b-news, June 2002

b-news

fib-news is produced as an integral part of the fib Journal

Structural Concrete. Larger quantities of offprints are made
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CEB . FIP

Organic prestressingan example

of an effector system
P. A. Ribeiro do
Carmo Pacheco*
University of Oporto,
Portugal

* The author won second place of the b 2001

Diploma to Younger Engineers, category Research
(see report in b-news, 2001, 2, No. 4). Following
an invitation by the jury, this contribution summarises the achievements of his PhD thesis as
presented during the Berlin Technical Activities
Workshop on Tuesday 2 October 2001.

Notation
The following symbols are used in this paper
G, Q
OPS
nc
Sci or
t
Da
Dc
Dt
s

s

= dead loading; live loading

= OPS system
= number of active contractions
i = control section (relevant fibre in control cross section)
= instant t
= activity margin
= compression margin
= time step
= stress
= stress increment

Summary
The extraordinary efficiency of some structural
solutions found in nature may help structural
engineers in the development of new structural solutions, especially now that a remarkable technological evolution allows for
sophisticated applications to be implemented.
Commonly, the increase in resistance of a
structural element is understood to imply
either a different geometry of its cross-section
or a different structural material. And that has
to be done on a permanent basis. An effector
system or artificial muscle is a structural ele1464^4177  2002 Thomas Telford and b

ment with the capacity of modifying the

strength of a structure (by an adequate supply
of energy), thus improving conveniently its
performance. An effector system may be
regarded as an active control system that is
also a structural element, with applications
extending to situations of quasi-static loading.
Organic prestressing is an example of effector
system that is feasible within the present technological capacities. In fact, it is none else than
a prestressing system under on-line control,
with the capacity to increase/decrease the prestressing forces introduced in the cables, thus
improving significantly the prestressing effect.
This paper presents, very synthetically, some of
the main subjects developed in the PhD Thesis
(with the same title and in Portuguese) submitted in 1999 to the Faculty of Engineering
of the University of Oporto, Portugal.

Introduction
New concepts of active structural control were
developed at the end of last decade under the
names of parastressing1 and of effector systems.2 Both involve active control systems3
where actuators are not external supplementary elements, rather are structural elements
themselves. Freyssinet and Zetlin investigated
these ideas some 40 years ago. Most probably,
these two remarkable structural engineers did
not proceed with their research because the
technological context of their time was
unhelpful.
A useful example of effector system is provided by organic prestressing systems (OPS),
which have been object of several numerical
applications.2,47 A prototype is now on its first
steps of execution, but its resilience is assured
as OPS makes use of well-known technologies.
OPS results in an optimised prestressing,
because permanent undesirable stresses are
avoided and prestressing time-dependent
losses are greatly reduced. Furthermore, OPS
allows the design of lighter and more slender

structures with the same structural materials.

These structural solutions do fit particularly
well to situations of high live-load/dead-load
ratio.
In this paper, a synthetic and general
approach to structural solutions of bio-structures is presented. Also, a brief description of
the muscular contraction is called to emphasize the concept of effector system. Then, the
methodology to implement OPS is presented
together with the mathematical expressions in
the algorithms of an efficient control strategy.
Finally, examples of applications are provided
and main conclusions of this research are put
forward.

Bio-structures
An immense variety of structural solutions exist
in the bio-structures world. Some are simple
and others are quite sophisticated. All are
sources of rewarding research. Structural engineers will certainly identify some well known
structural elements. Although shapes may differ, structural objectives are the same. Nevertheless, simple calculations show that the
design criteria in bio-structures is quite different from those in Civil Engineering. Obviously,
the auto-repair capacity of living materials is a
major feature of bio-structures.
In Table 1, four bio-structural elements very
similar to common structural elements are
shown. Up to now no structural element in
structural engineering has been able to play
the role of a muscle in a bio-structure. True,
there are some features in active control systems that resemble muscles, but the latter are
structural elements themselves.
A muscle is a structural element with a variable stiffness. That change of stiffness is
achieved by supplying energy. Therefore, a
muscleor an effector systemcan be
regarded as a structural element that gets stiffness out of energy. In other words, a muscle is
a string with variable stiffness (Figure 1).
Since the beginning of the 20th century,
researchers from different areas of knowledge
have been able to identify many structural systems and structural features of bio-structures.814 The contributions of DArcy
Thompson9 and Hildebrand13 are emphasized,

b-news, June 2002

energy. Hydraulic jacks and electromagnets

are examples of energy transformers.

