Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Aim:
To draw stress-strain curve for the given steel specimen by conducting axial tension
test and hence to find the following:
1.
Yield stress
2.
Ultimate stress
3.
4.
5.
6.
2.
3.
Scale
4.
Vernier caliper
5.
Dot punch
6.
Hammer
Procedure:
1.
Measure the length (L) and diameter (d) of the given specimen.
2.
3. Mark two points P and Q at a distance of 150 mm on either side of the centre mark so
that the distance between P and Q will be equal to 300 mm.
4. Mark two points A and B at a distance of 2.5 times the rod diameter on either side of
the centre mark so that the distance between A & B will be equal to 5 times the rod
diameter and is known as initial gauge length of the rod (li).
5. Insert the specimen in the middle crosshead and top crosshead grips of the machine so
that the two points A and B coincide with grips.
6. Apply the load gradually and continue the application of load. After sometime, there
will be a slight pause in the increase of load. The load at this point is noted as yield load
(Py).
Tabulation:
1.
2.
mm
3.
mm
4.
mm
5.
mm
6.
Diameter at neck, dn
mm
7.
Yield load, Py
kN
8.
Ultimate load, Pu
kN
9.
Breaking load, Pb
kN
mm
mm
mm
7. Apply load continuously till the specimen fails and note down the ultimate load (Pu)
and breaking load (Pb) from the digital indicator.
8.
Remove the specimen from the machine and join the two pieces of the specimen.
9. Measure the distance between the two points A and B. This distance is known as final
gauge length (lf) of the specimen.
10. Measure the diameter of the rod at neck (dn).
11. Determine the yield stress, ultimate stress, nominal breaking stress, actual breaking
stress, percentage elongation in length, percentage reduction in area and Young's modulus
using the following formulae:
i)
Yield stress,
bn
ba
Ultimateload (Pu )
Initial Area (Ai )
Breakingload (Pb )
Initial Area (Ai )
v) % Elongation in length
Breakingload (Pb )
NeckArea (An )
Final gauge length (Lf ) Initial Gauge Length (li )
x 100
Initial gauge length (li )
Initial area (Ai ) Neckarea (A n )
x100
Initial Area (Ai )
d2
4
dn 2
An = Area at neck =
4
PL
(vii) Young's modulus
=
A
Where, Ai = Initial Area
12. Draw stress-strain curve for the specimen by taking stress along y-axis and strain
along x-axis.
Model Calculation:
Result :
Tension test for the given specimen was conducted and the results are as follows:
1.
Yield stress,
2.
Ultimate stress,
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
y
u
bn
N/mm2
N/mm2
N/mm2
ba
N/mm2
=
=
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define Stress.Give its types.
2. Define Strain. Give its types.
3. Define elastic limit
4. Define Youngs modulus and other elastic constants.
5. Define Yield stress.
6. Define Tensile strength.
7. Draw stress-strain curve for different materials and explain.
8. State Hookes law.
9. Define Strain energy.
10. Define Modulus of resilience.
Observation:
1. Material of the specimen
mm
3. Load at failure, P
kN
Aim:
To determine the maximum shear strength of the given bar by conducting doubleshear test.
Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter (d) of the given specimen.
2. Fit the specimen in the double-shear device and place the whole assembly in the
UTM.
3. Apply the load till the specimen fails by double-shear.
4. Note down the load at which the specimen fails (P).
5. Calculate the maximum shear strength of the given specimen by using the following
formula:
Loadat failure (P) in N
Maximum shear strength =
2 x Cross sec tionalarea of the bar in mm2
Result:
The maximum shear strength of the given specimen = __________N/mm2.
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define shear stress and shear strain.
2. What is modulus of rigidity?
3. What is its significance in strength of the materials?
4. Define strength?
Observation:
Diameter of the rod =
Length of the rod =
Tabulation:
Sl.
No.
