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1 Introduction
Drivers of internal combustion engine driven cars are
accustomed to checking a gas gauge to estimate the
amount of driving for which their vehicle is currently capable. Measurement of the remaining gasoline available
is a fairly simple problem solved by measuring the level
of fluid in the tank. Electric or hybrid electric vehicles
use batteries for energy storage. The electric-only driving range is determined predominantly by the battery
SOC. It is therefore necessary to have methods capable of accurately estimating battery SOC for EV driver
notification and for HEVl battery SOC management to
succeed. In fact, [5] claims that Research leading to the
determination of an optimum battery pack management
strategy is probably the single most important technical issue in the successful commercialization of EVs.
Accurate SOC determination is a critical component of
battery pack management.
The HEV energy management application is the
problem motivating this article. In contrast to the EV
application which involves primarily battery discharge,
the HEV application may involve repeated charge discharge cycles. This distinction is critical. In EV applications, complete stationary recharge allows the SOC
estimation algorithm to be reset to an accurate initial
condition; therefore, estimation errors do not accumulate over multiple discharge/recharge cycles. A primary
goal of HEVs is to attain long vehicle range by allowing
the batteries to be recharged while in motion. Proper
operation of the energy manager depends on the accuAn HEV has an auxiliary power unit (e.g., an internal combustion engine) capable of either charging the batteries or providing traction power. The onboard energy management system attempts to optimize the use of the vehicles available energy sources
(e.g.lbattery or fuel) to
driver satisfaction while minimizing total fuel usage and emissions.
1644
(--)
Ec =
J_,
vO(T)id(T)dT 4- Er(t)-
Rd
= (-&
- 0.0150) R.
(2)
For the batteries used in the experiments in [12], Qc =
58.31 Amp-hrs. Based on the circuit in Figure 1, the
discharge loop equation is
& = vo - ibRd.
(3)
With Vo held constant at 2.003 V, the terminal voltage V, based on eqn. (3) is portrayed in Fig. 2 as a
function of integrated battery discharge current for various battery discharge currents. Note that, even with
this simple resistive Thevenin model, the amount of integrated current drawn from the battery before the cell
terminal voltage reaches any specified level is a function
of the rate of discharge.
Since [12] is concerned only with discharge, R, is not
defined therein. In a real battery, the open circuit steady
state voltage V, is dependent on SOC. This relationship
is approximately linear, which motivates open-circuit
SOC estimation methods when the open circuit voltage
is known. The resistance parameters Rd and R, model
all forms of energy loss (e.g., gassing), not necessarily
just electrical losses.
1645
verge exponentially toward V, with a time constant determined by RdC (when previously being discharged).
2.3 SOC versus Open Circuit Voltage
The steady-state open circuit voltage U,, is known to
be a function of temperature and approximately linearly
related to remaining SOC (see Fig. 3 in [3]). Based on
battery data, it is possible to estimate parameters a and
b such that
voc(t) = a S ( t ) b
-b
S(t) = Figure 2: Battery output voltage from Eqn. (2) versus
integrated battery current for battery discharge
currents of 0.1, 1, 5, 10, 25, and 50 amps.
The model of [12] is not dynamic, but derived based
on the assumption of a constant discharge current. The
non-dynamic nature of the model implies that the model
will not be able to account for such effects as the capacitive diffusion dynamics under the transient current conditions expected in (H)EV applications. Models suitable for (H)EV applications have been considered in
[4,9, 11, 131.
Two dynamic models are presented in [ll].The simpler of the two models is portrayed in Fig. 3. Based on
the circuit schematic of Fig. 3, the circuit equations for
charge and discharge are
(6)
(7)
a = .6- % SOC a n d b = 2 7 0 V .
Based on eqn. (7), there has been interest inusing
to calculate SOC. For example, during periods of
no load, the SOC can be calculated via eqn. . (7) and
the measured U,,. The difficulty in using eqn. (7) to
calculate the estimated SOC during vehicle operation is
in determining the battery open circuit voltage. The
new method of this article, which estimates U,, even
under loaded conditions is presented in Section 4.
