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CHAPTER 10 FARMING: CONVENTIONAL AND

SUSTAINABLE PRACTICES
Chapter Objectives

Describe the components of soils.

Explain the ways we use and abuse soils.
Outline some of the other key resources for agriculture.
Discuss our principal pests and pesticides.
List and discuss the environmental effects of pesticides.
Describe the methods of organic and sustainable agriculture.
Explain several strategies for soil conservation.

Key Terms
Affinity
Broadcast spraying
Crop rotation
Generalist
Habitat diversification

Monoculture
No-till agriculture
Persistence
Ubiquitous

Concept Review
10.1

Resources for Agriculture

Soil is a mixture of weathered minerals from rocks, plant material, and

living organisms.
It can take hundreds to thousands of years to form soil.
We are losing topsoil faster than we can replace it due to poor
agricultural management and erosion.
Particle size affects the characteristics of the soils porosity and
permeability.
Soil texture is determined by the percentages of clay, silt, and sand.
Humus is the plant matter that is decomposing in the soil. Humus
provides nutrients and holds water.
Organisms in the soil help create the soils structure and fertility.
Soils are found in layers according to their composition.
o O horizon is found on the surface where the organic plant
material lies.
o A horizon, also referred to as topsoil, is a mixture of organic
material and mineral particles.

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o E horizon is the area where some of the nutrient material has
been leached or washed away.
o B horizon, also known as the subsoil, is dense and clayey,
blocking root growth and preventing water drainage.
o C horizon is the area where the parent material is being broken
down.

10.2

Ways We Use and Abuse Soil

10.3

Soils are classified according to their composition and development,

based on the climate and ecosystem where they are located and how
they have formed
Soil is a renewable resource if it is managed carefully.
Conservation practices include land management, ground cover, and
topographic cultivation practices.
Low-input farming done on a small scale has a higher net gain than
large-scale operations.

12.5 percent of the earths land area is being used for agriculture.
The amount of available cropland is shrinking due to erosion, soil
degradation, and urbanization.
o When soil is eroded or nutrients are depleted, lower crop yields
result.
o Wind and water erosion are the sources of most soil
degradation.
o Rapid erosion forms rills and gullies as water cuts channels
through the soil.
o Eroded soils are deposited in river basins and oceans.
Agricultural productivity has grown due to improved farming practices
and improvements in crop varieties.
When soil becomes degraded and is too dry for cultivation,
desertification can result.
Eighty percent of the worlds grasslands are susceptible to
desertification due to overgrazing and soil degradation.

Water and Nutrients

Agriculture is dependent upon water, climate, nutrients, and machine

power to grow and harvest crops.
Excessive use of irrigation can result in water logging and salinization.
o Waterlogged soil loses its nutrients and oxygen.
o As water evaporates, mineral salts are left behind, resulting in a
salty crust.
The major elements needed by plants for growth include nitrogen,
potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, and sulfur.

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10.4

Adding these elements in fertilizer results in higher crop yields but can
also be a cause of water pollution.
Machine power to grow, harvest, process, and distribute food requires
energy.
In the United States, agricultural systems consume 16 percent of the
fossil fuel energy we use.

Pests and Pesticides

Biological pests reduce the availability, quality, or value of resources

useful to us.
Insects are the most frequent pests because they make up threefourths of all the species on earth.
Pesticides are chemicals that kill pests.
o Biocides kill a wide range of organisms.
o Herbicides kill plants.
o Insecticides kill insects.
o Fungicides kill fungi.
Pest control has been used by every culture throughout history to
control pests and preserve food supplies.
The use of organic pesticides began in the 1930s with the
development of DDT to prevent insect borne diseases and to protect
crops.
In the 1960s, DDT was banned in developed countries as it became
evident that DDT posed a threat to wildlife and possibly to humans.
Approximately half of the pesticide use today involves chlorine, which
is used for water purification.
Pesticides are classified according to their chemical structure.
o Inorganic pesticides are highly toxic and generally indestructible
(they include arsenic, lead, and mercury).
o Botanicals are natural organic pesticides derived from plant
extracts (they include nicotine, rotenone, and phenols).
o Fumigants are used to sterilize the soil and prevent decay.
Extremely dangerous to those who handle them, most are
banned (they include carbon tetrachloride and carbon disulfide).
o Chlorinated hydrocarbons are toxic and long lasting, are
persistent in food chains, and are banned in most parts of the
world (they include DDT, chlordane, and aldrin).
o Organophosphates are an outgrowth of nerve gas research and
are extremely toxic to mammals, birds, and fish (they include
parathion and malathion).
Pesticides reduce disease transmission by insect vectors.
Pesticides reduce crop losses by an estimated two-thirds.

