can be modeled in PIPESIM as follows;

Open Perforations - Model as Perforated and set

o
o

Damaged zone Diameter = wellbore diameter

Damaged zone permeability = reservoir permeability.

Stable Perforations - Model as Perforated. PIPESIM does not include phasing skin which is usually a
very small effect

Collapsed Perforations Model as Perforated and set

o
o

Compacted zone permeability = reservoir permeability

Damaged zone Diameter = wellbore diameter

Damaged zone permeability = reservoir permeability

Gravel packed stable Perforations - Model as Gravel pack & Perforated

Gravel packed collapsed perforations - Model as Gravel pack & Perforated and set

o
o

Compacted zone diameter = diameter of the perforation

Gravel pack open Perforations - Model as Gravel pack & Perforated and set

o
o

Compacted zone diameter = diameter of the perforation

Compacted zone permeability = reservoir permeability

Gravel packed - Model as Gravel pack & Perforated and set

o
o
o

Damaged zone Diameter = wellbore diameter

Damaged zone permeability = reservoir permeability

Compacted zone diameter = diameter of the perforation

Compacted zone permeability = reservoir permeability

Water / Permeability tables

A table of "water saturation vs. Oil Relative permeability vs. water relative permeability" can be defined in conjunction with
the Pseudo Steady-State equation. This is entered, in keyword mode, via the additional engine keyword feature. Use the
PERMTAB keyword to define the table.
See also other IPR methods

Forchheimer Equation
Data required:

F (turb): turbulent coefficient, must be => 0

A (lam): laminar coefficient, must be => 0
"Calculate/Graph button". The required parameters can be computed from multi-rate test data.

Theory
The Forchheimer equation is
Pws2 - Pwf2 = FQ2 + AQ for gas reservoirs.
Where
F = the turbulence coefficient, => 0
A = The laminar coefficient, =>0
See also multi-rate test, other IPR methods

Multi-rate
In addition to the standard IPR's equations test data can be utilized so that the inflow can be matched to actual measured
data. A minimum of 3 data points is required. Two types of multi-rate test are available:

Multipoint (default) - A 'flow-after-flow' test sequence. Static pressure is taken as a constant throughout the test
period. The flowrate (Q) and corresponding flowing bottom hole pressure (Pwf) are required. These are entered
into the spreadsheet.
Isochronal - This type of test is normally performed in reservoirs with low permeability where the time taken to
reach stabilized flow conditions is unacceptably long (e.g. low permeability sands). Isochronal testing is
performed by periods of flowing followed by shutting-in of a well (normally with increasing rate). The wellbore
flowing pressure is recorded during each flow period at a specific time (e.g. if the time is 4 hours, then the test is
referred to as a 4-hour isochronal test). Due to the long stabilization time normally associated with the
isochronal test, reservoir conditions need not return to the original static pressure. Hence a different static
reservoir pressure is recorded. The flowrate (Q), flowing bottom hole pressure (Pwf) and static reservoir
pressure (Pws) are required. These are entered into the spreadsheet.

Once the test data has been entered it can be plotted via either;

Plot IPR - plots the actual IPR to be used, with the test data superimposed.

Plot Fit - plots the log log fit, with the test data superimposed.

The IPR constants (e.g. PI, A and B, C and n, etc) will be computed and displayed in the Fitted constants section.
Selecting the <Chart/Print> option allows the plot to be printed or exported.

Hydraulic fracturing
The Fractured Well IPR type uses a digitized, constant rate, finite-conductivity, closed square, fractured well type-curve to
calculate the effect of a vertically drilled well that has been hydraulically fractured. These type curves were taken from
Schlumbergers FracCADE program. The well is assumed to be in the center of a square reservoir with an aspect ratio of
1:1. The type curves used in the calculation have been taken from Reservoir Stimulation 2 nd Edition by Econimides &
Nolte, Chapter 8 by Hai-Zui Meng and SPE paper 16435 and were best suited for tight gas wells. Type curves are
generated using single-phase fluid, two-dimensional finite difference simulators for some ranges of system properties
(permeability, porosity, fluid viscosity, total system compressibility) and the characteristic length of the system, fracture
half-length. These are then used to compute Dimensionless time (valid range: 10e-5 - 10e3), Dimensionless wellbore
pressure and Dimensionless fracture conductivity (valid range 0.1 - 500).
Data required