Torque
Kg-cm
Angle of twist
N-mm
Degrees
Radians
Modulus of
Rigidity (C)
N/mm2
Max shear
stress
N/mm2
Aim :.
To draw the torque twist diagram for the specimen and to determine
1. The stiffness of the specimen
2. The modulus of rigidity of the specimen
3. The maximum shear strength induced in the specimen
Apparatus required :
Torsion testing machine, specimen, vernier caliper
Procedure :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Model calculation :
Torque applied in kgm, T
Stiffness, u =
10
Result :
1. The torque Vs angle of twist curve has been plotted and the stiffness of the rod = ____
2. The modulus of rigidity of the specimen = ________
3. The maximum shear strength induced in the specimen = _________
VIVA VOCE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define Torsion
What are the assumptions made in torsional equation?
Define Polar Modulus.
Write the torsional equation.
Define torsional rigidity.
11
Observation:
1. Material of the specimen
=
2. Type of notch (i.e. groove)
=
3. Length of the specimen, l
=
4. Breadth of the specimen, b
=
5. Depth of the specimen, d
=
6. Position of groove from one end, (lg) =
7. Depth of groove (dg)
=
8. Width of groove (wg)
=
9. Initial charpy scale reading
=
10. Final charpy scale reading
=
12
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
kg.m
kg.m
Aim:
To determine the impact strength of the given specimen by conducting charpy impact
test.
Procedure:
1. Measure the length (l), breadth (b), & depth (d) of the given specimen.
2. Measure the position of notch (i.e. groove) from one end (lg), depth of groove (dg) and
top width of groove (wg) in the given specimen.
3. Lift the pendulum and keep it in the position meant for charpy test.
4. Adjust the pointer to coincide with initial position (i.e. maximum value) in the charpy
scale.
5. Release the pendulum using the lever and note down the initial reading in the charpy
scale.
6. Repeat the steps 3 and 4.
7. Place the specimen centrally over the supports such that the groove is opposite to the
striking face,
8. Release the pendulum again using the lever and note down the final reading in the
charpy scale.
9. Find the impact resistance of the given specimen by using the following relation:
Impact resistance = (Final charpy scale reading - Initial charpy scale reading)
Result:
VIVA VOCE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
13
Observation:
1. Material of the specimen
=
2. Type of notch (i.e. groove)
=
3. Length of the specimen, l
=
4. Breadth of the specimen, b
=
5. Depth of the specimen, d
=
6. Position of groove from one end, (lg) =
7. Depth of groove (dg)
=
8. Width of groove (wg)
=
9. Initial izod scale reading
=
10. Final izod scale reading
=
14
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
kg.m
kg.m
Aim:
To determine the impact strength of the given specimen by conducting izod impact
test.
Procedure:
1. Measure the length (l), breadth (b), & depth (d) of the given specimen.
2. Measure the position of notch i.e. groove from one end (lg), depth of groove (dg) and
top width of groove (wg) in the given specimen
3. Lift the pendulum and keep it in the position meant for izod test.
4. Adjust the pointer to coincide with initial position (maximum value) in the izod scale.
5. Release the pendulum using the lever and note down the initial reading in the izod
scale.
6. Repeat the steps 3 and 4.
7. Place the specimen vertically upwards such that the shorter distance between one end
of the specimen and groove will be the protruding length and also the groove in the
specimen should face the striking end of the hammer.
8. Release the pendulum again using the lever and note down the final reading in the
izod scale.
9. Find the impact resistance of the given material by using the following relation:
Impact resistance = (Final izod scale reading - Initial izod scale reading)
Result:
The impact strength of the given material is ______________ kg.m.
VIVA VOCE:
1. Define any three types of loads.
2. Write some material properties?
3. What are the uses of conducting Impact test?
15
Observation:
Sl.
No.
Material
Major
Load
Indenter
(kg)
Average
Average
Average
16
Scale
Rockwell hardness
number
(RHC. or RHB..)
Aim:
To determine the Rockwell hardness number for the given specimen.
2.