BONES

LIGAMENTOUS

ARTICULAR

TENDONS

MUSCLES

TIES AND CABLES

EFFECTOR SYSTEMS

CARTILAGE

STRUTS,
COLUMNS, BEAMS
AND SHELLS

CONNECTORS

BEARINGS

Table 1 Main structural elements in animal bio-structures6,810

Effector systems

~ Figure 1 Representation of an effector

systemstring of variable stiffness

but the contribution of structural engineers is

fundamental if meaningful conclusions are to
be drawn from that specific research area.
In Table 2, some classical examples of structural systems are displayed, together with
more complex systems where muscles play a
structural function. Many lessons can be
learned from all these amazing structural systems. And it is quite obvious that muscles provide a special prestressing, which avoids the
undesirable stresses that are implied in conventional prestressing. And that special prestressing is more efficient because it is variable,
only acting when required.

Construction materials have always been

taken as stable materials, with constant properties. Any sensibility to environmental
changes is regarded as undesirable and variations of behaviour are taken as external
actions.2
Some variations involving transfer of
energy can, nevertheless, be dealt with in a
different way. Also, since the elasticity modulus of all materials depend upon their energetic
state, control and modification of the latter
implies control and modification of the former.
This leads to two trivial questions: How can
it be done? What structural advantage can be
taken out of it?
In the case of sensory or adaptative materials, this is achieved by direct induction.3 Otherwise, energy transformers have to be used for
an indirect induction. Energy transformers are
to be taken as mechanisms introducing elastic
energy into a structure out of other forms of

The best answer for the second question is

in nature. Muscles are structural elements
whose microscopic units are the sarcomers.
These organic units are made of two kind of
proteins: actin and miosin.
When a contraction decision is taken, a
chemical energy induction takes place, providing a relative displacement of actin and miosin
that changes the sarcomers configuration. This
process alters the muscle elasticity modulus
and modifies the stress state of the structure
where the muscle is included. This effector
system ensures no undesirable stress states
are generated in the bones, thus improving
the structural performance of such a biomechanic structure.
An effector system or artificial muscle is a
structural element with the capacity of modifying the strength of a structure (by adequate
energy supply) improving conveniently its performance, typically whilst under specific
actions.
One possible answer to the first question is
the OPS.

Energy
Energetic
State B

Energetic
State A

Stiffness (A)

Stiffness (B)

~ Figure 2 Stiffness change by energy

induction

~ Figure 3 Change of stiffness in

muscles
108

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

b-news, June 2002

biceps
braquial

umer

Table 2 Examples of structural systems in bio-structures3,5,11,15

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

109

b-news, June 2002

Organic prestressing

where

Organic prestressing is a stress-triggered self

adjusting prestressing system. This system is
based on well-known technology. The main
elements are the organic anchorages, the tendons and the electronic circuit. All of them are
widely used with reliable results. Obviously,
the prestressing cables must be unbounded.
Their design and construction technologies
are similar to those required in post-tensioned
unbounded prestressing structures, and the
electronic circuit, which includes sensors, electric cables and electronic components, is very
similar6 to a common active control system
circuit.
Organic anchorages are anchorages with
servo-hydraulic systems incorporated. This
means that the jacks stand between the
anchorage and the structure.
The control strategy is very simple.2,4,6 It is
based on an algorithm quite similar to the
classic on-off algorithm. In short, if compression is low, OPS produces contractions (prestressing forces are amplified), and if
compression is high, OPS produces descontractions (prestressing forces are reduced).
In mathematical terms, this is stated by
expressions (1)
8
OPS
>
Dai < sSci G stSci Q nct  s
Sci < Dci
>
>
>
>
>
>
) nctDt nct
>
>
>
>
>
< sSci G st Q nct  s
OPS
Sci
Sci > Dci
>
>
) nctDt nct 1
>
>
>
>
>
t
>
sSci G sSci Q nct  s
OPS
>
Sci < Dai
>
>
>
:
) nctDt nct  1
1

