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P o we r
HEAT ENGINEEKING
A TEXT BOOK OF APPLIED THERMODYNAMICS
FOR ENGINEERS AND STUDENTS
IN TECHNICAL SCHOOLS
BY
ARTHUR
M. GREENE,
Jr.
First Edition
1915
E. C.
-Oft
\
Inc.
fS^
THE MAPX.E PRESS YORK PA
MAR 22
1,915
CI.A397220
PREFACE
For many years the author has given lectures supplementing
the text-books used as a basis for a course in heat engineering.
His aim in preparing this book has been to bring together his
various notes with statements of the investigations and writings
of others to
make
of this subject.
shall
by Goodenough.
Numerical problems have been solved at various points in the
and to apply them to
actual engineering work.
The problems have been solved in
detail to give the student one manner of attack as well as an order
for the arrangement of computations for clearness.
Unless the
student can apply the various formulae and theories he has failed
to attain that for which this book was written.
In addition to the
problems and solutions a series of questions on the various topics
of the text and a set of problems illustrating their use have been
placed at the end of each chapter. These may be used by the
student in preparation of an assignment or by the teacher for
blackboard recitations.
PREFACE
vi
The author not only expresses his thanks to those whose works
he has used and whose names he has placed in the first part of the
index but to those whose writings he has studied as a student and
teacher and whose work or whose view point he has absorbed.
He
Mary
work.
Sunnyslope, Troy, N.
February 22, 1915.
A.
Y.,
M.
G., Jr.
CONTENTS
Page
Preface
List of Symbols
xi
CHAPTER
Fundamental Thermodynamics
of
of
of
tial
Specific
k's
of
Orifices.
CHAPTER
II
62
CHAPTER
III
Heat Transmission
.72
Transmission Mean Temperature Difference Determination of K-Steam Condensers Ammonia Condensers Brine
Coils
Evaporators and Feed-water Heaters Heat from Liquids
to Liquids
Factor of Safety Radiators Heat through Walls
and Partitions Efficiency of Heat Transmissions Topics
Problems.
Laws
of
vii
CONTENTS
viii
CHAPTER
IV
Page
118
Air Compressors
Various Types Work of Compression Effect of Clearance
Volumetric Efficiency Horse-power and
Effect of Leakage
Power of Motor Temperature at the end of Compression ComSaving due to Jacket
pression Curve Heat Removed by Jacket
Water Required for Jacket Multistaging and Intermediate PresIntermediate Temperatures Heat Removed by Intersures
Amount of Water for Intercooler Water Removed in
cooler
DisIntercooler Effect of Leakage in Multistage Compressions
placement of Cylinders Size of Inlet and Outlet Pipes and
Valves Percentage Saving due to Multistaging over a Single
Stage Unavoidable Loss of Compression on Two Stages
Work on Air Engine Loss due to Cooling after Compression
Unavoidable Loss due to Expansion Line Loss of Pressure in
Pipe Line Loss due to Leakage from Transmission Line Loss
due to Throttling Gain from Preheating Power and Displacement of Air Engine or Motor Fan Blowers Governing Motors
Losses in Transmission Logarithmic Diagrams Table of
Power Topics Problems
CHAPTER V
The Steam Engine
167
Action of Steam Engine Cycle of Steam Engine Heat and Efficiency of Cycle Steam Consumption Temperature-Entropy
Diagrams Effects of Changes Calorimeters Analysis of Tests
Hirn's Analysis Temperature Entropy Analysis
Missing QuanExperiments of Effect of Cylinder
tity and Initial Condensation
Walls -Valve Leakage Steam Consumption by Clayton's Method
Values of N for Expansion Lines Expansion Lines Use of Rectangular Hyperbola Construction of Expansion Curves Mean
Effective Pressure
Real and Apparent Ratio of Expansion
Stumpf Engine Size of Engines Best Point of Compression
Speed Locomobile Topics Problems.
CHAPTER
VI
Relative
Cylinders Jacketing Reheaters Governing
Bleeding Engines or Turbines Regenerative Engines Testing
and Analysis Binary Engines Topics Problems.
Sizes
of
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
IX
VII
Page
265
Steam Nozzles, Injectors, Steam Turbines
Nozzles Injectors Steam Nozzle Velocity Water Velocities
Theory of the Injector Heat Equation of the Injector Steam
Weight Steam Nozzle Combining Tube Delivery Tube
Density Impact Coefficient Injector Details Steam Turbines
Action of Jets Maximum Efficiency Types of Turbines
CompuEfficiency
Similarity of Action of Turbine and Engine
Reheat Factor Combined Engine and Turtations and Design
bine Allowance for Change of Running Conditions Combined
Engine and Turbine Topics Problems.
CHAPTER
VIII
333
Condensers, Cooling Towers and Evaporators
Types of Condensers Pressures in a Condenser Condenser
Design Problems Cooling Towers Size of Tower and Mats
Spray Nozzles and Ponds Accumulators and Evaporators
Double Bottoms Temperature of Boiling Topics Problems.
CHAPTER IX
Internal Combustion Engines and Combustion
359
Development of Engine Otto Cycle Air Standard Efficiency
Atkinson Cycle and Diesel Cycle Actual Engines Governing
Ignition
Heat Transfer to Walls Fuels Combustion of Fuels
Gas Composition Problem Temperatures at Corners of Card
Adiabatics Efficiency Change Temperature after Explosion
Temperature Entropy Diagram Logarithmic Diagram Test of
Gas Engine Combustion of Fuels for Boilers Surface Combus-
CHAPTER X
Refrigeration
411
Air Machines Problem Effect of Clearance and Friction Moisture Vapor Refrigerating Machines Effect of Substances Ab-
sorption Apparatus
Index
455
SYMBOLS USED
A
A
a
a
a
B
B
b
b
b.h.p.
B.t.u.
Tyf^
const, to
B.t.u.
=
=
=
gas constant
=
=
=
=
=
c'
=
=
=
=
c"
-j
TEXT
IN
pV
^p =
line.
brake horse-power.
British thermal units.
CP
constant in equation.
coefficient of conduction or heat transmission.
specific heat of water or length of line.
specific heat of liquid.
specific heat of saturated steam
specific heat at constant pressure of 1 cu. ft.
cp
=
=
specific
c
c
Cv
cv
D
d
=
=
=
=
D.H.P.
d'
=
=
F
F
/
/
G
g
H
H
h
h'
H.P.
/
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
a/1
lbs. of
acceleration of gravity.
of injector in feet.
horse-power.
heat content of
M lbs.
of substance.
xii
=
=
=
i.h.p.
heat content of
1 lb. of
substance.
indicated horse-power.
Joule's equivalent
778
pounds.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
K2
Kw
L
I
I
lp
and
M
M
m
Mi
mf
Mm
Mo
m
m.q.
M mai
N
lv
coefficient of
clearance factor.
kilowatts.
stroke in feet.
feet.
= latent heats.
= mass of substance in pounds.
= mass of 1 cu. ft. of substance in pounds or constant in equations.
= apparent weight of steam per card, indicated.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
= no. of molecules.
= heat of expansion.
= heat of pressure change.
= total force or pressure.
= mean effective pressure on
normal pressure in pounds
pm
=
=
=
=
=
heat added to
lbs. in B.t.u.
heat per pound of substance or heat of solution of aqua ammonia.
heat of liquid, at outlet, q'
at inlet q\.
total heat in 1 lb. of saturated steam.
total heat of 1 lb. of superheated steam.
universal gas constant = 1544 ft.-lbs. per deg. per molecule.
n
n
n
o
P
P
piston.
q
q'
q"
q">
=
=
=
=
cut-off.
entropy of vaporization.
R
R
r
7p
rr
r.e.
R.H.
s
s
xiii
ivb
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
wr
=
=
x
x
=
=
molecular weight.
quality or dryness factor = pounds of steam per pound of
mixture.
per cent, of
3 in 1 lb. of solution.
point of compression, distance moved and variable length of
x"
s'
s"
S
2
T
T
t
Tsat
Tsoi
U
u
V
v
v'
v"
W
w
w
wa
wt.
Si
i
Entropy
of 1 lb. liquid.
lbs. of substance.
change of entropy for
change of entropy per pound of substance.
temperature in degrees from absolute zero.
temperature difference in Heck's formula.
temperature from F. or C. zero.
temperature of boiling.
temperature of boiling of aqua ammonia.
lbs. of substance in foot-pounds.
intrinsic energy of
intrinsic energy of 1 lb. of substance.
NH
injector.
y
y
z
a
a
a
/3
7
5
A
At
e
77
771
772
773
7?4
775
776
7? e
Tjfc
kinetic efficiency.
xiv
T\
r)
7] r
77s
qt
t)
X
/j,
p
p
p
<t>
<f)
\p
= over-all efficiency.
= efficiency of weight.
= temperature of material.
= coefficient of conduction of gas.
= materials factor in Orrok's formula.
= internal heat of vaporization.
= relative humidity.
= steam richness factor in Orrok's formula.
= Maxwell's thermodynamic potential.
= coefficient in Nicolson's formula of heat transmission.
external work in making steam.
HEAT ENGINEERING
CHAPTER
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
Heat is a form of energy and as such it may be measured in
any unit of energy. The customary unit is the British thermal
may
although heat
212 F.
Heat energy
is
Q-Q'
It has
HEAT ENGINEERING
heat in the
first
case
is
of heat and
This statement
The numerical
known
relation
/.
It
=
JQ =
1 B.t.u.
778
ft.-lbs.
(1)
(2)
is
symbol
A=A
Q =
Q = Heat
in B.t.u.
(3)
AW
W=
(4)
Work
in ft.-lbs.
JdQ = dU
+ dW
(5)
unit weight
is
The
capi-
a body of
Jdq = du
Now
If
dw
(6)
above equation any one of the differential quantibe zero or have any sign. Thus if dq = 0, no heat is
added and such action is known as adiabatic action. If du = 0,
there is no change in intrinsic energy and the action is known as
isodynamic action, while if dw = 0, no external work is done, and,
as will be seen later, there is no change in volume.
The signs
This
of these terms may be anything and the equation is true.
equation is one of the important ones in thermodynamics. If at
any time the change of intrinsic energy is known on any path
or during any change of state and if the work is known during
that change, then the sum of these two will be the heat required
during this change. If positive, heat must be added; if negative,
heat must be abstracted.
ties
in the
may
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
Now
surface of the
mal to the surface surrounding the body. If then the total area
body isF,pF is the total normal force on the
body. If this surface is moved through the normal distance dx,
the work done is
of the surface of the
pFdx =
dW
but since
Fdx = dV
pdV =
dW
(7)
or
= dw
pdv
The equation
(6)
may
therefore be written
= du
Jdq
pdv
(8)
dq
r*b
r**
y a
du
Ua
pdv
Ua
is
'b
this area
this integral
du
is
on the path.
the path
is
differential
called
an exact
dw
or
can be inte-
HEAT ENGINEERING
other to
is
ydx
Thus
dX
not an exact differential since there must be some known relaand x before the integration can be performed.
tion between y
Now
dx
x and
{xdy
ydx)
xy
dX = Mdx + Ndy
dX
is
an exact
differential
if
by
If
however
dX
is
known
bx
to be exact
then
8M
^N
w\
(9
-r
-r must, equal
^
bx
by
The reason
for this
is
relation
f(xy)
hence
d)[ = -t dx
bx
-7
by
dy
if
dX is exact there
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
now
bX _
8x
M and
by
but
8
bybx
dx8y
hence
bM
bN
bxby
by
bybx
bx
and
This relation between the differential coefficients
be used to determine whether or not the differential is exact,
or if known to be exact, the equality of the partial derivative of
and
may be used to determine new relations as will be seen
may
later.
0,
the line
is
ua +
Ppdv
(10)
an adiabatic and
Ua
Ppdv
Ub
(11)
*J a
1,
If
ab
oo
,
represents an adiabatic
from a to
6.
If this is car-
Fig.
1.
of zero temperature.
Although
it is
HEAT ENGINEERING
6
idly
added
Jq =
no work.
If there is
pdv
pdv
or dv
0,
(12)
0,
and
constant.
In this case
Jq = u b
ua
(13)
P.V.
PLANE
Draw from a and b two adiaand from a draw the isodynamic until it strikes
the adiabatic from b at c.
In Fig. 2
let
ab be any path.
batics to infinity
12
Fig.
Now
la
oo
2b
co
26
lab
oo
v
Graphical representation of heat added.
= ua
= ub
lab2
oo
2.
pdv
l a &2
la&co
la
oo
oo
ab
oo
= ub
fpdv
rpdv -
Ub
t/ a
ub
ua
-\-
p
t/ a
J?
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
This area
is
infinite in extent
co
represented graphically.
c.
3c
= Jq =
oo
labcS
lab2
fpdv
I
and
26c3
= U U =
b
Ub
ua
= ua
SCALE OF TEMPERATURE
When
of these
is finite.