Basis of IPR calculation: Specify whether the calculation are to be performed on a Liquid or Gas basis
o

o
Use Vogel below bubble point - Apply a type-curve equation for calculating the productivity
above the bubble point and the Vogel relationship to calculate the IPR curve below the bubble point.
The Vogel correction is not recommended if the water cut exceeds 60%. Note: This check box is
available only if you selected Liquid as the IPR Basis.

Reservoir Permeability: Average formation permeability. For a gas well this is gas permeability. For an oil
well, this is total liquid permeability. Default infinity. Typical values.

Reservoir Thickness: Average formation thickness. Default infinity.

Reservoir Radius: Radius of external boundary of drainage area. Default 2,000 feet. Typical values.

Wellbore Diameter: Default 3 inches.

Fracture Half Length: The length of the fracture extending out in one direction from the wellbore, i.e. half
the total facture length.

Fracture Permeability: The effective permeability to the primary fluid of the fracture proppant used in
fracturing the reservoir.

Fracture Width: The average fracture width of a fracture in a hydraulically fractured reservoir.

Transient model: Select to model a well that has not reached pseudo steady state conditions
Time: Producing time during the transient period in which the inflow performance is calculated.

o
Porosity: Amount of pore space in the producing formation as a percentage of total bulk volume.
Porosity = Pore volume/Bulk volume.

Total Compressibility: Total compressibility of the reservoir system.

See also other IPR methods

Some additional references for the model are given below:
Nolte, K.G. (1991) "Fracture Design and Validation With Uncertainty and Model Limitation" JPT, September 1991.
Elbel, Jack (1992) "Evaluation of Apparent Fracture Length Indicated from Transient Tests" Journal of Canadian
Petroleum Technology, December,1992.
Cinco-Ley, H., Samaniego, F. and Dominguez, N. (1978) "Transient Pressure Behavior for a Well with a FiniteConductivity Vertical Fracture," SPEJ, Aug. 1978, pp. 253-264.
Meng, H-Z, Brown, K.E. (1987) Coupling of Production Forecasting, Fracture Geometry Requirements and Treatment
Scheduling in the Optimum Hydraulic Fracture Design, SPE 16435.
Cinco-Ley, H., Ramey H.J., Samaniego, F. and Rodriquez F. (1987) "Behavior of Wells with Low-Conductivity Vertical
Fracture," SPE 16776.

Multilayer Reservoir IPR

A multilayer reservoir model can be easily constructed within PIPESIM. If the fluids from multiple layers are NOT
commingled then the individual layers can be treated as two separate wells and modeled in the Network model connected
at the wellhead. Otherwise the Well Performance module can be used to model the commingled flow.
Any number of reservoir intervals (layers) can be added to the model. The layers can be either stacked on top of each
other (i.e. with common flowing bottom hole pressure) or separated by a length of conduit (i.e. tubing or casing) if
required.
A completion icon represents each layer:

Therefore, if required, each layer can have a different inflow performance relationship and also a different fluid model.
If the user wishes to stack the reservoir layers on top of each other, then the layers must be connected using the
connector icon as shown below. (The connector icon has no dimensions associated with it).

In this case there is no elevational difference assumed between the layers. They will all have the same flowing bottom
hole pressure. However, each layer can have a different static pressures, inflow performance relationship and fluid model
defined.
The user may also define a conduit between the reservoir layers as shown below. In this case elevational and frictional
pressure drops will be calculated between the layers.

Tubing icons or even riser icons can represent the conduit between the layers. Care should be taken when defining the
dimensions of the conduits between the layers. Each icon will have to be defined independently. It is only important to
ensure that the relative distance from top to bottom of each icon (i.e. between each completion) is correct. Therefore, for
example, each tubing icon can be assumed to start from a depth reference of zero.
Make sure also that the correct ambient temperature gradient for each conduit is specified.
By default PIPESIM will allow backflow (i.e. reverse flow) into any layer. To block backflow in any layer, the appropriate
keyword can be set (LAYER INJECT = NO) by placing an EKT upstream of the completion in question.