sSci G

stSci Q

OPS
s
Sci

nct and nctDt

OPS
nct  s
Sci

Dci and Dai

is the stress at the relevant

fibre in control cross section i
due to dead loading;
is the stress at the relevant
fibre in control cross section i
due to live loading at instant
t;
is the stress increment at the
relevant fibre in control cross
section i produced by one
contraction;
are the number of active contractions at instants t and
t Dt.
is the stress at the relevant
fibre in control cross section i
due to action of the organic
prestressing at instant t;
are the compression margin
and the activity margin of
the organic system; (these
are the stress levels that
make the sensors produce
signals).

The generalisation of this algorithm to continuous beams is established in a similar manner.6

The delay of the response (both mechanical
and electronic), as well as the consideration
of any loading configuration, can be easily
integrated into this methodology with no
change in the fundamental logical procedures
implicit in the mathematical expressions. This is
explained with all detail in reference 6.
Numerical
analysis
involves
several
aspects

H.D.P.E Tube

Grease

. calculation of prestressing losses taking

into account the particular properties of
organic prestressing;
. definition of realistic evolutive loadings
whose effects are at least equivalent to
those defined in design codes;
. analysis of control specific problems
through adequate mathematical models;
. analysis of uncertainties;
. fatigue damage assessment and consideration of fretting fatigue;
. ultimate and service limit states assessments (based on conventional procedures);
. dynamic analysis including the control
action dynamic effects;
. definition of reliability procedures in design
and in construction (emergence supplying
units, redundant safety systems etc).
Those issues are already studied,2,47 but
testing by experimental analysis is required.
That is the goal of the present stage of this
research.
The control effect produced by OPS may be
understood in Figure 4, which refers to a loading case of the viaduct presented in Table 3,
where eight OPS cables are implemented (two
in each intermedium span and one in each
extreme span).
One of the most important features of OPS
is the fact that the prestressing loses are
greatly reduced. Because the hydraulic jacks
are incorporated into the structure, they can
compensate instantaneous losses. On the
other hand, time dependent losses are relevant
only in the permanent component of prestressing. In the example referred before, the difference found in two distinct solutions

Strand

~ Figure 4 Organic anchorage, unbounded tendon and typical layout of prestressing cable for a simply supported beam
110

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

b-news, June 2002

12.50

35. 00

32.50

32.50

37. 50

35. 00

Metro Tunnel
Urban Viaducts with strong conditionalisms of slenderness and weight with OPS 4
30 m
B
B

View A-A

20 m

A
Current road bridge with OPS

Cross-Section B-B
2

Precast concrete Silos designed with Snoko System with

Organic Prestressing associated with locomotion functions

OPS

6,15

Zonaunder
do tabuleiro
a construir
Part of the bridge deck
construction
3.00

Ancoragem da viga ao troo

do tabuleiro j construido.
7. 50
27. 00
Launching Gantry with OPS

49.50

9.00

57. 00

36.00
45.00

10,11

Table 3 Organic prestressing applications

developed for the viaduct, one with OPS and

one other without OPS, is quite obvious.
Another relevant aspect of OPS is related
with the cross-section design of the structural
elements. The value of the prestressing force in
a prestressed structural element has to fall

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

inside an interval implied by conditions expressing the design specifications. An empty interval requires an increase in the size of the crosssection or a new conception of the structure.
That situation, which is relatively common in
conventional prestressing design, does not

exist in organic prestressing design (or is extremely reduced), because prestressing forces are
never too high.
At the present stage of knowledge, the
following balance of benefits/difficulties can
be stated as follows

111

b-news, June 2002

(kPa)

(nc)

32,5

65

100

137,5

172,5
30

(m)

-2000

20

-4000
-6000

3 Figure 5 Stresses at
bottom bres and
organic cables contractions under a three
axle vehicle loading
case7

10

-8000
-10000

0
(G)