If q ab is
divided by
m may
If
is
equal to
a'b'b"a"
is
is
be called
the result
e.
drawn below ab
a'
equal to
HEAT ENGINEERING
8
will
be
Each isothermal
is
so
drawn
that the small areas are equal and these isothermals determine
Fig.
212,
3.
scale
459.6 F.
is
at
is
given by
The
two systems
C = % F
that determined
e.
Hence the
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
Q =eT
is
(14)
perature
eT'
is
CARNOT CYCLE
Carnot proposed a cycle made up of isothermal and adiabatic
Imagine a perfect non-conlines in a peculiar form of engine.
ducting cylinder with a perfectly conducting head containing a
non-conducting piston together with two bodies S and R of infinite
fe
$1
E mm
T
p-
/////////
m
R
T2
Fig.
4.
Carnot engine.
S and R
(Fig. 4).
The
fact that
source while
If
now
is
the cylinder
is
is
made
a differential
S and
amount
the pressure
less
than that
exerted
mediately cause
its
temperature to
fall.
On
account of the
HEAT ENGINEERING
10
this operation
its
temperature con-
is
S and
If the pressure on
kept at a differential
amount above the pressure exerted on the piston by the substance, the piston will move downward compressing the substance within and thus doing work upon it, which tends to increase the temperature causing a flow of heat into S the temperature of which cannot change. After the starting point
is reached the substance within the cylinder is in its original
condition with a restitution of the heat taken from S and the
development of the first external work on the substance within.
These two actions out and back are isothermal and because (a)
they can be imagined to take place in either direction, with
(6) external conditions differing by an infinitesimal quantity
and because (c) all things external and internal can be restored
to the initial conditions by coming back over the path to the
original condition by a reversal of directions; such action is
known as reversible action. These three conditions must hold
for
all
is
reversible actions.
If instead of
is
same path. It is seen that this fulthe three conditions mentioned above and hence the adiabatic
line
is
reversible.
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
11
the rod
increased
differential
The
is
perature
batic
3-4
is
fixed
2
at
by
its
tem-
Fig. 5.
Carnot
cycle.
on which Q 2 heat
units have been abstracted and on which the point 4 is fixed so
that the adiabatic 4-1 on which no heat is added will end at
the original point 1. This is known as the Carnot cycle.
perature
REVERSED CYCLE
no reason why these operations could not occur
In this case Q 2 heat units would be
taken from R and Qi heat units would be given up to S.
Consider the path 1, 2, 3, 4, 1 on which the total heat added is
There
is
Qi
- Q +
Qi
-Q
but
Q = Ub - U a +
AW
U = Ua
b
is
Hence
Q
If this
-Q
AW
Q2 - Q = 1
AW
HEAT ENGINEERING
12
work
AW
or
units
may
if
U
2
Ui =
J JdQ =
U -
j jdQ =
CdW
+ jdW
Vi
(15)
0.
sum
it
is
of the heats
This
is
on
all
regardless
AW
cycle
is
Qi and hence
Q^Q,
its efficiency is
Eff
(16)
For the Carnot cycle this may be simplified, since the heat
on isothermals limited by the same two adiabatics.
transfers are
In this case
Q = eT
Q2 = eT 2
T2 )
= e(Ti
=
1
t?&
Eff
[See Eq.(14)]
T\ T
~^~
(17)
This
is
2,
^ T
Ti
if
it is
Hence be2
MAXIMUM
Suppose there
the Carnot cycle.
is
EFFICIENCY
will give
the inequality
Qlc
Qu
Qlc
<
Qlr
Qlr
Qir
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
13
is
Q^c
more heat
is
Qlr
>
Qlr
Qlr
true
Qlc
or
is
taken from
it.
Since the two engines coupled to the source and refrigerator re-
Qlc
Qzc
Qlr
Qlc
Qlr
Qlr
Qlc
Qlc
Qlr
Qlr
>
Qlc
Qlr
Since the efficiency of the cycle r cannot be greater and cannot be less than that of the Carnot cycle it must be equal to it
and hence all reversible cycles have the same efficiency, which is
equal to that of the Carnot cycle. All that can be said of nonreversible cycles
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
14
This proof can be used to show that the efficiency is independent of the medium used, for if one substance gave a higher
efficiency it could be used on a Carnot cycle as a driver while the
other substance would be used as the medium of a reversed
Carnot cycle. The reasoning would lead to the same absurd
result and hence all substances will give the same efficiency theoretically when operating between the same source and refrigerator.
The Carnot efficiency is the maximum efficiency aDd if the
limiting temperatures are T\ and T 2
is
(rp
rp
Sp
and
T
Qitft
1
must be
rejected.
work
AW
is
concerned
may
be used
for
Law of Thermodynamics:
SECOND LAW
"It
is
expression
~ =
rp
rp
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
is
of
when
later.
15
Each
is
of
thermodynamics.
on the pv
plane.
LOSS OF AVAILABILITY
Suppose heat flows by conduction from one body of high tem-
on account
it is
non-reversible.
sumed
Since
- S] >
To
Ti
is
almost equal to
<
To'
T/
= T ^
i
if
w]
A IF
units of
To'
ATf(l-J)or
ytr
is
(l-J- )
:
into heat
HEAT ENGINEERING
16
All of
it
hence
In the reversible changes or on the reversible cycles the unavailable energy before the operation
Qi
and
this is the
amount
rejected
no increase
was
Yl
by the
reversible cycle.
Hence
of unavailable energy.
ENTROPY
Goodenough points out that
reversible changes
of the
all
loss of available
energy
form
'(rr)
He
This quantity
of the
is
form
and
-^
one system or to
refers to
available
If
amount
of
heat
T ^r
i
given to the
entropy of
medium
in the cylinder.
There
is
a decrease of
is
increased
by
-jfi-
of these
two
is
zero.
This
is
true
if
the cycle
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
worked
is
. while the
1
be^-.
1
This latter
is
there
If
is
17
conduction of
T2
greater since
than T\.
is less
Hence
is
a gain in entropy
Qi
Qi
Ti
T2
when the
irreversible
This
is
the only
direction in which this operation can take place, while in reversible action the operation
Hence
if all
may
7p or l
CdQ
may
is
fd
Q.
or
if
the temperature
may come
Entropy change
There could be a
crease of entropy
if
y+ y
loss of availability
and consequently an
in-
entropy
jdS =jf + jf
Since the amount of unavailable energy is dependent on the
energy in a body and its temperature, the entropy, which is
the unavailable energy divided by the lowest possible tern-
HEAT ENGINEERING
18
perature,
is
dependent on these.
also
on the state
of a
giving
A-sx-Tf+rf
UTx
J
as)
Ti
Now dH
is
cases.
return
is
positive
made
When
around a closed
and
positive in all
c^aS
0,
since a
must always be
-=jf
and therefore
quantity.
closed cycle
is
in such a case
there
cycle.
-^ must be
internal friction
is
however,
If,
dH =
a negative
-=f is negative
there
is
no
friction
s 2 - Si =
on any closed
cycle.
S2 -
Si
>
f^
Now
or
(20)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
19
ENTROPY DIAGRAM
TdS
/
and
is
of coordinates
T and S
the outside
if
parallel to the
dH =
it
or the line
The
areas beneath
any
line
entropy
represent the
is
no
dS
If
must be an adiabatic
since
=/?=
and because T does not equal infinity, dQ must equal zero. This
the condition for an adiabatic. If the lines are adiabatic lines
with internal friction the entropy increases due to this friction
and hence the lines must progress to the left.
is
CHARACTERISTIC EQUATIONS
This
and
is
v, t,)
(21)
tion determined
three coordinates
The equations
is
by experiment.
is
for
some
of the
in
= BT
pV =
or
(22)
MBT
(23)
HEAT ENGINEERING
20
log
log k
T
T_
log
(24)
p = a
where n {t
log
ba n
c/3
(25)
t Q)
= ~- -
+ op)
(1
(26)
= BT -
pv
cp n
(27)
HEAT ON A PATH
Now
planes, pv, pt or
these
The
vt.
first
one of
is
Suppose
its use.
is
v
Fig.
shown
path
6. Path^on
pV
the
is
is
no reason
is
1 is
dv
is
(t
amount
if
($,* +
to b
The
0*p
is
dp.
These
the path
d*
shown.
of
pressure line
path
in Fig. 6.
The
for
is
is
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
or
is
21
pt,
or
of heat.
The
quantities
heat added to
ties, p, v,
or
t,
constant, are
(J
etc.,
of substance to
lb.
of
pressed in heat units which refer to water their values have the
definite
c v , specific
\8tJ
v
of unit
is
constant.
=
(/TV
^ Vi
a ^ en ^ nea/k f expansion.
\Sp)t
ij-J
n, heat of
o,
dq
= c v dt + v dv
= c pdt + pdp
= ndv + odp
l
may
be simplified
(29
(300
(280
HEAT ENGINEERING
22
c v dt
lv
dv
Cpdt
Ipdp
(31)
This appears to be an equation with three independent variThere is always a characteristic equation with p, v, and
hence
any one of these three is known in terms of the
and
t,
other two.
Suppose t is eliminated by
ables.
(U
*-)*+*
'dt\
\bp
Hence
c
(S +
-]
dv
c
-
Cp
+i
l
dp
,*
equal.
Hence
* =c*+**
\8ps
p
,8p/
or
dp^
e,-C-~l,(l
(32)
and
or
Cp
Cv
lv
\y<->)
*.-
(34)
( J
(33)
and
cp
cv
lv
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
23
iv
\8v/
and
cv
= -i
P\8t)
L
By
'8p^
cp
equating
(28')
with either
c4) +
(35)
<
*(|)
36 >
Now
Jdq
and
= du
(dH
dq
.'.
du
= Jdq
pdv
0)
Tds
pdv
Tds
=
-,
pdv
(37)
Another quantity used throughout the theory of thermodynamics which has an important use is the heat content. This is
not the heat contained in a body but it is that heat plus the
product of the pressure and volume. This is the amount of
energy which would leave with a substance when it is forced
out of a region in which the pressure is kept constant. It is
represented by the symbol i and defined by
i
M
It will
be seen that
= A(u
= Mi
pv)
(38)
= Adu
Apdv
+ Avdp
= Tds
Avdp
(39)
HEAT ENGINEERING
24
Two
F and
known
other quantities
are given
<f>,
F = Au = Ai <t>
by the
thermodynamic
as
potentials,
by the equations
Ts
Ts
s,
and
are
state.
dF = sdT + Apdv
d4> = Avdp - sdT
(40)
(41)
Now du, di, dF and dcj> are all exact differentials since they
depend on the state and hence, as they are expressed as functions
of two variables, the partials of the coefficients of the independent
variables with regard to the other independent variables are
equal.
Taking the equations (37), (39), (40) and (41) the following results are true:
\8p/
\8s/ p
/8_s\
\8v) T
/8s"
ds/
four
(43)
(44)
\ 8tJ
/8v\
\8t) p
above
equations
(dm
\8p) T
The
(42)
\8v 1
are
(45)
Maxwell thermodynamic
equations.
Now
f-d,
Hence
(44)
and
(45) reduce to
m-
at( 4)=l
(46)
dq
c v dt
+ At(^)
dv
(48)
dq
c p dt
- At(^)
dp
(49)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
25
dq =
^ - Cj (f J* + \fXdv
'
[*(!),+
,8pJ
* + ^
c
(50)
^8p;
Now
'8v^
and
and
=
(-)
\8v/
n
Op
cp
(-)
.<5p/
Equation
(50)
Gy
c.
becomes
AT
(48), (49)
and
Ctf
l_
\ 1/1/ /
\ L/l//
t)
same form
<>
Equation
(51) is
results.
Goodenough
derives
of value.
These follow:
du = Jdq
pdv
du
di
= Tds
=
dq
Jc v dt+
-f-
[t(^) - p]dv
(53)
Avdp
Avdp
c p dt
- A [t(^J -v]dp
(54)
HEAT ENGINEERING
26
du and
Hence
\8v/t
and from
St
6t
8t
(54)
These equations
(55)
and
making
certain
deductions.
Equations
and
(55)
(46),
(56) are
thermodynamics.
(47),
(48),
(49),
(50),
(51),
(52),
(53),
(54),
and
( )
refer to
,
any substance.
The
partial
PERFECT GASES
perfect gas
is
From
these
characteristic
equation becomes
pv
= BT
(57)
or
pV =
MBT
(58)
a,
Now
pv
p_
B - T _
~ mT
m =
weight of
W)
1 cu. ft. of gas.
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
27
to be
2116.3
~
By
0.08071
"
491.6
53,34
if
wt
number
of molecules
molecular weight
m =
z?
Kwt
_ cons k
Kwt To "
'
wt
or
Bwt =
const.
R =
The weight
of
=R
(60)
pressure and at 32 F.
is
0.089222
lbs.