Data File
Enter an IPR in table form (Flowrate vs Pressure) rather than using an IPR equation.
This feature is currently only available by using an EKT or in expert mode. Place the EKT (Spanner icon) between the
completion and the tubing and enter the IFPTAB data.
Example: Adding GOR and water coning values are optional.

liq

pwf

gor

wcut

ifptab

3000

986

ifptab

1000

2990

986

2.0

ifptab

2699

2920

1096

2.2

ifptab

6329

2800

2540

2.8

ifptab

7288

2600

2980

3.9

ifptab

8082

2400

3370

5.6

ifptab

8805

2003

3770

8.0

ifptab

execute

All IPR data associated with the completion will be ignored.

Transient IPR:
Data required:

Basis of IPR calculation: Specify whether the calculation are to be performed on a Liquid or Gas basis

Use Vogel below bubble point - Apply a type-curve equation for calculating the productivity above the
bubble point and the Vogel relationship to calculate the IPR curve below the bubble point. The Vogel
correction is not recommended if the water cut exceeds 60%. Note: This check box is available only if
you selected Liquid as the IPR Basis.
o Use pseudo pressure method. Note: This check box is available only if you selected Gas as the IPR
Basis. Using (Pres^2 - Pbhp^2) for the delta P term in the pseudo steady state equation for Gas is
correct only for low pressures (< ~ 2,000 psia).
A more accurate way is to use (MPres - MPbhp)
instead where MP is the pseudo pressure (which
itself is a function of pressure, Z factor and
viscosity). This is more valid over the entire range
of pressures (although the difference is small).
Horizontal Permeability - Average formation permeability. Default infinity. Typical values.

Thickness: Average formation thickness. Default infinity.

Wellbore diameter: Default 3 inches.
Time: Duration of the drawdown period in hours.
Porosity: Average porosity of the reservoir rock.
Total Compressibility: saturation weighted compressibility of the entire reservoir-liquid system (ct =
coSo+cwSw+Cf)

Skin - Skin value has two components, a Mechanical (constant) term and a rate dependent term (e.g. if the rate
is 20 mmscf/d and the constant skin is 3, and the rate dependent skin is 0.1/mmscf/d, then the total skin would
be 5). Often people assume the rate dependent skin is zero. Previously the user could not enter a rate
dependent skin for liquid and for gas it was always calculated with no option for a user defined value.
o Mechanical Skin.
1. 1.
1.
Enter Skin: Dimensionless constant skin factor.
2. 2.
2.
Calculate skin. Model the completion in detail and thus compute the skin factor
via completion options. If the skin is computed then sensitivity cannot be performed directly
on the skin value.
o Rate Dependent Skin.
1. 1.
1.
Enter Skin: Dimensionless Rate dependent skin factor. It is often assumed that
the rate dependent skin is zero
2. 2.
2.
Calculate: If the skin is computed then sensitivity cannot be performed directly
on the skin value.

Theory
The transient equation is given as follows:
1. 1.
Calculation Of > tpss.
Calculate
the
time
to

2.

2.

rw = dw/2

reach

Pseudo

Steady

Calculate Inflow Pressure Drop from Following Equations:

(wellbore radius)

For Liquid

For Gas

Where
s is the skin
t is the time evolved since the beginning of drawdown
D is the rate dependent skin
k is the formation permeability
por is the porosity
Ct is the total compressibility

State

condition

as

follows:

h is the formation thickness

visis the liquid or gas viscosity
FVF is the formation volume factor
R is the drainage radius
Rw is the wellbore radius
T is the temperature
Z is the z factor
Output
Output reporting is the same as for PSS option with addition of following:
The following message is printed in output file and summary file if Producing Time > tpss:
Producing Time is greater than tpss pseudo steady state inflow should be used instead.

See also other IPR methods