(G+Q+OPS)

nc left cable

nc right cable

3 Figure 6 Total prestressing losses7

30%
20%
10%
0%

(m)
0

35

70

105

W ithout OPS

140
W ith OPS

(1) Advantages of OPS

50% reduction of prestressing losses;2,4,6
For slow loadingsuntil 70% reduction of
stiffness;2,4,6
For slow loadingsuntil 30% reduction of
structural mass;2,4,6
Lower permanent stresses;6
Lower deflections;6
Lower creep deformations;6
(2) Issues demanding special care
Fatigue;4
Dynamic effects;6
Cost (powerful pumps for fast loadings);6
Hyperactivity (control system);7
Instability (control system);7
Reliability.7
There are consistent procedures to overcome most of the difficulties,6,7 but for the
proposed methodology, applications with
fast moving loadings require powerful
pumps and may imply dynamic problems.
Obviously, before further developments, and
in the next steps of research, structures with
slow loadings will be considered first.

112

Examples
Several examples have been studied. In some
of them, although structural advantages are
recognized, difficulties (mentioned before) do
exist (using only well-known technologies). In
other cases, applications can be developed and
implemented with success. Better results were
found in structures with high live load/dead
load ratios and with relatively slow loadings.57
Under the present technological capacities,
one of the most promising applications is with
launching gantries.

Conclusions
The implementation of structural solutions of
nature into engineering structures is a research
field of immense interest. The modification of
structural stiffness by the induction of energy
is a subject that it is in its infancy, but it should
be accepted that the concept of effector sys-

tem (or artificial muscle) opens new frontiers

to the conceptual design of structures.
Organic prestressing is one example which
exhibits remarkable potentialities, specially
when lightness and slenderness are envisaged.
The theoretical fundaments of organic prestressing design are already developed and
numerical results sustain its usefulness. The
great reduction of permanent compressions
and prestressing losses allow for a more
rational use of prestressing.
In structures with high live-load/dead-load
ratios and with slow loading actions, organic
prestressing can be a success, but experimental research is essential at this stage of knowledge and it is already being implemented.

References
1. Montens, S., A global concept for 21st century
bridges: parastressing. Proceedings of the FIP
Symposium
on
Post-Tensioned
Concrete
Structures, London, 1996, 739746.
2. Pacheco, P. and Adao da Fonseca, A., Effector
systems in structuresconceptual design of
structures. Proceedings of the IASS Symposium,
Stuttgart, 1996, 339346.

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

b-news, June 2002

3. Soong, T. T., Active Structural Control: Theory

and Practice. Longman, London and Wiley,
New York, 1990.
4. Pacheco, P., Adao da Fonseca, A., Organically
prestressed multi-span continuous box girders.
New technologies in structural engineering.
Proceedings of the IABSE International
Conference, Lisboa, 1997, 527534.
5. Pacheco, P., Quinaz, M. C. and Adao da Fonseca,
A., Applying organic prestressing on launching
gantries. Proceedings of the Encontro de
Estruturas Metalicas e Mistas, Porto, 1997,
331339 (in Portuguese).
6. Pacheco, P., Organic prestressingan example
of an effector system, PhD thesis, Department

of Civil Engineering, Faculdade de Engenharia

da Universidade do Porto, 1999 (in Portuguese).
7. Pacheco, P. and Adao da Fonseca A., Organic
prestressing. Journal of Structural Engineering,
ASCE, 2002, in progress.
8. Bombardelli, C., Ossa lunghe: elementi naturali
resistenti a flessione, in ACCIAIOStudi e
ricerche, 1982, pp. 408415.
9. DArcy Thompson, On Form and Growth.
Cambridge University Press, 1917.
10. Testut, T., Tratado de Anatomia Humana,
Salvat Editores, S.A. Barcelona Buenos Aires,
1947.
11. Mcneill, A. R., Animal Mechanics, Sidgwick &
Jackson London, 1968.