2116.3
^oxygen
0#0 89222
491.6
Hence
R =
48.25
32
1544
and
R
Bgas
Now
1544
^iZ
(ku
(61)
air contains
is
weight.
0.79
0.21
X
X
wt. of
28.08
32
1 vol.
=
=
22.18
28.90
b6
6.72
Hence
B air ~
The
weight of air
is
is
*544
28.9
'
28.93.
HEAT ENGINEERING
28
sum
is
under a partial
is
Law and
volume
part of the
represents
so that the
what
If pi,
p 2 Ps
which weigh
,
and
if
when a number
.
all
of
represent the
M M M
2
3
h
the following
,
are true:
p = pi
p2
?>3
(Dalton's
M=M +M +M
p = M B ^ + M B,^+
2
V
Py= MB
mixture
VM B
1
Law)
= |sMJ5
or
D mixture
\"^J
lur
This
is
since in
v
V\wti
'ZViwti
If this is
= proportional weight.
= S proportional weights =
divided by the
sum
total weight
by assumption
is
is
found.
Hence
ZViwh _
^mixture
1544
~~>
wl mixture
\04J
for
perfect gas.
pletely
No
characteristic equation
pV =
is
MBT
Under great pressures there
is
meth-
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
29
ane, ethylene,
these laws.
Hydrogen
Carbon monoxide
Oxygen
Methane
Ethylene
Nitrogen
C2H4
28.032
28.08
Carbon
Ammonia
NH
Carbon dioxide
Steam
C0
Sulphur
2.016
CO
o
28.0
32.0
CH
16.032
12.0
17.064
44.0
18.016
32.06
MBT
pv
pv
= BT
or
'Sv\
~P
8t
It is to
)P
be remembered that although
St
B
V
B
=
Sp\
459.6
= T
ST.
U = ^~
+ ATB
dq
c v dt
dq
Cpdt
dq
c p -^ dv
cp
(46)
ATB
-c =
v
dv
c v dt
dp
c p dt
+c v ^dp =
ATp v
cp
AB
+ Apdv
(48)
Avdp
h cv T
(49)
(50)
(51)
HEAT ENGINEERING
30
therefore the
= du
Jc v dt
(65)
and must be
directly integrable.
to
or a function of
t.
SPECIFIC HEATS
Now
=
=
a function of
c v is
of the
form
bt
or
cv
+ b(T a' + bT
459.6)
459.66
bT
(66)
But
/
Now
"~~
t/'U
qy
cp
.ijL
AB +
J-J
a'
bT = a"
bT
(67)
since
Cp ~~ Cy
Ji-IJ
A B must
and
specific quantities
AB
Since
wt
wt
XB =
Xc =
v
wtXc p =
R, a constant
xn
IY
+6 T
+ b T
111
wt
The values
wt
wt
For
X
X
cp
wt
of the a's
cv
Cp
=
=
cv
and
= AR =
b's
1544
-==
+ 0.000667*
6.75 + 0.000667*
'
i
for
any
CO 2
Cp
=
=
0.15
0.195
1.9855
4.77
cv
+
+
0.000066*
0.000066*
perfect gas.
by AR.
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
(Approximate.)
=
=
cv
cp
31
0.324
0.435
+ 0.000133*
+ 0.000133*
Although
Cp
is
C v == JiJlj
^=
1.4
(68)
(51)
Since
and
Cp
Cp
or
If
C v J\.j
= kc v
AB = (k- IK
AB = k 1 k
Cp
cv
in equation (65),
u is constant. Hence
the same as the isodynamic.
zero, or
is
equal to
Since
pv
pv
is
= BT
= constant
This
ADIABATIC
The adiabatic
From (48).
is
c v dt
= c v dt + Apdv
= Apdv = A
cv
dv
dt^ _
ABY~
cv
T2
~~v
vi
..^loge^loge.
0.
dv
is
the equation
HEAT ENGINEERING
32
or
T ~
1
\w
\v 2
but
(-"0
hence
a-er'
or
rp
This
is
k-l
cons t
T plane. To
T must be eliminated.
Now
T =
Hence
pv
k_1
const.
B
or
pv k
This
is
const.
(70)
pv plane.
Now
v
= BT
V
(t)'k-1
k
p
(69), (70)
of the
and
T =
const.
const.
(71)
surface pv
= BT
(perfect gas)
of
projection.
The
= const, is known as a polytropic and for the perhas the three forms on the different planes:
line pv n
T ==
const.
(72)
const>
(73)
const
(74)
pv n
n-irp
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
33
THERMODYNAMIC LINES
The six important lines used in thermodynamics are the
isothermal (constant T) adiabatic (no heat added from the outside), isodynamic (constant intrinsic energy), constant pressure,
,
lines
equations:
=
=
=
=
=
=
Isothermal, pv
Adiabatic, pv k
Isodynamic, pv
Gonstant pressure, p
Constant volume, v
Polytropic, pv n
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
constant
n = lA
w=l
n
Positive
71 -
00
n, Negative
,
^.
= Const,
n -Positive
-"Negative
"^^
V = Const. ^sfA
n - 00
Fig.
It is seen that
n has certain
each
is
7.
x-
Thermal
of the
lines.
form pv
constant in which
values.
in Fig. 7.
all of
first.
it
will
be well to investigate
HEAT ENGINEERING
34
=
=
du =
dW =
pv n
dq
const.
+ Apdv
c v dt
Jc v dt
pdv
AB
Cv
.-.
U2
Ul )
Jc v (T 2
dw =
OI*K
= j^-j
T,)
const.
VI
Now
W
W U
pdv
t/
1_n
P2^2^2
.,
-'n
= p
1_n
piVi
2v 2
2 l>2
_,
w =
Z>2^2
for
const, y-
const.
PlVi Vl
When
and the expression
- TO =
vi
Const.
v~ n dv
t/
(T 2
work reduces
Work =
"-
Pi^i
--
(75)
PlVl
to
jj.
an indeterminate expression.
this case, the integration
Work =
X pdv =
I
const.
=
X
I
since
p
^
The value
const. log e
(75) for
pit>ilog e
Vi
(76)
"i
const.
v
work holds
n except for
Equation
1.
Work .
m^m
= LA&L =
71
71
-^L
(77)
71
\1
71
(770
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
35
Since
-
>2t>2
\??2
?>2
or
The
J
v
'
pm -
n except n
for n
LV
J_
LVp/
work =
v**
1
1
1,
If these
(79)
v
y
and
PlV! loge
is no change
do not refer to
since there
isothermal.
~ Pi*
n
(80)
^
in intrinsic energy
1 lb.
but to
on the
lbs.
C-k.-^j^ + rr-J
(790
V,
Q = PlVllOgeY
It will
k
,
+ :1
1
..
is
is
is
1
1
(800
remembered that
this
is
polytropics.
For n
k,
ft-
PlVl
1
If
_
"
P\V\
1-fc
2
work.
PlVl
is
n
U
]
jf
is
reduces to
Work =
form
of (78)
HEAT ENGINEERING
36
This
1
is
and hence
point
it is
1.
The
Fig.
8.
Lines
of division
line
between positive
Now
pv
= BT
has been derived from the definition of the perfect gas from which
*P
bt
From
(53)
_ B ~
_ P
~
v
T
(81)
du
Jc v dt
]t
^ - pjdv
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
Since du
ments
(Joules'
(81)
is
independent of
of Joule
v for
a perfect gas
by the
37
experi-
and Thompson:
-p
T (^j
Law)
and (82) give the same result, hence the absolute Kelvin
must be the same as the perfect gas T of (81).
of (82)
Since
k-
i=A[^- + V v]=A^lV
(83)
For a change
l2-Ii=A
j^rj(v2V 2 -
Pl 7i)
(85)
ENTROPY OF GASES
For reversible
lines
ds
Si
(49),
and
dq
(50)
(a \dv =
cv
- si
s2
si
=
=
c p log e
cp
log e
AB log P
^
r; *
e
<
c v loge
(87)
(88)
HEAT ENGINEERING
38
cycle of four or
more
different lines
is
a complex cycle.
V V = V V
2
(89)
= P2PI
T^s = T T,
ViPs
(90)
(91)
i.
>.
pv n = Const
\ pv m
Const\
pv m ^
Const.
4*
P^C^t*3
Fig.
This
is
shown
9.
Simple cycle
of polytropics.
as follows:
PlVi
m
p 2V 2
n
V
P3 3
p 4v 4
n
m
PlP2P3P4(VlV 3 ) (v 2V4)
n -m
(viv 3 )
ViV 3
= p 2V2U
= P3V m
= p 4V4n
= p^x
= PlP2P3P4(VlV3) m (v 2Vi) n
= (v v 4 ) n -m
= V 2V
3
(p lP3
)n
m=
P1P3
If
(89)
11
11
(p 2Pi)n
P2P4
(90)
the cross products for pressures and for volumes are equal,
must be
equal.
B*T Tz = B 2 T 2 T 4
x
TT = T
X
T,
(91)
This latter is true for perfect gases only. For cycles of any
substance the cross products of pressures or volumes are equal
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
from the geometry
39
of the figure
vapor
is
its
point of
liquefaction.
When
a vapor
is
it
is
said to be
saturated.
The
p =
T =
n =
log k
log
log
T
T_
is
(92)
in.
50
32 F. to 90 F.
=
=
140.1
log k
6.23167
238 F. to 420 F.
b = 140.8
90 F. to 237 F.
b = 141.43
6.30217
log k
6.27756
logp
V =
T =
b log
C
T - j,
(93;
Water
17.44324
13.42311
21.44687
16.99036
13.37156
6.41443
Ether
Alcohol
Sulphur dioxide
Ammonia
Carbon dioxide
3 8682
.
1.9787
4.2248
3.2198
1.8726
-0.4186
2795.0
1729.97
2734.8
1604.8
1449.8
819.77
zero, giving dq
of
work.
c v dt,
amount
HEAT ENGINEERING
40
The value
of c has
the area beneath the curve will give the value of the integral
cdt
This
is
(94)
It is the amount
some temperature
of heat
For
found graphically by plotting c but for other substances the quantity is found by empirical equations of the form
water
t.
it is
= ^L =
q'
+
+
+
2ct +
bt
ct
Sdt 2
(95)
(96)
After the liquid has been heated to the temperature corresponding to the pressure, the addition of heat causes the liquid
to boil
all
is
v"
If
v'
change
1 lb.
into steam
mains
The volume
liquid.
v =
V =
Since
(1
x)v
is
v'
f
may
'
[(1
(1
of the 1 lb.
+ x (v" -
of volume.
v')
x)v'
(1
x)v'
+ xv"
+ xv"]
(97)
(98)
x)
small in most
is
cases,
be neglected, giving
V = Mxv"
(99)
The amount
added to change 1 lb. of liquid from
liquid at the boiling point to vapor at this temperature is called
the heat of vaporization and is represented by r.
of heat
Now T
is
= j dq = (
constant and
r
v dt
-A
is
AT
(^J
dv
independent of
v,
hence
K)jT*
= AT
Q)
v')
(100)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
This equation
may
be used to find
v"
if
is
known.
is usually found by
used to compute (v" v').
Since r
is
41
For steam
The
970.4
total heat
0.6550
added
212)
0.000450
to 1 lb. of liquid at
q"
0.350
212) 2
32 F. to
it
is
+r
q'
(101)
make
(102)
For steam
q"
1150.4
212)
0.000333(t
may
212) 2 (103)
be found in tables of
properties.
Having
r,
v"
v'
may
be found; since by
nbp
dp _
~ T(T -
dt
v"
v'
A
the volume
If
external
A
The
is
b)
nbp
in heat units
work = Ap{v"
(104)
T{T -b)
changed by v"
work expressed
(92),
v'
at a pressure
= ^
v')
the
is
(105)
therefore
-V
p,
is
(106)
When
is
not
is
qj'
q'
xt
INTRINSIC ENERGY
There
is
practically
made
q'
A(u u d2 ) =
q'
<Z'
is
+r
+P
given by
Ap(v"
v')
HEAT ENGINEERING
42
may
may
be measured from 32
F., this
be written
An =
q'
+P
q'
+ zp,
or
AU =
Af (g'
+ p)
(107)
Au =
AC/ = Af (g'
or
+ xp).
(107')
HEAT ON A PATH
If
heat
is
q= A(U -
*7i)
AM
[q' 2
Fig. 10.
X2P2
CpdV
q'i
x lPl]
+A
pd7
Path on pF plane.
is
may
x
is
+A
in Fig. 10
This
earlier.
V
(108)
Mi/
used.