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10.5

Environmental Effects of Pesticides

Beneficial organisms are poisoned unintentionally by pesticide use.
Pesticides almost never kill all of their intended species, resulting in
resistant individuals producing more offspring that are also resistant.
Genes for pesticide resistance are being transferred to other species
by means of vectors such as viruses and plasmids.
Pesticides have a limited useful life span.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are so long lasting and
dangerous that they have been banned in most countries but persist in
the environment in soils and water supplies.
Pesticides affect human health in two ways.
o Acute effects are poisoning and illness.
o Chronic effects are cancer, birth defects, and degenerative
diseases.

10.6

Organic and Sustainable Agriculture

10.7

Numerous studies have shown that organic, sustainable agriculture is

more eco-friendly and leaves soils healthier than intensive, chemicalbased monoculture cropping.
Crop rotation and habitat diversification can keep pest populations
from building up.
Biological controls, such as predators, can control pest-species.
Genetics and bioengineering can be used as disease-resistant seeds
are identified.
Integrated pest management (IPM) uses preventive practices to
encourage growth and diversity with minimal use of chemical
pesticides.

Soil Conservation

Contour plowing reduces soil erosion as it impedes runoff.

No-till agriculture does not leave soil exposed and bare.
Leaving a field fallow or resting replenishes nutrients.
Ground cover protects soil and reduces runoff.

The decomposition of plant materials to form soil takes a great deal of time.
Obtain three or four small, clear containers and some grass clippings. In one
container place grass clippings and nothing else. In another container place
grass clippings and enough water to cover them. In the third container mix grass
clippings and soil and, in the fourth, grass clippings and sand. Have students
form a hypothesis about the length of time it will take for the grass clippings to
decompose and observe the containers over a period of time. By the end of the
course, students may begin to see a change in the clippings.

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Figure 10.6

Contact your local soil and water conservation district or a well drilling company
to obtain soil core samples for your class to observe. Generally, they will provide
the core samples for free if you supply the trays. Trays are approximately 4 feet
long and 3 inches wide. They can easily be made from plywood or by cutting
PVC pipe lengthwise. Have students measure the depth of each of the soil
horizons and note the difference in color and texture of each. This is a great
visual introduction to soil structure and types. You may also want to invite the soil
scientist who provided the cores to your class as a guest speaker.
If there is a construction site nearby, ask if you can take a sample of the soil they
have removed from the construction area. (You will need enough for each
student to make a 3-inch ball of soil.) At the local garden center, purchase a bag
of topsoil (without additives). As a laboratory activity, have students wet a
handful of soil so that it will form a ball. Then have them try to form a soil ribbon
by extruding a ribbon of soil between their thumb and forefinger. The more clay
the soil has, the easier it will be to form a ribbon and the longer the ribbon they

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will be able to form. The soil from the excavation site will most likely have a high
clay content, while the garden soil will have more sand.
Figure 10.3

Soil texture is determined by the ratio of sand to clay to silt. Have students bring
in a bag of soil from their gardens. Students should place approximately 30 ml of
their sample in a graduate cylinder and add enough water to reach the 50 ml
mark. They should cover it with the palm of their hand or some Parafilm and
shake the sample vigorously. Place the cylinders in a place where they will not
be disturbed and the next day have students examine the layers that have
formed. They will be able to see the layers of particles and make a loose
determination, according to figure 10.3, of what soil type they had.
How much clay and sand the soil contains will determine the length of time it will
take water to drain. Use small paper cups with several holes punched in the
bottom and soil samples of different types. Place the soil in the cup and pour a
measured amount of water in the cup. Time how long it takes for the water to
travel through the cup and how much water is retained in the soil sample. Soil
with a high clay content will take longer for the water to percolate through it.
Sandy soils do not hold water. Soils that are composed of loam and sand are
considered the best for farming.

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The soils you have collected can also be used to investigate erosion and runoff.
Use a stream table or another large container to place your soil samples. You
can plant grass seed to mimic crop placements and then have it rain at one end
of the table. Is the soil held in place, or is it washed away over time? Does it form
rills or gullies?