Obituary

Dr Max Birkenmaier

Max Birkenmaier 19152002

Born in Zurich, Max Birkenmaier started his
career as a skilled carpenter, before he graduated at the ETH as a civil engineer in 1940. He
was co-founder of Bureau BBR, together with
his colleagues Brandestini and Ros, a study
group to promote prestressing in Switzerland.
They formed the Stahlton AG, which has since
1945 acted as a specialist company in the field

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

of prestressing, using in practice the developments of BBR. Max Birkenmaier was Managing
Director and later President of the board of this
company. He was recognised as pioneer of
prestressing and post-tensioning in Switzerland as well as abroad. Under his presidency,
the first Swiss Standard for Concrete and Prestressed Concrete Structures was drafted and
published in 1968. His reasoning power and
profound thinking were also rated by the FIP
and in 1966 Max Birkenmaier became the
Swiss representative (Vice-president) on the
Administrative Council, and a member of the
Commission of Steels and Systems. Here he
was responsible for the first issue of Recommendations for acceptance and application of
post-tensioning systems (1972). Following in

12. Fung, Y. C., BiomechanicsMechanical Properties of

1981.

Living

Tissues.

Springer

Verlag,

13. Hildebrand, M., Analysis of Vertebrate Structure.

John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988.
14. Pennycuick, C. J., Newton Rules Biology: A
Physical Approach to Biological Problems.
Oxford University Press, 1992.
15. Knauff, M. and Sadowski, A., Prestressing of
circular tanks with tendons connected on the
circumferenceSnoko System, Proceedings of
the FIP Symposium on Post-Tensioned
Concrete Structures, London, 1996, 1014
1021.

1978 the late Peter Misch, he was appointed

as Senior Vice-president and member of the
Praesidium,
Max Birkenmaiers outstanding contribution to the development of prestressed concrete and to the work of the FIP were
recognised by the Honorary Doctorate of the
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH)
Zurich in 1969, by presenting him the highest
rank of honours in FIP, the Freyssinet-Medal,
which he received in 1982 at the Stockholm
Congress. Max Birkenmaier retired in 1985
from the FIP and from active work. He enjoyed
only 10 years of his retirement in good health;
after a long time of suffering he died at the
end of February 2002. A farsighted, wise and
modest personality left us.

Hans Rudolf Mueller

113

b-news, June 2002

Steering committee and council

meetings, Naples
By invitation of the Italian national group the
meetings were held in common on Friday 5
April 2002, followed by a separate meeting
exclusively for members of Council on Saturday.
About 30 participants attended the common meeting, representing 15 national groups
(out of 39). In the Steering Committee there
were six out of 10 commission chairmen and
eight out of 10 elected members present. The
most important items treated are briefly summarised in the following:

Next model code

Several invited presentations animated the discussion. Safety and reliability of structuresa
new safety approach was the title of the first
one made by Ton Vrouwenfelder, the President of the Joint Committee for Structural
Safety (JCSS). As a second invited speaker,
Manfred Wicke, the Head of the Austrian
Group, reported on experiences in up-grading
and strengthening of concrete structures.
Steen Rostam, chairman of b Commission 5
Structural service life aspects, then gave the
third invited contribution on Design for durability. Finally, Joost Walraven, as President of

114

the b, addressed new developmentshow to

deal with new high performance materials. A
thorough discussion of all these presentations
lead to the conclusion that the new Model
Code should become a code for producing
(i.e. including both, design and construction)
and maintaining good concrete structures
(not: concrete!). Design and construction
aspects need to be treated in one document.
A draft list of contents should become available for the next meeting of the Steering Committee.

Commissions and task

groups
All chairmen and deputy-chairmen will be formally addressed by the secretariat, reminding
them that according to the statutes their own
and their commissions members appointment
ends after four years, in 2002. They will be
asked to inquire among their membership
about their interest to continue, and inform
through the secretariat the Steering Committee whether or not they are personally prepared to stand for a second term of four
years. A new Steering Committee will be

elected in the General Assembly in Osaka

and shall propose to Council the chairmen
and deputy-chairmen of all commissions for
the period 20022006.