HEAT CONTENT
At times steam
tables
of the heat
= A (u + pv")
= q' + r' - Ap(v" = q + r Apv\
f
Now
Apv'
the same.
is
If,
+ Apv"
however,
so that for
i is
given
i - Apv = Au
A(u U\)
Ap v (t! Aptfi)
2
i2
may
v')
(109)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
43
ENTROPY
The entropy change when
S - S 32 =
the liquid
cd(log e T)
J-
^/491.6
heated
is
is
s'
(110)
91.6
fdx =
Crdx
f'dq
X Jr)T=J^F=TV =T
The
vapor
total
change
of entropy
from liquid at 32
(m)
F. into dry
is
S"
Since 32 F.
the
is
datum plane
s"
s"
S32
S'
+p
of reference
8'
(112)
XT
+ -=
s'
(1120
When
dq
,T
Now
This
ds
is
an exact
c'(l
dq
-~
differential,
_5_ /</(l
+ c" X dt + rdx
r
+ c"a; dt + -ydx
x) dt
c'(l
x)
*)
x)
hence
c
r/
,r
x\
^
_5_
-e'-'J +
and
T2
(113)
=df
dq^_<W
C
/_r \
~ STAT /
T^~ T ~ T bT
- dT
<fr
{ll6)
HEAT ENGINEERING
44
may
^=
q"
Since
bit
may
c(t
212) 2
be found.
SUPERHEATED VAPOR
If
is
any
liquid so that
its
value
if
the pressure
is
its
This vapor
kept constant.
saturation
is
known
as
superheated vapor.
The equation for superheated steam as reduced by Goodenough from the work of Knoblauch, Linde and Klebe is
^-
(1
ap)
(H4)
Yn
B =
m =
0.5963
n =
=
=
13.67938
0.088
0.0006.
= BT -
is
used
cp n
(115)
0.439
0.000239*
(116)
-s
(11=
From
8v
(114)
8*v_ _
8t
~ ~
.-cp
mw(w+.l)
Tn + 2
^+i
'
mn
(8cA
__
U + ap; -
Amn(n
1)
p[l
\
\
Sp ) T
+ zP) +
4>T
_1_
AT
ni ->.
(117)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
Using (116) as the form of expression for
cp
From
nrr
(3T
Amnin
1)J
<f>T
/.,
-p(l
j^+j
+
,
giving
cp
0.367
log
This value of
cp
=
=
Goodenough
re-
0.367
0.0001
7
0.00017
+ p (1 + 0.0003p) ^
(1170
C = 14.42408
p = pounds per square inch
T = degrees absolute F.
with the results of experiment by
Values of this are shown in Fig. 11 as
agrees
The value
-p)
the values
/3
is
45
superheated vapors
this
is
not true.
now
ammonia vapor
0.536
sulphur dioxide
0.1544
carbon dioxide
chloroform
0.215
ether
0.462
1 lb. of
0.144
liquid at 32 F.
is
is
last
=
=
=
=
=
1.32
1.26
1.30
1.10
1.03
term
2'
f*T eup
+M
\cc pdt
(118)
Ttat.
plotted in
k
k
k
k
k
given by
r=
The
K'S
required
AND
The value
of
c p dv
may
be written as
J Teal.
(mean
cp)
(T 8up
- T
8at
HEAT ENGINEERING
200
300
Degrees of Superheat
Fig. 11.
Specific heat
of superheated steam.
500
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
The value
of
mean
c p is
47
given by
c pdt
mean
c,
J-
sup.
sat.
J-
Au =
Au =
But
.-.
i
i
=
=
Ap(v'" - v')
Apv'". (109)
i
'"
+ Apv'
q
q"'
q'" practically.
The entropy
at 32 F.
of the
is
>T SU
r-dt
t/
T aa
t.
last
cases these
if
the line
is
non-reversible.
T-S
AND
I-S
T-S
CHARTS
are used
J491.6
and
since heat
is
added
HEAT ENGINEERING
48
o
8
moco
>* "#CO
tcooo
(NCM-H
CO CO CO
CO CO CD
(NCOrHCOlN
--HOOOO
CO co CD CD
D00 00NN
00^OD
wooocc
eco
ID ID ID ID
DiO
CO CO ID ID
ID ID ID
lO ID D ID ID
coco
mm
o
m
(M
O
o
IN
00 CO 00
OOtJHOCO
COr-HOSt^
OOOOO
00
CO CO CO
iDDiD-^
^ co co coco oo
^OO lOOlOrHOOkO
COIN
lO ID ID >D iD
>D 10 lO ID
iDiOmm ID iD to tO tOto mm
OOO OOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOO OOOO oo oo
OC0l>
<NI>C0
CO CD CD
CO CO CD
"CH>-I
TJ<(N
!>>>.
OCON
ThOCO
CM CO D
ooo oo
i-HOO
rfi
lOOCONO
COO
oot^t^r^t>
CO CO ID ID -^
ID D ID ID D
cotooo
CO-*
ID iD >D ID
CO CO CO <N
lO ID >D ID
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00COOt>"#
CNOCDCO
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tF-#COCO
coco
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tJ^ tJ<
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co co co
*^
CO CO CO
co co co co co
iDDcOCOl^
cococococo
OOfflOH
coco^Tji
1-1
.-H
tH
T-l 1-1
IN
coco
mco
mm 00-l
oo oo
-HCO
CO 00
mm mm
oo OO
Tf4Tj<
CO-* iD
OOO
^ ^i ^ ^
TtH'CH
(N
Tjnm
cNm
mm
OOOCO
OOOO oo oo
<N IN <N CO
CO CO CO
-jadns jo
OOOOrH
iDOiOO
iNiDr0
Tj<
mo
*m mo
mo
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
49
shown
as the liquid
This line
saturation line.
It is
r ~""^
Fig. 12.
is
From
TS diagram
for
TS
analyses.
Fig. 13.
TS diagram
areas.
Since
and
dq
= Tds
= cdt
,ds
c=T dt
(120)
negative.
The
As shown
is
no
friction are
HEAT ENGINEERING
50
the liquid line
is q'
must be remembered
It
is r.
distinctly
is
made
by
Cpdt
J
The broken
The area beneath cd is
line abed
c v dt
be
=x
be
the point
If
now
^.
found,
value of
x,
quality or constant
weight
shown
may
steam
be obtained as
in Fig. 14.
by
lines of
heat.
the same
Lines on
TS
grees
plane.
number
of
de-
connected.
be computed for point e and this is made equal
to the i at some other temperature the quality at this point may
be found and from it the position of e on that line.
If
the value of
q'
xr
Xi
= q\ + xiTi
q'
= + xt
ri
q\
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
If
is
number
obtained.
+r+
ri
Cpdt
known
= q\
Cpdt
It is
51
line of constant
second pres-
heat content.
that
u =
q'
xp or u
Apv
e is
v
found as
xv"
Fig. 15.
Mollier chart.
volume. In the superheated region the long formula for superheated steam would have to be used and by equating this for two
pressures the degrees of superheat at the second point could
be found and in this way the curve could be determined.
The lines of constant S and constant temperature are vertical
and horizontal
lines.
HEAT ENGINEERING
52
constant
x, v, deg.-sup., s
i,
is
used
and
in practice in
are
drawn
which
lines of
at equal distances
apart.
In the Mollier chart, Fig. 15, similar methods are used to compute various points. The lines shown are constant quality and
pressure on is coordinates and to this diagram should be added
lines of constant volume.
For a
definite pressure
s'
and
and
q'
-^ or
+ xr Apv'
s'
or
-f
q -f r
-f-
at
c pdt
Apv'
and
may
be found giving a
same
line of con-
stant pressure.
If this is
If
On
and change
of entropy.
is
shows
this chart.
may
be
all lines
HEAT ON PATHS
If Fig.
JQ = U 2 I
pdv
C/i
it is
given by
pdv
= work
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
shown dotted
pV
in Fig. 16,
const., in
may
it
53
which case
pdv
P2V2
P1V1
1-ri
= p2 7
=
PiVi*
Pi
B
a
(W
1
log
n =
1
Iog
(121)
F2
y;
of this
form passing
other points.
M(i
M(q'
or
Apv)
xp)
Fig. 16.
Xi
Mv\
x2
Of course
v"
is
taken from
The change
of
entropy
is
is
this
and
HEAT ENGINEERING
54
at
tables or
s'
if
XT
+ y
then
is
82-81 = M(s 2
81)
line.
is
intrinsic energy.
s\
Knowing the
first
x 1 jr
S' 2
x2
r2
jT
(122)
dt
Cp-y
Tsat.
is
must be
found by
V==
From
volume.
If this
these tables
v
jf
The entropy
second point
is
is
V = Mxv"
or
Mv
by
Work = U - U 2 = M( Ul - u
u = i Apv or q' + xp
1
At times the
error that
it is
difference
between the
better to find
u's
for a given
find
work by
V*V* - P1V1
Work =
1 n
2)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
The isodynamic
is
55
a line of constant U.
U = U2
Mui = Mu 2
Ui = i Apv or q' +
A-piVi = i Ap v or q\
l
Now
.'.
ii
xp
ZiPi
q' 2
x 2p 2
(123)
Given the pressure, volume and weight at the first point, the
is found after determining the specific volume by using
the tables and charts if possible; or by using the formula for
superheated steam or
quality
The value
__
"
may
V = Mx
2
The heat
in this case
is
v" 2
The work
is
is no
found by finding n by
- pi^i
Work = frr
1
n
The values
and
of s 2
Si
&
The isothermal
and then
are found
Si
= M(s 2
si)
and on
S!
same
as the con-
this
= M(x 2
xi)r
(124)
Xl )f
(125)
xi)
(126)
Degree superheat
= T Tsat
HEAT ENGINEERING
56
and
this
would
fix
i,
and
Then
s.
v^nv\
Work .
= M(i Ap v [i\
Q = U - Ui + workS - #1 = M(s - Sl
Ui
ApiVi])
On
Work =
" Mv"
U 2 - Ui = Q = M[q' 2
S 2 - Si = M(s 2 - 8l )
x 2P2
(q\
x lPl )]
FLOW OF FLUIDS
If a fluid flows
through an
section there
is
specific
Fig
17.
= ^
= Mui
= MpiVi
1 in ft-lbs.
Internal energy at
Hence
Mwi
Kinetic energy at
Work done
'Wi
total energy at 1
H-
Total energy at 2
2g
Now
if
there
is
Wi
2
2
+
_
or
2g
since
ui 4-
pit>ij
u2
p 2v 2J
points, say
MJq.
Of course
Ui
Wi'
P\Vi
Jq
+ Wi +
= Jq + J(ii
Ui + P\Vi
= Jq
-ft-
2g
piVi
i 2)
Jii
plus
u2
p 2v 2
(w 2
P2V 2 )
(127)
(128)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
If
now F\
is
so large that Wi
is
small and
if
57
0,
the formula
becomes
in
j(<
(129)
2ff
w2 =
or
Since q
this action
be internal friction,
is
-*j2gj(ii
(130)
j 2)
this line
The amount
of this increase in
usually found
Fig. 18.
pV
Fig. 19.
of flu ds.
stead of using
used.
%\
and then
is
in-
of
fluids.
i2
In Fig. 18 abcde
abcf
cdef
abcde
abg2e
i\
i2
i2
=
=
=
=
=
is
equal to
i\,
is
since
q'
xr
q'
xr
Ayv'
i2
cd2g
By
w =
2
i\
and
i2
^2gJ(i 1
area cd2g
is
cut
down by
Hence
i 2 ){\
y)
(131)
the
HEAT ENGINEERING
58
y(ii
is
^2).
not the
of 2
2Ve2 = M2fcor22' =
^P
1
=
2~
The quantity
i\
*a)(i
y)
i% is
Area al2c
On
J(n
=
=
=
P1V1
+
+
(u'i
J(ii
i2)
aleb
is
c2db
u 2) V2V2
el2d
THROTTLING ACTION
Suppose now that there
is
so
gain
in kinetic
w2
Wi
~2g-~2g ={) = Jfe "
2
or
is
ix
^
(132)
%2
This means that in throttling action the heat content is conThe point 2' of Fig. 18 then is found to be on a curve of
constant heat content. The horizontal lines of the Mollier
chart or the constant i curves of the T-S diagrams are throttling
curves on these diagrams.
stant.
Ji
=k~i V1V1
^n MBT
133 )
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
59
may
action
w =
^2gJ(t!
For
= Apv
V2#[piFi
Since
[pi
p 2 V2
is slight,
const.
V2flf[pi
p 2 ]V
= V2
Vi
7=1
m
~ V2] =
w =
2
This
i2)
temperature change
i
w =
yl2gh
(134)
is
liquid.
For gases
=^ Zg^zTi
(i>lVi
Ji x
~'P 2V2 )
V
Since
piVi
This
2
k
piVx
^^
= p 2v 2
is
-^"]^
jfc-i
is
maximum when p 2 =
0.
Now
Mv =
This
latter
is
is
zero
when p 2 =
Pi
Fw
and when p 2 =
will
0.