Indenter
3.
Test specimen
4.
Stop watch
Procedure:
1.
2. Know the major load, type of indenter and scale to be used for the given test specimen
from the following table:
Material type
Major load
Indenter
Sc
al
e
Hardened
steel
150 kg
Mild steel
100 kg
Aluminium
100 kg
Brass
100 kg
Copper
100 kg
Sl.
No
3.
Fix the indenter and place the given specimen on the anvil of the machine.
4.
Select the major load from the knob available on the right side of the machine.
5. Raise the anvil using the rotating wheel till the specimen touches the indenter and
then slowly turn the wheel till the small pointer on the dial reaches the red mark position.
Now the specimen is subjected to a minor load of 10 kg.
6. Push the loading handle in the forward direction to apply the major load to the
specimen and allow the load to act on the specimen for 15 seconds.
7. Release the major load by pushing the loading handle in the backward direction and
keep the minor 10 kg load still on the specimen.
8. Read the Rockwell hardness number either from 'C' or 'B' scale, as the case may be,
directly on the dial and record it.
9. Release the minor load of 10 kg by rotating the hand wheel and lowering the screw
bar.
17
10. Repeat the experiment to obtain at least 3 different sets of observations for the given
specimen by giving a gap of at least 3 mm between any two adjacent indentations and 1.5
mm from the edge.
11. Find the average value, which will be the Rockwell hardness number for the given
specimen.
Theory:
I. Principle:
The test consists of forcing an indenter of standard type (cone or ball) into the surface of a
test piece in two operations and measuring the permanent increase of depth of indentations
of the indenter under specified conditions. Initially a minor load is applied which is
followed by a major load depending on the indenter and the type of the metal. The major
load is then removed but the minor load is retained while the hardness number is read.
18
Result:
The Rockwell hardness number for the given specimens are :
1. Mild Steel
2. Brass
3. Aluminium
Viva voice:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define Hardness.
Define Ductility.
Define Machineability.
Define Toughness.
What are the other equipments to measure hardness?
19
Observation:
A. Tabulation:
Sl.No.
Material
Load constant
P/D2 value in
kg/mm2
Major Load
(P) in kg
Diameter of
steel ball
indenter (D)
in mm
Diameter of
indentation
(d) in mm
i
ii
iii
Average:
i
ii
iii
Average:
i
ii
iii
Average:
20
Brinell
Hardness
Number
(BHN) in
kg/mm2
Aim:
To determine the Brinell hardness number for the given specimen.
Procedure:
1. Identify the material of the given test specimen.
2. Know the value of P/D2 and diameter of the indentor (D) to be used for the given test
specimen from the following table:
Sl.No.
Material type
P/D2
value in
kg/mm2
Diameter of
steel ball (D)
indenter in
mm
1.
30
2.5
2.
10
2.5
3.
2.5
4.
2.5
Theory :
Hardness of a material is defined as the resistance to indentation under static and
dynamic load. When a material is to be used under static or dynamic loads, hardness test will
be useful to determine the resistance to indentation.
In Brinell hardness test, a steel ball of diameter (D) is forced under a load (P) on to a
surface of test specimen. Mean diameter (d) of indentation is measured after the removal
of the load.
Formula used:
Brinell hardness number =
Where,
P
D
D
2
D2 d 2
Result:
The Brinell hardness number for the given specimen
1. Mild Steel = ________ kg/mm2
2. Copper
= ________ kg/mm2
3. Aluminium = ________ kg/mm2
22
kg / mm2
Viva voce:
1. Differentiate Hardness and toughness.
2. Differentiate rigid body and deformable body.
3. Differentiate impact load and fatigue load.
4. What are the precautions to be made in Rockwell hardness test and Brinell
hardness test?
23
Observation:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
mm
Tabulation
Case - 1
Load at A
Sl.
No.
Load in
Kg
Actual deflection in mm
(L.C.xDial gauge reading.)