Applications
Soil Nutrient Lab
Purpose: To find the levels of nitrogen, phosphorous, potash, and pH in the
students soil sample.
Materials: Order from a supply catalog or purchase from a garden store several
Rapitest soil test kits.
Procedure:
1. Have the student bring in a baggie of soil from his/her yard for testing.
2. Using a small beaker or plastic cup, have the student make a five parts water
to one part soil mixture.
3. Fill each of the plastic soil test vials (from the rapidest kit) to the dotted line
with the soil/water mixture.
4. The vials have color-coordinated capsules that go with each soil test. Find
the blue capsule and carefully separate it so that you can pour the powder into
the blue vial. Cap and shake until the white powder is completely dissolved. (Be
careful not to have the vial explode!) Repeat with the other three colored
capsules.
5. Wait until a color develops. (This usually takes about 5 minutes.)
6. Record the results in the table below. For fertilizer decide from the following
choices: 10-10-5 or 10-5-10 or 5-10-10 or 5-10-5 or 10-10-10 or 5-5-10 or 10-5-5.
SOIL

NITROGEN PHOSPHOROUS POTASSIUM

pH

FERTILIZER

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Class Time: The topic of pest control by itself makes up only a small portion
of the course emphasis. Allow 3 days to cover this information. As you study air,
water, and land pollution you can further integrate this material.
Approach and Tips
In chapter 9, students examined their diets and how well they compared to the
recommended food intake allowances on the food pyramid. Have students
examine their diets and the amount of pesticide-contaminated foods they
consume.
Table 10.1

Are they at risk for pesticide exposure? Discuss the recommendations for
reducing risk given on p. 212.

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Application
Toxicity of Pesticides Lab
Materials:
One six pack of plants from a local nursery
Bottle of spray herbicide
Procedure:
1. Take the six plants and cut the plastic so that they are apart from one another.
2. On one of the plastic containers, with a permanent marker, write control and
set that one aside.
3. On another of the containers write normal dose, on another 1/2 normal, on a
third write 1/4 normal, on the forth write 2 times normal and on the last write 4
times normal.
4. Have your class decide what normal is. I read the bottle and it will usually
say completely cover the plant with foam. So, this will be the normal dose.
5. Go outside or use a vent hood and spray the normal plant with the amount to
completely cover the plant with foam. Then, spray the rest of the plants with
the 1/2 normal, 1/4 normal, 2 times normal, and 4 times the normal amount.
6. Water all of the plants (including the control) and put them in the window until
the plants have all died.
7. Next, discuss with the students why the manufacturer of the herbicide would
like us to completely cover the plant with foam and the environmental effect
the runoff pesticide will have.
Conclusion:
1. Was the normal dosage effective in killing the plants?
2. Did lower amounts of pesticide still have the desired effect of killing the
plants?
3. What are the environmental effects of this pesticide? Does using more than
needed have an environmental footprint?
4. What is the most effective dose of this pesticide?
5. Are there any human health risks of being exposed to this pesticide?

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6. What are some alternative ways we could have killed these plants without the
use of pesticide?

Common Mistakes and Misconceptions

The mistake that teachers make in this unit is not to let the kids get dirty and do
all the soil labs out there. Try to spend every day lecturing some and then doing
a different soil lab. Different labs include soil permeability, soil texture, soil
nutrients, soil bulk density, soil consistence, soil texture by feel, soil surveys, and
creating a soil horizon. Set up the class to incorporate one to two of these labs
every day for the students to get a good hand-on experience in the laboratory.

Suggested Website:
For many teachers, soil is not something they know that much about. A great
resource from the Natural Resource Conservation Service is found at
http://soils.usda.gov/. There are pictures of soil profiles (in case you cannot go
out where you live and dig up one yourself), soil surveys, soil use ideas, soil
education and many fact sheets, by state, to help identify the type of soil in your
particular area.
There are many websites with information for and against pesticide use. If you
want to have your students do a side-by-side comparison of various pesticides
and how they work you can go to http://npic.orst.edu/, or
http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/. For anti-pesticide websites or for students to
gain information on alternative methods to spraying pesticides you can go to
http://www.beyondpesticides.org/ or http://www.panna.org/. I bring in a bucket of
different pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, etc.) and have the
students look up information on any 5 that they pick. The student writes how the
pesticide kills the pest, what human health effects the pesticide causes, and what
environmental effects are associated with the pesticide.

Questions
1. IPM is a good alternative to chemical pesticides. However, there are risks
associated with using organisms not native to an ecosystem to combat pests.
Give an example in which IPM went wrong and explain why. Make a
recommendation to combat the pest more effectively, and discuss why your
suggestion is the better choice.