Of course the
always be some weight
HEAT ENGINEERING
60
when p 2
is less
than
The explanation
pi.
is
that
when the
pres-
sure p 2 falls the pressure which exists in the plane of the orifice
where the area is F can never become less than that to give maxi-
mum
of
M,
discharge.
To
a fixed pi and
maximum
ir"
p'-^U +
h
==
For
k+i
When
value
v\
*-
is
maximum
differentiated.
is
becomes
0.5283pi
less
(138)
and
1.135,
p2
When p 2 becomes
(137)
p2
p 2 and by equating
is
(139)
0.574pi
than the
critical
is
remains
constant for
all
values of p 2 below the critical value. For air this has been proven
to be true experimentally by Fliegner who proposes
M
when
and
= 0.53F-^
p2
<
0.53pi
M = 1.06FylP
when
p2
>
(140)
(pi
pi)
(141)
0.53pi
M
when
p2
<
Fp
^
70
0.574pi or 0.6pi
(142)
FUNDAMENTAL THERMODYNAMICS
M= F/*J
42 \
when
p2
>
3(
P2)
2p 2
M = FT
is
(143)
0.6pi
after v"i
61
CHAPTER
II
heat engine
any machine
which heat
used to furnish
As examples,
the steam engine, the steam turbine, the gas engine and similar
machines may be mentioned.
To make heat available in one of these engines it must be
applied to some substance which undergoes changes.
These
changes form a cycle and the changes which affect the properties
is
in
is
of the substance
may
The
known as
a cycle.
As pointed out in the chapter on Fundamental Thermodynamics Qi heat units are supplied and Q 2 heat units are rejected, giving Qi Q 2 units of work.
All of these machines work between some range of temperature,
Ti to T 2 and consequently the availability of the heat is
,
Ti
This
is
efficiency.
It represents the efficiency of the Carnot cycle for this temperature range and therefore it is sometimes spoken of as the Carnot
Calling this
771
vi
If
Qi
retical
is
the theoretical
amount
rejected,
~T
'
Q
62
Vz
6)
is
63
The
ratio of
773
=*
(4)
than 0.50.
may
be ex-
pected in the type of cycle used in a gas engine, although for the
steam engine there is little hope of bettering the cycle.
If for
Qa
is
an amount
of indicated
work
AW
the
amount
by
AW
of heat
is
given
If
775
steam, gas or
and
air,
if
is
the
amount
is qa , be it coal,
of substance per
AW
77^ X 33000X60
Mqa
Qa
2546 B.t.u.
42.43 B.t.u.
Mqa
=
=
V5
1 h.p.-hr.
1 h.p.-min.
The ratio of 775 to 773 is called the practical efficiency, 774, and
shows how near the actual efficiency approaches the efficiency
demanded by theory and a low value of this means that there
have been errors in actually applying the cycle. To make this
term larger, jackets, superheated steam, and reheaters have been
applied to steam engines.
*-
ir
is
found by
HEAT ENGINEERING
64
VG
The
AWo
output
overall efficiency
is
AW
work
indicated
(7)
a
various efficiencies.
V
output
heat
(8)
supplied
The
may
Fig. 20.
pV and TS
diagrams of
cycles.
represents positive
is
friction
12345
6571
and
= Qi +
= (- Q
H
+H
1
2)
since
friction.
23457
= Q - Q2
1
(#1
#2)
AW + #1 + H
65
is
Qi-Q*
2345
123456
If in
by the area
is
Qx
Hence
Eff.
2345
123456
33'4
33'4
may
This
the efficiency
is
decreased.
3
3'
"~""~"~
4
~.
4'
5"
2
>
Fig. 21.
If
efficiency.
the heat were removed on a line 5 "2 of Fig. 21 this would cut
down
the work but would not effect the heat, hence the efficiency
would be diminished in this case.
From the above it may be said that for a given range of temperature heat must be added or taken away at constant temperature if the maximum efficiency is to be obtained and since this
efficiency
is
r,
the values of
T 2 and
are to be separated as
An
much
as possible.
Although the
HEAT ENGINEERING
66
meant
is
eabbttt- In
the figure
practically equal to and by adding the
rr
steam
is
is
is
i'l
/
h
a
3
e
c
Id
i
\ C
\l
<\
1
l\
1
!
1
1
Steam
engine
saturated and
superheated steam.
23.
Fig.
cycles with
d'b'c'd
ed'b'g
67
amount
100
This
the
is
1000
of useful
lbs. of
number
Results of a
of tests will
now be
given:
347.4-213
130
7?1
B.h.p.
-347.4+460
120
,
_16
7%
-
1190-1078.5+~|(29.8 -15)12.58
//3
1190-181.3
= 14.5%
Steam pressure
gauge
?72=m=86.7%
HEAT ENGINEERING
68
Barometer
per
14.7 lbs.
r?5
_
~ ___2546
30.5[1190- 181.3]
sq. in.
Quality of steam
00
i.
'
120
= 92.5%
776=^^
16[J
in.
Steam per
8.3
~*- 6
gauge
42.42
=7y^o = 510
130
115
Steam pressure
Barometer
I.h.p
in.
= 16.7%
= 14.5%
772 = 86.7%
7? 1
773
gauge
2546
in.
?76
Back pressure
~21.5x[1190-181.3]~
H-? Q1
Steam per
i.
h.p.-hr.
j/t.o
gauge
Pressure at end of expansion.
15 lbs. per sq.
Quality of steam .... 1.00
11707
11
//o
_ H5
in.
130
gauge
21.5 lbs.
B.t.u.
per l.h.p.-min.
42.42
..
7
=362
LOCOMOBILE ENGINE
I.h.p
391+282-139
191
971
Kw.
generator
m "1352- 107 -^ 1 %
Feed Temperature.
Barometer
(Complete expansion.)
sq. in.
28^1
132 F.
14.7 lbs. per sq. in
,5
Vacuum
/o
1352- 1002
121.5
Steam pressure
in.
,^W20.6 %
9.9[1352- 107]
20.6
r?4 =
28~T
Degrees superheat
282 F.
v
776X77 7
9.9 lbs.
Eff of boi1er
.
coal
121.5
191x0746
= 8.28[1352-100] = 73 6%
8.28 lbs.
_
-S5.o/
42.42
a 206
= 2^
69
PUMPING ENGINE
384.2-108
861.34
I.h.p
771
Deh h -P
"384.2+ 460
839 8
1189-926+^(4-1.2)67.8
VZ
Steam pressure
Barometer
Back pressure
=
1189-76.0
= 26.7%
^ 26.7
32.7
gauge
in.
abs
~ 6ZJ%
2546
r75_
22A
,4
.
Pressure at end of
expansion
4 lbs. persq.
991w
10.37[1189-763"^- 1/o
= 2677 = 82.8%
^ 839.8
in.
861.3
abs.
10.37
B.t.u. per
Duty per
l.
h.p.-min.
42.42
n ooi =192
= 167,000,000
ft.-lbs.
STEAM TURBINE
Kw
6257
,7l
Steam pressure
in.
abs.
"2
6%
33
4K6
= 72 5%
'
2546
29.92"
Barometer
'
1290879
" = 1290-44 = 33%
165.5 F.
Superheat
549-76
= 45
559+460
175
= 22.9%
Back pressure
22.9
in.
974
= -^- = 69.5%
&&
abs.
11.95 1b.
B.t.u. per kw.-min.
42 42
.746x 0.229
= 249
=249X0.746 = 186
579
2546
775
B.h.p
483
776
lb.
~ 0.738 X
= 30%
483 00
= 83
579
0.805
'
5%
14320
HEAT ENGINEERING
70
Kind
Bituminous
of coal
Efficiency of producer.
73.8%
42.42
"ttoTT
141.4
141.4
ttook
169
I.h.p
B.h.p
110.5
565
ve
Cu.
ft.
2546
7,5
X905
25
'
5%
^ = 73%
565
Heat value
of gas
ft.
42.42
~ ~_-
^ry^
166
227
1 f\f\
h -P
2546
X 19270
523
Vb
B.h.p
450
776
Heat value
0.37
d& '*
_450_ 8b%
" 523 " 86 c7
0.37 lb.
of oil.
lb.
42.42
tToko
118
=
118
143
0.83
B.t.u,
B.t.u.
per i.h.p-
per b.h.pmin.
min.
110
120
100
113
350
246
226
169
1,500-h.p. locomotive
Topic
1.
What
is
136
213
201
TOPICS
What is a cycle? What is the general
any cycle? What is the expression for the
a heat engine?
138
150
71
Topic 2. Give the meaning of the symbols: 771, 772, 173, va, vb, vg, v- Give
the relations between these and the formulae by which each is found. Tell
the manner of determining the quantities entering into these formulae.
Topic 3. Give the conditions for maximum efficiency in a heat engine and
show that although these conditions may not be fulfilled high efficiencies
may be obtained. Are these high efficiencies as high as they would be were
maximum
efficiency fulfilled?
How
reported?
PROBLEMS
Problem
1.
pressure, x
An engine using 35
0.98,
sure
775
by gauge,
and 771.
Problem
square inch.
efficiencies,
77,
776,
pressure with x
0.995 and a
vacuum
of 27 in.
consumption is made 13.8 lbs. of steam per kw.-hr. and the output of
the plant has been increased 75 per cent. Is the change of value? Why?
Problem 4. A pumping engine gives a delivered duty of 175,000,000 ft.lbs. per 1,000,000 B.t.u. when supplied with steam at 165 lb. gauge pressure
with x = 1 and a temperature of hot well of 105 F. How many pounds of
this
steam are used per delivered horse-power hour? If the mechanical efficiency
is 95 per cent., what is the steam consumption per i.h.p. -hour?
Problem 5. A gas engine has an overall efficiency of 24 per cent. The
heat lost in the jacket is 25 per cent, of that supplied by the gas. How
much heat is added to the jacket water per hour if the delivered power is
565 kw.?
Problem
6.'
The results of the test of a producer gas engine plant are as
Coal burned in 120 hr., 16,000 lbs.; heating value of coal, 14,450
gas produced during test, 1,500,000 cu. ft.; heating value of gas, 120
follows:
B.t.u.;
B.t.u. per cubic foot; b.h.p., 120; i.h.p., 150; cooling water, 1,000,000 lbs.;
temperature of
of
the producer.
efficiency,
775.
i.h.p. -hour
and per
i.h.p.-min.
CHAPTER
III
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The phenomenon
is
very important as
it
through partitions
engineering structures.
Its consideration is
and
for
many
other
important in finding
amount
of re-
low
The transmission
temperature.
and
of heat is complicated
al-
though much experimentation has been done the exact laws are
not completely determined. The following discussion is based
on the works of various authors. The results of the authors
have been arranged so as to give the student a working knowledge
of this important part of applied thermodynamics.
To transmit heat from one body to another or from one part
of a body to another it is necessary to have a difference of temperature. Having this, the heat may be transmitted by one
or more of the three methods radiation, convection and conduc:
tion.
Radiation
of the ether.
is
by vibrations
which
is
trans-
mitted in
all
part which
is
colder.
In this method
it
may
body
matter
it
may
off at
higher
HEAT TRANSMISSION
73
The laws of transmission by radiation are well known experimentally and theoretically. The Stefan-Boltzmann Law for the
radiation from a black body is
Q
C
F
Ti
q = CF(TS - 7Y)
(1)
= amount of heat per hour in B.t.u.
= a constant = 1.6 X 10~ 9
= area radiating heat, in square feet.
= absolute temperature in degrees F. of hot body.
= absolute temperature in degrees F. of cold body
hot body.
If
is
co when it should
2x or a hemisphere, the quantity
have subtended a
solid angle of
found by multiplying
(1)
by
Zir
The law of radiant energy has been under discussion from the
time of Newton in 1690, who proposed a law proportional to the
first power of the temperature, until 1879 when Stefan proposed
that the law be of the form given in (1) basing his assumption
much
as rough surfaces.
160
[(lSo) -(lSo)
form
<
HEAT ENGINEERING
74
Absorbing
power
Porous carbon
1 00
0.90
25
.
Glass
Polished cast iron
Polished steel
Polished brass
Hammered
copper
23
19
07
0.07
0.03
Polished silver
matter.
ence of temperature and the area of the substance and is inverselyproportional to the length of path or thickness.
Thus
CF
Q = -j-Xh-t 2)
Q =
F =
=
t\ =
2 =
24 C =
i
Fig.
siorf surface"
(3)
C
=
[l
C
C
+ a(t 32)]
= temperature in degrees
Values of
Co
Substance
0.03 to 0.012
0.0011
0.0011
53.5
0.46
Brick
0.8
Carbon
0.006
Carbon dioxide
-0.00012
40.5
Cast iron
0.46
Concrete
0.00003
239.0
Copper
0.17
Cork board.
Air
Brass
F.