Stiffness in
N/mm
Average
Case - 2
Load at B
Sl.
No.
Load in
Kg
Actual deflection in mm
(L.C.xDial gauge reading.)
Average
24
Stiffness in
N/mm
Aim :
To draw load-deflection curve for the given specimen by conducting flexure test and
hence to find the stiffness.
Flexure table
Test specimen
Dial gauge with stand
Set of weights with load-hanger
Vernier caliper and scale.
Procedure:
1. Measure the length (L), breadth (B) and depth (D) of the given beam specimen.
2. Place the beam specimen simply over two knife edge supports of bending table
apparatus and measure centre to centre distance between the supports. This distance is
known as span of the beam (l).
3. Place the load-hanger at any distance, preferably less than l/2 from the right support.
4. Measure the distance between load-hanger and the right support. Take this value as
'b'.
5. Place the dial gauge at a distance 'x' from the left support, where the maximum
l2
b2
3
0.5
25
Model Calculation:
26
9.
10.
where
W = load in N
= Deflection in mm.
Result:
The load-deflection has been plotted and the stiffness of the specimen = _________
VIVA VOCE:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Define a beam.
What do you mean by transverse loading on beams?
What are the different types of beam?Explain with the help of a diagram?
List the types of loads? Explain with the help of a diagram?
State Maxwells reciprocal theorem
27
Observation:
1. Material of the spring specimen
mm
mm
Nos.
cm
mm
Tabulation:
Scale reading in
cm
Actual deflection
in mm
mm
Average
28
Modulus of
rigidity in
N/mm2
Stiffness
in N/mm
Aim:
To determine the modulus of rigidity and stiffness of the given helical spring under
compression.
Procedure:
1. Measure the outer diameter (D) and diameter of the spring coil (d) for the given
compression spring.
2. Count the number of turns i.e. coils (n) in the given compression spring.
3. Place the compression spring at the centre of the bottom beam of the spring testing
machine.
4. Rise the bottom beam by rotating right side wheel till the spring top touches the
middle cross beam.
5. Note down the initial reading from the scale fitted in the machine.
6. Apply a load of 25kg and note down the scale reading. Increase the load at the rate of
25kg upto a maximum of 100kg and note down the corresponding scale reading.
7. Find the actual deflection of the spring for each load by deducting the initial scale
reading from the corresponding scale reading.
8. Calculate the modulus of rigidity for each load applied by using the following
formula:
3
Modulus of rigidity, N = 64 PR n
d4
Where, P = load in N
R = Mean radius of the spring in mm ( D - d )
2
n = Number of turns in the spring
d = Diameter of the spring coil in mm
= Deflection of the spring in mm
D = Outer diameter of the spring in mm
9. Determine the stiffness for each load applied by using the following formula:
Stiffness, K = P / .
29
Model Calculation
30
10. Find the values of modulus of rigidity and spring constant of the given spring by
taking average values.
Result:
The modulus of rigidity of the given spring
= ___________N/mm2
= ___________N/mm.
VIVA VOICE:
1. Define Stiffness/spring rate.
2. What do you mean by helix angle for close coiled helical springs?
3. Define Modulus of Rigidity.
4. State the applications of open coiled and close coiled helical springs.
5. What is a spring?State the functions of springs.
6. What are the various types of springs?
7. Define helical springs and classify them.
8. What is spring index?
9. What is solid length?
10. Define pitch.
11.What are the differences between open coiled and close coiled helical springs?
31
Aim
To harden the given steel specimen and compose hardness and impact strength.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Procedure
1. The Hardness and impact strength of unhardened steel sample is calculated.
2. The specimen is loaded in the furnace heating continuously until the previously
determined hardening temperature is reached.
3. It is held at the temperature for about 30 minutes.(Soaking Time)
4. The specimen is quenched in any suitable media namely water, oil, salt bath.
5. The hardness of the steel was determined using Rockwell hardness test.
6. The impact Strength was calculated using Charpy / Izod test.
Hardness Comparison
s.no.