U,,
9.
where it, =
In the special case where Rb = 0,
V, = Vt and the battery current is determined by the
load. The nominal value of the polarization capacitance
C is 40 F [ll].The capacitance parameter also does not
necessarily represent purely electrical processes. For example, a portion of the effective capacitance is due to
the chemical diffusion within the battery. The resistance and capacitance parameters are dependent on the
temperature, SOC, and device design.
Based on the circuit model of Fig. 3, under no load
both of which conconditions (i.e., i b = o), & =
v,
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procedures for experimentally determining Qc axe specified for example in [l].Knowledge of the specified current capacity, Qc, motivates the following simple SOC
estimation algorithm.
Define the integrated battery discharge current,
Qi(t) =
(9)
ib(T)dT.
0
Qc
nnm.mh
).
-QcQ i ( t )
Figure 4: Top - SOC estimate determined by current integration; Middle - Battery terminal current; Bottom - Battery terminal voltage.
calculated SOC is approximately 50%. These calculations used the manufacturers stated current capacity of
38 Amp-Hrs for Q c .
Note that the current integration approach is open
loop in the sense that the battery performance, as determined by V,, does not affect the estimated SOC. Also,
the approach is dependent on the initial value Q(0) and
Qc. Changing Q(0) shifts the entire SOC(t) curve vertically. The value of Qc is time varying and usage dependent. Therefore, it is evident that closed loop methods
that either estimate or adapt to uncertain initial conditions or parameters are required.
1647
c,
+-
6,
9:m
..'..-I
m
ZBO
c=-
&=-
v"=G
1/p=x1
54
23
&=55.
+ Z 3 - I b X 4 + w1
$1
-2152
x2
a222+w2
x3
a353+w3
=
x5
=
& =
x4
a424 +w4
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
+ 205
(17)
Q555
X(t) = F ( t ) x ( t )+ ~ ( t )
z ( t ) = H ( t ) x ( t ) v(t)
(19)
(20)
where F ( t ) =
I o
-xl(t)
-Ib(t)
o 1
a4
o
E{w(t)w(T)T} = Q(t)G(t- T )
E{v(ti)v(tj)T} = R(ti)Sij
E{w(t)v(ti)T} = 0.
"1
5
(21)
(22)
(23)
1:
@(t,T)W(T)dT
(24)
~
I,min
= +(tk+l,tk)X(tk)
+J
lnln
X(k
+ 1) = @ ( k ) x ( k )+ Wd(k)
(26)
*(tk+l,
T)W(T)dT.
(27)
F(t) 2: F k ,
Q(t) E Q
for t E
[tk,tk+i].
@ ( t ,=
~ )eFr(t--r)and *(k) = e F k T .
X(t)
(18)
51 - I b x 5 + U
r -x2(t)
54
52
t&+l
Wk+l,T)W(T)dT
th
(25)
(28)
= *(k)&(k)aT(k)T.
(29)
x(k
+ 1)
= @ ( k ) x ( k ) wd(k)
z(k) = H ( k ) x ( k ) v(k)
(30)
(31)
1648
discharge and charge process, knowledge of the functional dependence of these inefficiencies on the SOC
would allow the energy management system to identify
the most efficient range of SOC for battery operation.
If successful, this would result in more efficient overall
vehicle operation.
0.6
f 0.4
02
o:
30
20
U)
so
J
Bo
References
I-
[l] IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing, and Replacement of Large Lead Storage Batteries for
Generating Stations and Substations,IEEE Std. 450, 1987.
[2] J. Aldeu, H. Smimite, and C. Glaize, Improvement
of intelligent battery controller: state-of-chargeindicator and
associated functions, Power Sources 67, 1997, 157-161.
of including two runs is to graphically show the convergence time for each parameter. The convergence time
i , the actual data (observis determined by Q , R, ~ and
ability). Since Rb directly affects the output when the
discharge current is not zero, Ra is quickly estimated.
The parameters C and Rd are less observable and hence
converge more slowly.
5 Conclusion
&,a,
1649