Substance
Co
Iron
Limestone
Masonry
Sandstone
Steel soft
Water
Wood
0.54
-0.00012
48.5
1.35
0.46
0.87
26.7
0.292
0.10
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The value
given by
of
C =
K
7}
=
=
He
also
2.5.
coefficient of viscosity
is
Kr)C v
planes separated
cv
specific heat at
75
relative to other.
constant volume.
temperature.
these
of
substances
increased
the
as
absolute
temperature.
When
=
=
For the
steel wall,
* - Phil.
Mag., 1860.
X
X
r 325
889.8
by the law
3559.2
4
4
3559.2.
26 7
'
ly
ifflb
X
-
(*i
2 78
-
U)
HEAT ENGINEERING
76
Now
and
of this there
is
For the
scale,
soot,
t' 1
be taken as
will
U ~
For the
is
1175 F.
1 2
will
tl
_
-
35 59.2
1200 X 1
be taken as
soot on the
in. of
1.
_
- 2(
rv
2 97
.
0.1.
16X12X0.1
185
This accounts for 188 of the 1175, showing that there must be
further resistance at the surface. This of course must be
due to films of water and of gas. It is seen from the tables of
values of C that water has about thirty times the value of C for
air and gas, and hence there will probably be Ml of 987 drop in
the water film and 3 %\ of 987 drop in the gas film if these are the
same thickness. The gas is probably less thick and if the water
film is taken as three times the thickness of the gas film the drops
in each will be approximately 90 in the water and 897 in the gas
still
film.
The
and 0.009
This
is
the
mean
of
292
90
3559 3
7
U- ^^f-
12
0.089
X12 =
111.
0.0272
in.
by the
steel
tube would
be
Q =
26 7
-r-r-(1500
325)
74,8
HEAT TRANSMISSION
77
the thickness of the films of water or gas would cut down the
drop of temperature in these, putting a greater drop in the wall
One method
heat up to the surface or taking heat from the surface. This has
been tried and found true. The increase of velocity of the gas
or water wipes some of the film away decreasing its thickness.
This simple explanation is evident and shows why one would
expect an increase in the heat transmitted, if either the velocity
of the gas or the velocity of the water
were increased across the surface
transmitting the heat.
W. E. Dalby
the
to
transmission of heat
He
surfaces."
it
list
of
They are
by Authors and
by
Subjects,
The
fact
Fig. 25.
Temperature
gradient.
is
He
Perry, p. 594.
particles
HEAT ENGINEERING
78
diffuse
gas.
This ac-
The
1.
fluid
term
is
fluid,
Q = At
where
A,
Bmwt
(4)
Q =
B =
constants
difference of temperature
m =
w =
He
Now
is
<x
nw
(5)
be
Q
t
=
=
Eliminate n from
oc
n (t
6)
(6)
and
(6)
Q ('-)
(7)
HEAT TRANSMISSION
It
known
is
when a
79
of the velocity
w2
P
Hence
(7)
mw
(8)
reduces to
Q = K'mwii - 6)
K' = constant of equality.
where
If
oc
is
(9)
be a drop from f to
9 in
to
t'
K'mwt
-T-
Q = K'mwit -
(T
6)
rr
6
t'
-j-
K'mwt
Q = K'mw
or
K'
rwi
oK
mw
+~^
+^
j-
If
+ K'mw
be called
+ K'mw
K"
^t^
mw
+ ^W
bK
(10)
which
correct.
by remembering that
M
where
TT
Hence
=
F =
w =
m =
= mFw
pounds
M
-^
= mw
may
be changed
HEAT ENGINEERING
80
Q = At
and
M
+ B -^t
Q = K"f(t -
(10')
6)
mw
or hydraulic radius
is
by the
Q =
Hence
K'
di
(t
(11)
6)
This formula states that the smaller the tube the greater the
heat transmission.
in 1888 Ser
and
in 1897 Mollier
gave
for-
velocity.
a surface
is
Q = K(h - U)F
HEAT TRANSMISSION
81
where
According to Reynolds
M ori+ Bmw
K = A + By,
(11')
According to Perry
or later
= K"^,
K ,n
or
K"mw
(11")
(11'")
is
varies with
it
In the above three values of
seen that for a given tube with a given discharge the value
of
K would
Finally
it
be constant, since
M
mw = y.
What
arises:
is
K..
the value of
mean Ml
There
is
pression for
mean
0.
To determine an
ex-
At for
n =
is
1.
x n 'dx
Forn'
x n +1
'
,
,
*">+ 1
HEAT ENGINEERING
82
To
becomes log x.
two cases are considered.
integral
find
the values of
mean
At the
First case:
=
dQ =
constant, or
K(t hx
t rx
n =
.0
= -
)dF
3600
= 3W0M c
h c h dth
c dt c
(13)
dF
sq. ft.
hx
t cx
and
c c and
ch
=
=
F.
of
Cool Substance
fl *
Cool
Substance
Transmission^Surface
Temperature of
Warm Substance
Fig.
26. Parallel
flow.
the following
is
true.
h c h (t lh
t 2h )
= T
ccc
(t lc
t^)
(14)
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The upper (minus)
sign
83
is
assumes that
warm
all
The
following notation
hh
hh
and from
is no radiation
be used:
may
or
h c h (t lh
M
M
tX c
f
t
MhCh
M
n/r
Temperature
Fig. 27
(ti c
txh)
ft
_L
Jl
xh
c cc
t xc )
(15)
h ch
c cc
= +
t xh )
txr.
Now
Ati
A^2
M
At x
=
=
he
he
loss.
~f"
X MhCh t\h
""
txh
71
cc
he
/T
c cc
of
Warm Su-b.stan.ee
-Counter current flow.
1
l
J^J
clL
dAtx
M
M
:.dt xh
1
h ch
(16)
c cc
KAt x dF =
1
dF =
3600
K
3600
T7 dAh
M
h Ch
McCc
M
M
~ M
M
M
dAt,
h ch
h
ch
At,
c Cc
'
h ch
c cc
(17)
Aii
HEAT ENGINEERING
84
Now
A , = 3600ilf^fti
meanA
Substituting for
its
M
M
(14)
h c h (h
From
h)
meanA =
t 2)
+
~
h ch
(18)
At 2
hch
McCc
Mhc h _
tic
c Cc
tlh
h)
_i10g *h
tlh
tic
'
tic
(tlh
t2c)
hh
tih
Ah - AU
Equation
(18')
foh
Ah
At*
tm
.'.
(18) reduces to
mean
At
At,
log,
This
is
(19)
AU
expression
tl*
\*h
t*h
xc
hc
tr c
Counter Current
tc Outlet
.>
th
Fig. 28.
will
Parallel Current
c Outlet
Outlet
<^
Outlet
is
If
in Fig. 28.
HEAT TRANSMISSION
85
KX
Q =
mean
XF
At
(9)
with At x
Second case:
tttt^
{f\tx)
dQ =
By
-y AtJF
n
= - 3e>00Mh ch dtxh =
3600
ccc
dt xc
(20)
SQ00M h Ch
K'll
"
K'll
M
M
(At,)
hCh
'l
dAt x
(21)
McCc
mMhCh
F=
r (At x ) n
(At 2 y
(22)
cc J
Now
F Uoo, A^n (mean
^mean isij
.
(mean
At)
., ~
At)
t 2h )
t 2h )
(mean
~
At) 1 n
M
M
h Ch(jtih
t 2h )
(At^-iAt,)"
At 2
n
h ch
t\h
Ati
mean
t2h
n(Ah-Ah)
li-n
^-[(A^-iAt^i
Q - FX'(mean A*)- -
"[ fflgjj
(23)
(W
HEAT ENGINEERING
86
problem as to velocity, hydraulic radius or density be substituted the expression will be correct.
~-
mean A^
is less
within
3^2
The
than 34 o of
mean
At
n(Ati
mean
At
Ati
At
log.
of
if
Ati
AZ 2
formulae
At 2 )
[ (A*i)or
any value
1 1-
(A* 2 )J
A^
AU
If
or
varies with
..the temperature.
DETERMINATION OF K
The method
of finding this
will
now be
considered.
TransFig. 29.
mission through
various layers.
^e
water.
The
Q = K(h -
(t
h)
= y(ti -
h)
ft.
area:
HEAT TRANSMISSION
1
where
c
c
11
111
=
=
=
87
coefficient of heat
surface.
lv
=
=
c
v
c
lu
,
coefficient of heat
coefficient of heat
Now
= h - h
7"
Q^-*.
III
Q Cm =
-i
a
'i
7IV
Adding these Q
r^~r cv| -
-m,
in
Q ~
tTi
c1
c 11
/in
ti^
C IV
(*i
(25)
t 2)
Q = K[h-t
but
Hence
rT
+ +++
m
7i
*i
(for
combination)
To apply
Tl
i
^-
(26)
^ c m -r v^ cv
cI
on the hydraulic radius of the pipe. The values of the c's for
the solid materials vary with the temperature and hence the coefficient of conduction K for the combination will depend on the
temperature.
partitions
HEAT ENGINEERING
88
exposure and kind of surface hence for this formula, when applied
to building calculations, the terms for the
cv
and
jv
The
(Z 2
t 2 ),
on the variable
values of
y%
(ti
fi)
and a 2
(t\
f 2 ).
1 + ^+^,^
1
^ m^ +
^
c
11
01
The
fi)
films,
y is replaced by a. K becomes
factors,
by aifa
are replaced
two
IV
and partitions
for walls
(27)
a2
in
most building
problems are used as independent of temperature since the variation in temperature is not great in these cases.
To determine
the value
j^
and
and most
water
These terms
effective
Q =
where
is
Kg
the
is
(h
6)
mean temperature
Kw (d -
U)
(28)
Kw
c
yj
is
"_ 5!
V
=
temperature
U
The values
t2
temperature of water.
of these
or anything else
If it is desired to
may
of gas,
K in
Q = K(h -t
)F
HEAT TRANSMISSION
for
= __J
which
89
(29)
J_
Kg
KW
zero or
If
is
its
scale
assumed to be that
is
= K" g mg wa = K" g
of Perry,
^
rw
+r
I
71/T
^-+
mw
o
qj!L
..
rn w w w
(29')
FW
Fg
3mgWg
mww w
nigWg
Qm w w w
mwww
XV
*!*
_
m w w w =L
If
J.
<a>
M^
+L
Qm w w w
K = \2+XJ mwWw
=
MwFg
/2
+L
6m g wg
(31)
2TZ
(32)
(ul) ~K (2+X/ jf
K expressed in terms of water or gas condi-
is
In (31) or (32)
and of the quantity L which
tions
is
may
be used to find
m =
and
this
HEAT ENGINEERING
90
For
different values of
the values of
below.
L
2.0
3.00
1.0
2.00
0.5
1.20
0.2
0.55
0.1
0.29
0.01
0.03
0.0
0.0
mwww
m ww w
mwww
m ww w
m ww w
m ww w
m ww w
mw
mw
or 2.40 m w
or 2.73 m w
or 2.86 m w
or 1.50
or 2.00
or 2.99
mw
g
or 3.00
mw
Since air or flue gas at 580 F. weighs about 3^5 lb. per cubic
and a common velocity is 100 ft. per second and hot water
foot
lb.
per second, a
common
L _ -M*. _ JfcW0_
m w ww
60 X 12
K = 3.00 m gw g
and
Since
ft.
is
assumed independent
Q =
^.00
=0 006
.
180
(33)
of
m w Ml
g
value of
t,
~^
(34)
Thus dQ
K m w
g
g {ti
6
ti
6)ird g dx
Kw m w w w (d
Kmwd
K w m w w w di
t2
h-9 = Y^L
e
If
Kmw
g
the heat, of
is
known
and
**
it
{t x
y^T ^
may
f{jtl
t 2)
U
u
~
"
k)
h)
t 2 )Trd
w dx
(35)
(36)
(37)
(38)
mean
HEAT TRANSMISSION
Q = KgmgWg
Thus
j,
mean
91
(h 't 2 )F
Hence
since
T
LT = -^L
and
dg
-jaw
3 according to Nicolson.
j
This result
is
term
-f-.
The equations
transfer
The value
is
recommended by
Nicolson.
was not
in
Kw
which water only was used. In this Stanton points out that
does vary with the temperature. Nicolson proceeds further
show that
using superheated
water and using heated air to
transmit heat to water. In addition to these experiments
Nicolson discussed certain boiler tests to determine constants
for a formula.
He uses the formula
to
air or
Q = K(T -
0)F
(39)
1
(4)
=
+i) m
Q = B.t.u. per hour.
T = mean temperature of gas along flue in degrees F.
= mean temperature of flue in degrees F. = tem-
[io+iM
perature of steam.
= \{T
e).
^}
HEAT ENGINEERING
92
di
hydraulic
m =
weight of
1 cu. ft. of
wg =
F =
M=
mw =
g
if
will
gas in pounds.