Specimen
1.
Unhardened
2.
Hardened
Specimen
1.
Unhardened
2.
Hardened
Size
Result
The given specimen was hardened and its mechanical properties like hardness and
impact resistance of the steel was examined.
32
Aim
To determine the strain in cantilever beam using rosettle strain gauge.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
Trainer kit
Cantilever beam strain sensor setup
Weights (100 g* 10 nos)
Power cord
Theory
The operation of an electrical resistance strain gauge is based on the fact that when a
conductor is subjected to mechanical deformation, its length and diameter are altered and a
change in its resistance occurs. The resistance change is measured and corrected to strain or
the physical effect causing strain.
The cantilever beam is fixed on a rigid body. Strain gauge are placed on the surface of
the beam. When the load is applied on the end, a downward force is exerted, it tends to
change the dimension of the beam. This dimensional changes are sensed by strain gauge i.e.
placed on it, strain occurred on the beam is calculated by the formula.
Theoretical strain = 6PL/Bt^2 E
Observation
Applied load to the beam (p) = 1 kg (max)
Thickness of the beam (t) = 0.25 cm (4)
Breadth of the beam (b) =2.8 cm (3)
Length of the beam (l) = 21.8 cm (26)
Youngs modulus (E) of the beam = 2x106 kg/cm2
33
Tabulation
S.NO.
APPLIED LOAD
THEORETICAL
STRAIN
ACTUAL
STRAIN
ERROR
Procedure
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Install the cantilever strain sensor interface the q pin connector with trainer kit.
Switch on the module.
Initially, unload the beam and nullify the bridge voltage by using zero adjustment.
Now apply the load to the beam, strain will develop on the beam and measure the
bridge.
Voltage across T2 and T3.
Gradually increase the load on the beam and note down applied load and the bridge
voltage.
Tabulate the values of the applied load, the theoretical strain, actual strain and bridge
voltage.
Plot a graph between theoretical strain and bridge voltage.
Result
Thus the strain was measured in the cantilever beam using rosette strain gauge.
34
Aim
To harden and temper the given specimen and compare this improvement of hardness
and impact test.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Procedure
1. The specimen is loaded in the furnace. Heating continuous until the previously
determined hardened temperature is reached.
2. It is held at the temperature for about 30 minutes.
3. The specimen is quenched in any suitable media namely water, oil or salt bath.
4. Quenching enable martensitic structure of the obtained within limits of the given
specimen.
5. Again specimen is loaded to the furnace and heat up to suitable tempering
temperature.
6. Hold the specimen for sufficient time.
7. The hardness of the unhardened specimen quenched specimen & tempered specimen
was determined using Rockwell hardness test and their hardness were compared.
8. The microstructure of the hardness specimen, quenched specimen, quenched &
tempered specimen was examined using metallurgical microscope.
Tabulation
1. Hardness Comparison
S.NO.
SPECIMEN
ROCKWELL HARDNESS
NUMBER
35
S.NO.
SPECIMEN
ENERGY REQUIRED
FOR FRACTURE
SIZE
Result
The hardness and impact resistance of specimen were examined and compared.
36
Aim
To examine the microscopic structure of given hardened and tempered metal
examples using the metallurgical microscope.
Apparatus Required
1.
2.
3.
4.
metallurgical microscope
Specimen.
Etchant.
Emery sheet / polisher.
Procedure
1. A part of the metal (Hardened and Tempered) is taken so as to represent the entire
mass.
2. It is cut and removed with saw (or) abrasive material.
3. Specimen is first grinded for coarse surface and polished (Mirror like surface).
4. Metal is dipped into etching regent.
5. Then the microstructures are examined by microscopy.
Observation:
Magnification:
Magnification:
Material:
Material:
Heat Treatment:
Heat Treatment:
37
Microstructure 1
Microstructure 2
Result
Thus the Microstructures of given Hardened and tempered samples are observed.
38