Systems Fundamentals Overview

Denition
Examples
Properties
Memory
Invertibility
Causality
Stability
Time Invariance
Linearity

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Definition of a System
x(t)

h(t)

y(t)

x[n]

h[n]

y[n]

System: a process in which input signals are transformed by the

system or cause the system to respond in some way, resulting in other
signals as outputs.
All of the systems that we will consider have a single input and a
single output
All of the signals that we will consider are likewise univariate
We will use the notation x(t) y(t) to mean the input signal
x(t) causes an output signal y(t)
h(t) is the impulse response of the continuous-time system:
(t) h(t)
h[n] is the impulse response of the discrete-time system:
[n] h[n]

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Scope of Systems
In this class we will primarily work with circuits as systems
In most cases a voltage or current will be the input signal to the
system
Another current or voltage will be the output signal of the system
However, our treatment applies to a much broader class of systems
Examples
Circuits
Motors
Chemical processing plants
Engines
Spring-mass systems

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Memory
Memoryless: A system is memoryless if and only if the output y(t) at
any time t0 depends only on the input x(t) at that same time: x(t0 ).
Memory indicates the system has the means to store information
about the input from the past or future
Capacitors and inductors store energy and therefore create systems
with memory
Resistors have no such mechanism and are therefore memoryless
systems: v(t) = Ri(t)

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Example 1: Memoryless Systems

Determine whether each of the following systems are memoryless.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(t 2)
y[n] = x[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d
n
y[n] = k= x[k]

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Example 1: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Invertibility
x[n]

h[n]

y[n]

g[n]

x[n]

Invertible: A system is invertible if and only if distinct inputs cause

distinct outputs.
If the system is invertible, then an inverse system exists
When the inverse system is cascaded with the original system, the
output is equal to the input
Normally you can test for invertibility by trying to solve for the
inverse system
Alternatively, if you can nd two input signals, x1 (t) = x2 (t) that
both generate the same output, the system is not invertible

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Example 2: Invertible Systems

Determine which of the following are invertible systems. If the system
has an inverse, state what it is.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(t 2)
y[n] = x[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d
y(t) =
y[n] =

J. McNames

dx(t)
dt
n
k=

x[k]

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Example 2: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

Causality
Causal: A system is causal if and only if the output y(t) at any time
t0 depends only on values of the input x(t) at the present time and
possibly the past, < t < t0 .
These systems are sometimes (rarely) called nonanticipative
If two inputs to a causal system are identical up to some point in
time, the outputs must also be equal
All analog circuits are causal
All memoryless systems are causal
Not all causal systems are memoryless (very few are)
Some discrete-time systems are non-causal

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

10

Example 3: Causal Systems

Determine which of the following are causal systems.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(t 2)
y[n] = x[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d

y(t) = t x( ) d
y(t) =

dx(t)
dt

y[n] =

1
11

J. McNames

5
k=5

x[n + k]

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

11

Example 3: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

12

Stability
BIBO Stable: A system is bounded-input bounded-output (BIBO)
stable if and only if (i) all bounded inputs (|x(t)| < ) result in
bounded outputs (|y(t)| < ).
Informally, stable systems are those in which small inputs do not
lead to outputs that diverge (grow without bound)
All physical circuits are technically stable
Ideal op amp circuits without negative feedback are usually
unstable
Examples: thermostat, cruise control, swing
Counter-examples: savings accounts, inverted pendulum
(questionable), chain reactions

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

13

Example 4: System Stability

Determine which of the following are BIBO stable systems. If the
system is not BIBO stable, specify an input signal that violates this
property.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(t 2)
y[n] = x[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d

y(t) = t x( ) d
y(t) =

dx(t)
dt

y[n] =

1
11

J. McNames

5
k=5

x[n + k]

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

14

Example 4: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

15

Time Invariance
Time Invariant: A system is time invariant if and only if x[n] y[n]
implies x[n n0 ] y[n n0 ].
In words, a system is time invariant if a time shift in the input
signal results in an identical time shift in the output signal
Circuits that have non-zero energy stored on capacitors or in
inductors at t = 0 are generally not time-invariant
Circuits that have no energy stored are time-invariant
Memoryless does not imply time-invariant: y(t) = f (t) x(t)
In general, if the independent variable, t or n, is included explicitly
in the system denition, the system is not time-invariant

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

16

Testing for Time Invariance

S

x(t) y(t) y(t t0 )

D

x(t) x(t t0 ) yd (t)

To test for time invariance, you should calculate two output signals
First, calculate the delayed output, y(t t0 ) in response to the
original signal
Second, calculate the output due to the delayed input, yd (t).
If these are equal for any input signal and delay t0 , the system is
time-invariant. Otherwise, it is not.

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

17

Example 5: Time Invariance

Determine which of the following are time-invariant systems. If the
system is not time invariant, specify an input signal that violates this
property.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(2t)
y[n] = x[n]
y[n] = nx[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d

y(t) = t x( ) d
y(t) =

dx(t)
dt

y[n] =

1
11

J. McNames

5
k=5

x[n + k]

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

18

Example 5: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

19

Linearity
x(t)

h(t)

y(t)

h[n]

x[n]

y[n]

Consider any two bounded input signals x1 (t) and x2 (t).

x1 (t)
x2 (t)

y1 (t)
y2 (t)

Linear: A system is linear if and only if

a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t) a1 y1 (t) + a2 y2 (t)
for any constant complex coecients a1 and a2 .

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

20

Linearity Continued
a1 x1 (t) + a2 x2 (t)

a1 y1 (t) + a2 y2 (t)

a1 x1 [n] + a2 x2 [n]

a1 y1 [n] + a2 y2 [n]

There are two related properties

Additive: x1 [n] + x2 [n] y1 [n] + y2 [n]
Scaling: ax1 [n] ay1 [n]
Scaling is also called the homogeneity property

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

21

Linearity Continued



ak xk (t)

k
U1

U0

ak yk (t)

au xu (t) du

U1

au yu (t) du

U0

ak xk [n]

ak yk [n]

Linear systems enable the application of superposition

If the input consists of a linear combination of dierent inputs, the
output is the same linear combination of the resulting outputs
This also works for innite sums (integrals)

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

22

Example 6: Linearity
Determine which of the following are linear systems.
y[n] = x[n]2
y(t) = x(2t)
y[n] = x[n]
y[n] = nx[n + 3]
y(t) = sin(2x(t))
t
y(t) = x( ) d

y(t) = t x( ) d
y(t) =

dx(t)
dt

y[n] =

1
11

J. McNames

5
k=5

x[n + k]

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

23

Example 6: Workspace

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

24

Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Systems

x(t)

h(t)

y(t)

x[n]

h[n]

y[n]

A system is said to be linear time invariant (LTI) if it is both

linear and time invariant
All of the circuits we will work with are linear
The circuits may not be time invariant if there is some initial
energy stored in the circuit
Otherwise the circuits are LTI
ECE 222 & ECE 223 will focus primarily on the properties,
analysis, and design of LTI systems

J. McNames

Portland State University

ECE 222

System Fundamentals

Ver. 1.06

25