This formula
form
of flue in inches,
perimeter
g
mean depth
_ diam.
area
is
is
in
of the
or since AiA 2
written as At
may
V2
.
Q =
This
is
A[At
+ %BAt
V2
is
]AtF
the value of A
At/ ) may be
substituted
when
inserted.
These are the same and hence the formula is correct in form.
the constants are worked out to fit certain conditions, it will
lead to correct results when applied to such conditions.
H. P. Jordan in the Transactions of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers for Dec, 1909, p. 1317 gives the formula in the
form
If
Q =
This
3600 [ 0.0015
is
[o. 000506
0.00000165
0. 00045di
formula.
of
(^Y -)]^}
form as
is
(T
0)F
(41)
same
HEAT TRANSMISSION
r= 2200900
=
M,
g u>v
400 X 25
3600 x 7
F&
= - =
0.4
(40):
X
By
350 F. assumed
= Jr =
dt
By
155()OF
n
m
93
[^ + ^ V950 X
1.11
0.4]
4.75
0.34
(41):
3600
0.0015
[0.000506
0.00045
0.00000165(950)]0.4}
^
B^
B
5.09
3 )
32 )
3^2 ft.
and there
2.64
=i
= (2+loi3) a4 = L2
first
is
is
= a013
60YK
with 4
in.
By
(40):
By
(41):
rp
For
K
K
4.75
7.5
0.61
of
950 but
of 4-in. pipes of
same area
5.36.
= 300 and
1
mean temperature
for a
number
HEAT ENGINEERING
94
By
By
(40):
= ~j
+ V300 X
1.5
0.346
0.4
1.8
(41):
3600(0.0015
[0.000506
0.00045
0.00000165
=
There
This
is
3600 [0.00172]
300] 04}.
6.2
derived.
The
account of the
it
temperature.
is
evidently in error on
experiments.
of
K in the formula
Q = KF
Ati
At 2
l0g
15.90
A*!
*Af2
^(^)'
78
(42)
HEAT TRANSMISSION
=
^waii
coefficient of
95
meter
thickness.
w =
Cp =
specific
coef. of
conduction of gases at
flue.
mean tem-
perature of tube.
may
This
Ub
cp
Cp
(42)
specific
spe<
heat of
1 kg. of gas.
then becomes
^wall
To change
this to
0.786
WPC P \
is
meaning
Xvaii
coef. of
w =
Cp =
specific heat at
ft.
X
d
The values
=
=
for 1
ft.
thickness.
1 cu.
of gas
coef.
diameter in
feet.
quoted
from Nusselt:
French
Air
C0
01894(1
01213(1
2
Steam 0.0192 (1
+ 228 X 10~
+ 385 X 10"
+434X 10~
English
5
0.
0.
0.
+ 127 X 10~
+ 215 X 10~
0.01288[l + 241 X HT
.
01287[1
00814[1
(*
(
- 32)]
- 32)]
(*-
32)]
Illuminating Gas
0.0506 (1
For a
4-in.
+ 300X10-5 0.
0.03390[1
+ 167 X
10~ 5 (*-32)]
HEAT ENGINEERING
96
velocity of 50
ft.
tween
CO
air
and
X
\uhzu
+
+
= 0.01050U
= 0.01050H
CP =
1?
0.24
53
0-0171
For a
15.90
1(T 5 (1500
10~ 5 (400
Jx 1960 =
(%)- 214
=
=
171
32)]
32)]
=
=
be-
0.0371
0.0171
X
X
171
mean
/ 50
0.0371
0.0171
0.0049
-
0.0049 \
786
1.265
5.55
1.91
wall temperature of
mean temperature
350 F.
with
of 1550 F.
mw =
g
10~ 5
X
X
and a
results
wg mg c p = wg Cp
\wa = 0.0105[1 +
= 0.0105U +
ii
171
171
X
X
10" 5
318]
1518]
= 0.0162
= 0.0377
o-786
xr
For a
wg mg =
K ~
=
is
1 * on
1>
- yU
15.90
X 0.4
Qm77 )
aQ162 / Q24
(1^)0.214^
0.0162
1.266
786
2.2
results of Nicolson
0.716
in
HEAT TRANSMISSION
97
Q = X(mean
At)F
(43)
126mQa - 1.75)-W
K ~_
(mean A*)*
,
(AA
(44j
Q = K'(mean At) HF
K' = 126mK - 1.75)"W*
or
m =
weight of
pounds
wa =
ww =
cu.
ft.
of
at
air
(45)
mean temperature
in
AA =
(mean A*)
,
HlMi-At \*
Afc
2]
^_ A ^
OT
Afe
+
2~"
.
fAa
(46)
/^1+A^2\
A,
A, ^ 1
Afc-A*^^
*
if
From
2~~;
it
suggested that
is
Jordan's, Nusselt's
coolers
for air
STEAM CONDENSERS
For transmission
made
to the
work
of heat
of G.
A. Orrok, A. S.
M.
is
E. Transactions,
material and
its
cleanness.
Q = X(mean
In his formula
At)F
= X"(mean
At)
7/i
(47)
HEAT ENGINEERING
98
Q=
F =
K=
K' =
a =
p
630.
cleanness factor,
= steam
richness
to 0.5.
factor
where p s
is
the pressure
in
ww =
=
any
units.
materials factor
fi
metal, 0.87
for
aluminum
for
Shelby
The student
is
bronze, 0.80
for
for
cupro
steel.
AMMONIA CONDENSERS
In regard to ammonia condensers this formula should apply,
but experimental results reported in the "Transactions of the
American Society of Refrigerating Engineers for 1907 seem to
This is given by a curve in which
indicate a much lower result.
for double-pipe condensers is given by
K
ww =
= 130VW
Q = i(mean
and
(50)
(mean An =
A^)^
rrAZi
BRINE COILS
For brine cooling in double pipes the value of
seems to be
given by
= 84w 6
of
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The constants and
heaters.
99
various steam pressures and for that reason they should be ap-
K
=
=
=
ts
t\
10
110
0.6
(t s
+ M~) }V^
(51)
When
is that due
reduced to English units it
becomes
d
I
=
=
Qm w w w
Qm w w w
3m w w w
'
HEAT ENGINEERING
100
300
=
1
walls.
Ww7= + - + WWi
1
This refers to greater calories per square meter per degree C for
meters per second and was calculated by Mollier
velocities in
Kf =
to English:
_9_
(^)\lx^j^=^K
X%
'39.37\
1_
2.2
Wf
cent,
To change this
made where Kf
purposes.
12
-W vyX 39>37
e
We
3>28
300
4.9
+
1
+ 6 \OI
w2
1+& W. 28
61.2
+3.31vV
+
1
+ 3.31
w2
60
(55)
results
and the
later
FACTOR OF SAFETY
it would be well
have an excess of surface, or what
would be the same thing increase the surface by 33 per cent, in
In
all of
by 34
to
RADIATORS
The
of radiators.
HEAT TRANSMISSION
101
for such
Q =
Q =
F =
=
=
a
ts
- QF
1.8(*.
(56)
Q = K(t s
may
^)F
be used in which
=
=
wa
=
=
=
t1
t2
ts
1.75\/^.
HEAT ENGINEERING
102
per square or lineal foot of the total heater under the conditions
given.
240
220'
200
180*
bn
160
Is
140
^
\% ^
0J
IY\ vr
\vs
\
120
?,
%V
final
*1
It will
100
80
60
40
20
200
Fig. 30.
400
800
500
Temperature
70
1000
1200
1400
1600
ity at
1800
and veloc-
2700
2600
2400
2200
5
2000
.-^
1800
1600
1400
1200
'/, '#
1000
%/.
'/,
ffl
800
^p
600
400
Sy^
'& 'S
200
200
00
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Fig. 31.
steam and
air falls
HEAT TRANSMISSION
103
Z4U
220
200
180
160
140
+i
rt
fe
120
S
*-i
loo
80
s
v
\\\\
v^\ \N
V\
^\
s
60
o
40
o
20
n
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
Fig. 32.
Temperature of outlet from sectional heaters of four coils
each, with air entering at 0 F.
Steam at 5 lbs. gauge pressure. Velocity
at 70 F.
1200
1
1100
2
3
1000
5 .2
6 tJ
900
7
8
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
i. ik ^>
g
Ss ^ ^
4^ g
/k& p p
*
*>
100
200
400
600
800
1000
Velocity in Ft. per Minute
1200
1400
1600
1800
Fig. 33.
Heat transmitted per lineal foot of 1 in. pipe for 4 row sections
of coil heaters with 5 lbs. steam and air entering at 0 F.
Velocity' at
70 F.
HEAT ENGINEERING
104
temperature
rises
is
well to understand
conditions.
1150
or
two
1450
2000
had 0 F.
tations.
sections
They
K=
'
where
com(58)
1
ax
Q =
h =
U =
F =
is
V_
""
c'
T
c"
'
a2
(59)
HEAT TRANSMISSION
The value
of a
=
=
=
=
is
found by experiment
+ e+
y
-
in the
105
form
^0Q
(60)
air.
rooms or channels.
=
T =
e
air at wall.
Cast iron
Cotton and fabrics
Charcoal
0.
0. 71
0.60
0.05
Glass
Metal, polished
Masonry
Paper
Rusted iron
Water
Wetted
glass
walls, of thickness
16.2
For wood
T =
1.8
For glass
T =
Air
2 {i x
69
07
.09
.
T =
The values
74
0.78
Wood
For masonry
65
65
74
ft.
4.00Z
(61)
(62)
(63)
t 2)
(still)
Brass
Building paper
Cork
Cotton and
felt
0.03
61.00
08
0.17
.
02
Glass
0.54
46
87
03
0.19
Slate
Terra cotta
Tin
Wood
0.54
35.60
0.12
HEAT ENGINEERING
106
is
not great.
The
abstracted
by the
is
amount
of heat
which the gas could give up to the surface. If T lh is the temperature of the hot substance entering and T 2 h is the temperature
of the hot substance leaving the tube and Tc is the lowest temperature of the cool substance in contact with the opposite side
of the surface, the expression for efficiency is
T\h
"= T lh
This
heat
is
Tin
=l
..
-T
Tih
At 2
-T^rr -^
c
..
/t%A\
lbs. of
gas of specific
c is
= Mc(T lh - T
Qi
utilized
-Q
e)
is
= Mc(T lh - T 2h )
it is
necessary to find
if
surface.
Second,
if
In the
first
case
-M
it
h c h dth
__
at
K(t xh
M^r-
If
is
)dF
h Ch
-77
JV
"
t xc
(t x h
h ch
r
txc)
dAt
,,
ah
Mhth At
c Cc
MhC h
nvr
FK
c Cc
Mncn
=1 ge Ah
A^
dM
COnSt
-
KAt
HEAT TRANSMISSION
But
MhCh
-tj
McCc
__
Ah
FK -^
Mc
Hence
7-
he =
~ 7
Hh
he
:
hh
hh
t\ c
,
(hh
Hh
he)
hh
r^r
= FK(Ah?\ -
A^i
_ -FK
- Ah
h h (tih-hh)
107
Ah)
Qi
Ah - Ah
= log&
At
77-
Ah
Ah
,
Mi
FK QT- 1- e--FK^
(66)
area
is
If,
by
or of the
however, the
increasing the
velocity
efficiency.
If
Qi
nFK'
Qi
Ah
nFK'
ft
Ah - Ah n
Ah Ah
n
\A<2
(*r*-^)
Ali--^-Att-
(67)
Ah
In this as before the efficiency increases with
creases with Qi.
FK' and
de-
HEAT ENGINEERING
108
is
+ M c dt =
h h
if
If
K(t xh
tc
)dF
dt is
is
hot.
KdF
M
K
dt h
h ch
Ixh
F -
Tin
i 2h
h ch
Tih
*c
Tin
T
T
KF
e
Much
T=l
KF
Mhch
same
or
same velocity. In each of these the exponent is
decreased since
would vary with the square of d directly and
K inversely. Hence the large diameter means a smaller effiIf
ciency.
is increased for a given tube by increasing the velocity K will increase in the same ratio and the efficiency may not
be changed. If the length is increased F is greater and the
pipe
is
efficiency increases.
is
is
logarith-
very slow.
ff =
(At
Y -HM
(69)
show by
results of tests
on an experimental
effi-
HEAT TRANSMISSION
109
of
ameter
tubes
of the
For a boiler Kreisinger and Ray have used the form for the
value of
K suggested
by Perry.
= K'mw
Hence
= K'mhw hAtdF
h c h dt
mh w h =
it
lo
_ K>
dt
'
A*
-y~
FoC h
^M^Fj F
h
K F
'
At x
7]
F Ch
Ati
_ K F*
'
Foch
(70)
by experiment.
If
= K'(A
h c h dt h
this leads to
_
A 1
At x
A+B r)
M e
= Ati
_
Fx
MhCli
and
7}
+ Bj^AtdF
A+B r) F
Mhch
(71)
PROBLEMS
A number
of
problems
will
the
Problem
1.