Congress and symposia

Preparations for the Osaka congress are well
on schedule. All commissions will have the
opportunity to report extensively on their
work, giving a certain priority to recently finalised work published as bulletins. Several countries will prepare printed national reports. The
b stand in Osaka will feature an interactive
presentation of all selected entries, special
mentions and winners of the 2002 Award for
Outstanding Structures. Council finally
accepted the proposal of the Italian Group to
host the next b Congress in 2006 in Naples.
The PhD symposium in September in
Munich (see calendar in this issue) will be
very well attended. The next one (in 2004)
was agreed to be held in Delft, and two
years later in Zurich. The preparations for the
2003 b symposium in Athens (see calendar in
this issue) are progressing. For 2004 it is
intended to have two b symposia, one in
France and one in India, and again two for
2005, in Hungary and Argentina.
The next meeting of the b Steering Committee and the Council will be held on 12
October 2002 in Osaka.

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

b-news, June 2002

consistent design and detailing tools like

strut-and-tie models

b, the already well advanced work was finished by a small editorial group.
The purpose of the report is twofold: firstly,
to give an overview of the issues relating to the
management of concrete structures in general
and, secondly, to supplement this with details
on items concerned with assessment and remedial actions, as these are important technical
parts of management and maintenance systems. The more general aspects of asset management are dealt with in chapter 1 which is
mainly aimed at owners and decision-makers.
Chapters 2 and 3 concern the information
required for decision making in the assessment
process and are aimed more at consultants and
contractors. A review of remediation techniques is given in chapter 3 which is intended to
assist in the selection of remedial actions rather
than their execution. The report also includes
some significant appendices regarding load
testing, monitoring, fire and also special considerations related to seismic retrofitting.
It is worthwhile also mentioning the work
presented in Appendix 1 keywords, that
should guide and encourage the various actors
who are playing a role in this field, to use a
common language

b Bulletin 16, Format 204  289mm, (approx

DIN A4), 198 pages, 33 tables, 126 illustrations, ISBN 2-88394-056-8
non-member price: 90 CHF, surface mail
included, for airmail add 20% extra charge.

b Bulletin 17, Format 204  289mm, (approx

DIN A4), 180 pages, 14 tables, 39 illustrations,
ISBN 2-88394-057-6
non-member price: 90 CHF, surface mail
included, for airmail add 20% extra charge.

New bulletins
The b Bulletins for the subscription year 2002
start with number 16 Design examples for the
1996 FIP recommendations Practical design of
structural concrete; and number 17 Management, maintenance and strengthening of concrete structures. They have already been
mailed to all corporate and individual subscribing members. A brief description is given in the
following. Non-members may order these Bulletins or former publications, also from former
CEB and FIP (before 1998), by simply following
the instructions given on bs website http://
fib.epfl.ch/publications/.

Design examples (b
technical report)
The 1996 FIP recommendations Practical
design of structural concrete were finally published by the SETO in September 1999. They
had been developed based on the 1990 CEBFIP Model Code.
The main objective of this Bulletin is to
demonstrate by practical examples the application of these recommendations, and especially
to illustrate the use of strut-and-tie models for
designing discontinuity regions in concrete
structures. These examples represent a continuation of the 1990 FIP Handbook on Practical
Design that had been based on the former
(1984) version of the recommendations.
Most of the examples are recently built existing
structures. Although some of them may be
considered as quite important, the chosen
examples are by no means exceptional.
The technical report does not deal with the
discussion of aesthetic or general conceptual
aspects. On the contrary, the main aim is to
treat particular design aspects by selecting
local regions of the chosen structures, that are
then designed and detailed following the design
principles and specifications proposed in the
1996 FIP recommendations mentioned above.
The document is believed to be of interest
to all engaged in the design of structural concrete. It hopefully supports the use of more

Structural Concrete 2002 3 No 2

Management,
maintenance and
strengthening of
concrete structures (b
technical report)
The report is the result of the work of the
former FIP Commission 10 Management and
strengthening of concrete structures that succeeded in 1995 to the former FIP Commission
10 Maintenance, operation and use. Close
contacts had also been kept to the former
CEB Commission V Operation and Use and in
particular to its Task Group 5.4 Assessment,
maintenance and repair. When in 1998 FIP
merged with CEB to form the new association
115