4-in. boiler
tube
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
110
square foot of grate per hour with 25 lbs. of air per pound of coal. The gases
entering the tubes are 1350 F. and at exit they have been reduced to 600 F.
What is the average value of the heating surface of tubes and how many
pounds of water at the boiling point will be evaporated if the pressure is
130.3 lbs. gauge?
of gas per
tube
Mean temperature
Temperature
of
= tttX
tube
~=
144
+ 600 =
975
in boiler
=
=
[3.327
53.35.
355.8 F.
355.8)
B =
665.4
1.
0.0872.
T665.4
ri 45
V665.4,,
Lw + -ir
Q =
Now
1350
= ^(975
=H =
Hydraulic radius
of
WK)
Area
of gas
(1
/n
+ ^oosTij (975 -
0.05671
0.839] (619.2)
= 2570
orrox
355 8)
-
B.t.u.
865.2 B.t.u.
ok 7 A
of
^fir
2.97 lbs.
This result is an average value per square foot for the whole boiler. The
value of the shell directly over the fire increases the average to more than
this value.
If the temperature entering the flue had been higher this value
would be greater.
For water tube boilers it is suggested that the area be considered the area
between tubes and that the hydraulic radius be taken as the distance between
tubes.
Problem
F.
is
2.
Thus
if
F.
and
if
in.
the same as before, the following results would hold for a water tube boiler.
Mean temperature gases = 1250 F.
<f>
Hydraulic radius
Q =
=
3 in.
Problem
of
3.
0.65
(1
H)0.65] (1250
+ 0.613] (894.2) =
Weight
made up
[H + ^p
[4.015
= 803
M
~y
of
steam
Air at 350 F.
is
4120
^ fi
355.8)
4120 B.t.u.
4.76 lbs.
to be cooled to 75 F. in an intercooler
air
HEAT TRANSMISSION
at 60 F.
by water entering
is
111
Find mean At
and leaving at 90 F.
(6) if
if
(a)
K'
,^
evident that a counter-current flow must be employed since the water leaving the intercooler is higher than the air leaving.
In this problem
is
it
A*! = 350 - 90 =
Ah = 75 - 60 =
Now***
-Ah =
260 F.
15 F.
1/260 +15\ =
^ 1/Ah + At \
> io( 2 j = To
)
.
245
137.5
(~ 2~
~W
(a)
w
Mean At
260-15
Ah -Ah
= T^eo =
-^
ge
A,
A*
81 7
86 2
'
15
r K<Afr-Ato i*
1.237
ge
At 2
/mat
*
(6) Meah
245
2.3
^h J
3/
[o^2:46oJ
= o95KK5
'
Problem 4. Find the heat per square foot for temperature conditions of
problem 3 if the water has a velocity of 5 ft. per second over the tube and
the air has a velocity of 20 ft. per second. The pressure of the air is 70.3 lbs.
gauge.
and at
350
75
or 212.5 F.
85
53.35
(a)
Using
(30)
and
(6)
Using
3600 0.0015
!
/212.5
(
2
(c)
0.02135
Using
X
X
75\ 1
0.000506
(86.2)
1740 B.t.u.
^
X
7^
16
0.00000165-
212 5
75 )
21-6(137.5)
0.00045
1
20
' 341 )
(-
'
= 2970 B.t.u.
(42'):
wa u
oas
=
=
0.01287(1
r 20
[(Hs) 0214 l_
v-^
Q =
15.0
0.0135
0.01287(1
0.0135
(d)
20 2
(41):
Xow
0.341 lbs.
(32):
^W^
K
X W4
X 672.5
86.2
X0.24 X 0.3411
-7wsr0.01583
1293 B.t.u.
K _
~
126
Q =
36.6
0.341
18.25)-(5)K
'
(95.5)
95.5
3490 B.t.u.
36 a
6
'
0.01583
0786
15.0.
HEAT ENGINEERING
112
The
do not agree very well and result (d) is very high with (6) next,
very low. The reason for the low value of (a) is due to the
fact that the data from which equation (32) was deduced holds for smaller
differences of temperature. Equation (32) will in general give results on the
safe side as the temperature differences for which it holds are small.
Problem 5. A sterilizer operates on a counter-current principle with the
warm water entering at 212 F. and leaving at 75 F. and the cool water
entering at 70 F. and leaving at 202 F. The liquid moves at a velocity of
results
while result
(c) is
ft.
and
per second.
arithmetic
(c)
mean
(a) if
Ah = 212 - 202 =
Ah = 75 - 70 =
^+
AU
(c)
.
Mean
(a)
At*2
Kt
A*
Mean
A<
10-5
- = 2XX
=
O301
Ah-At
[A
^ _ A^
2
By formula
6m M,to w
Q = 367 X
6ra w iy w
(55)
Q =
7.24
^-
~rji^
7 24
*
t2
= 3m w
(6) if
5 F.
= [062^^23eJ
constant,
10 F.
is
=7^F.
A
(b)
two ends.
At of Ai's at the
for
problem
F.,
mw
61.2:
61.2
= 2654
=
7 3
'
5.
367
B.t.u.
171
+ fV2
171
7.24
1240 B.t.u.
Problem
7.
If
124Q
239.0(1
+ 0.00003X150)
ft
16
tl
Even
12
~ k = 16X12X241 =
'
027
mainly
in the films of
water.
HEAT TRANSMISSION
metal
if
absolute,
113
Ah =
At 2 =
Mean
105
105
=
=
70
80
K_,
= |_35H-25W|
=
Q =
1.098
_
=
=
" v^t^
1.200
p,
t
630
1.25
= nnn
29 9
*
0.914
X 0.914 X
29.9
8/r
Ll.560-l.496j
0-98
_B tu
X VI
673
(2^9)H
673
1.2 lbs.
35 F.
25 F.
I~W(35- 25)19*
At
is
'
2010
Ah = 215 - 60 =
= 215 - 180 =
At 2
Mean
At
= Ll55W -
Azr _
~
630
Q =
513
155 F.
35 F.
Ll.878-1.56j
35JiJ
X 1.00V2 _
"
(82)W
82
82
51d
X- 10+
=
Q =
Problem
180, find
10.
10
441
451
+ 0.6(215 +H>9)}^
jllO
451
155 4- 35
K and Q.
_mo = =
M2V?* X80
Q = 1965 X (215 Problem
11.
1965
180)
68,800 B.t.u.
20 to 10 F. and
at 0 F.
Find
1 ft.
on one side at
foot.
In this problem the method will be to use the same constants as those
used for steam to water. Using Hagemann's equation (51):
K = 10 +
[llO
=
Q =
119
10
129
+
X
15
0.6 (0
+ ^p9) VI
}
= 129
= 1935 B.t.u. per hour per square foot.
HEAT ENGINEERING
114
For 4
ft.
velocity this
would give
for
K = 10 + 238 = 248
Problem 12. An ammonia condenser uses steel pipes with water from
60 to 80 F. and ammonia at 90 F.
The water velocity is 4 ft. per second.
X VI =
130
260
10
Q = 260 X o^7
2.6 log
= 260 X
18.3
4750 B.t.u.
Problem 13. Find the number of sections required and the average heat
transmitted per square foot for vento heaters to operate with steam at 220
F. (5 lbs. gauge) and to heat air from 60 F. to 114 F. when delivered across
heater at 1200 ft. per minute.
From Fig. 30: Two sections will heat zero air to 60 F. and five sections
sections are
will heat zero air to 115 F. at 1200 ft. per minute; 5
2=3
required.
From
Fig. 31:
The average transmission for two sections with zero air
2050 B.t.u. while with five sections 1600 B.t.u. are transmitted. The
amount for the last three of the five sections will be
5 X 1600 - 2 X 2050
= 1300 B.t.u.
Average transmission =
is
Mean
At
= 220
Q =
60+
1.75
9.83
Brick
115
132.5
9.83
\J^~
132.5
1300 B.t.u.
..
a
Air Space
Sp
Cork
JJoard
Fig. 34.
Section
T =
a for outside
for inside
16.2
1.23
2.28
0.82
1.79
4.00
0.74
0.74
room.
= 4.2
X 1.23+31 X0.74
42
1000
*
X4.2
3X0 82 +5 X0 74 X 4.2
1000
-
HEAT TRANSMISSION
2.28
~
=
It will
+ 0.46 +
067
1.79
+ 1.79 +
0.46
033
017
+ 0.17 + 0.46 + J_
1.79
0.438
0.0978
115
1.94
+ 0.37 + 0.558
value of the wall because the air can and will circulate. The value of this
lies in the resistance at the two surfaces which amounts to almost as much
The various terms of the denominator show the
as 8 in. of brickwork.
values of the various elements of the wall as heat insulators. Thus 4 in.
of cork
is
as valuable as 11
in. of
brickwork and
may
The
wall above will transmit 2.35 B.t.u. per square foot per
degree difference in 24 hours. For a temperature difference of 60 F. this
is
of value.
amounts to 141
B.t.u. per
foot.
Topics
Topic
1.
iarities of
By
what methods
is heat transmitted?
Explain the peculGive the Stefan-Boltzmann Law. For what is
each method.
Q = K'mwit Is this
+ Bmw){t -
Q = {A
Show
e)
that
6)
= mw
!*'
Mean
6.
What
is
Topic
{At)-'
7. Prove
A^i
At 2
'A-2
Mean
if
l0g
Topic
A*
that
A'
At
r^, tttL U-
T n(Ati1
At 2 )
Prove that
~|
mean
HEAT ENGINEERING
116
To what does
this
through
thin partitions?
Is c a
constant?
What
is
K above?
Topic
8.
Given:
-^
K
K
reduce
Topic
9.
3m g w g + om w w w
= ~ j 6m w w w =
~j-
of Nicolson,
On what
same conditions?
Are
per square foot per degree per hour depend? Give details and reasons.
Topic 10. For what conditions is the Rensselaer formula applicable?
of Orrok's formula
For what is Orrok's formula used? On what does the
On what
depend?
formula?
radiators ?
Topic 12.
Topic 13.
partition.
Topic 14.
when
is
and
for a wall or
Give
all
steps
Topic 15.
and
heat.
(* + *{&*
6
Mhch
PROBLEMS
Problem
1.
A piece
of glass
is
F.
by a
water-jacket.
How
Problem 2. A 4-in. boiler tube has gas entering at one end at 1400 F. and
leaving at 550 F. with steam at 120 lbs. gauge pressure. The coal is burned
HEAT TRANSMISSION
117
on a grate of eight times the area through the tubes at a rate of 15 lbs. per
hour with 30 lbs. of air per pound of coal. Find the value of
and the
number
How many
square feet of
surface would be required per boiler horse-power?
(One boiler horsepower equals the evaporation of 34^ lbs. of water at 212 F. per hour into
dry steam at 212 F.)
of B.t.u. per square foot of surface.
at 100 F.
F.
parallel
constant and
K'
jr.
Find
Problem 10. Find the surface required to boil 500 lbs. of solution at
200 F. by steam at 250 F. if tubes 3 ft. long and 3 in. in diameter are
used and the heat of vaporization of the liquid is 750 B.t.u.
Problem 11. Assume air at 50 F. and move it with a velocity of 1200
ft. per minute over the Vento heaters or coils to heat it to 105 F.
How
many sections will it take for the Vento heaters and for the coils? How
many
ft.
of air per
hour?
Problem
2-in. air
12.
space and 12
in.
in. of
cement
brickwork, a
plaster.
CHAPTER
AIR
IV
COMPRESSORS
Fig. 35
Rotary blower,
section.
blower.
and
To
air is
necessary.
compressed
To compress
air is required.
oz.
AIR COMPRESSORS
flow of
air.
119
supply
an
The
air at this
high
is
pressures
it
will
be shown
Fig. 37.
Section
of
turbo blower.
from that to 500 lbs. two stages are used, and three stages from
500 to 1500 lbs. Above this four stages would be used. Fig.
38 shows a two-stage compressor. In this air is sucked into the
center of the piston A by the vacuum produced behind the piston
when the piston moves to the left, the air flowing through an opening left at the periphery B, as shown in Fig. 39.
The air on the
left of the piston is compressed and after it reaches the pressure
HEAT ENGINEERING
120
existing
this
is
38.
the intercooler
The water
Fig
The
cooler.
air just
VMS///*
Fig. 39.
The
,,
._,
Enlarged section
Both
VS//W/A
mushroom
valves.
V7///,
AIR COMPRESSORS
driving steam cylinder
and the
is
121
two
air cylinders
of compression.
Fig. 39
cylinder.
is
through which
air
the piston moves to the left at the beginning of a stroke the right-hand ring
is
moved from
its
Fig. 40.
Vertical
after cooler
and
HEAT ENGINEERING
122
as the air
it will
is
many
In
cooled
is
usually caught as
shown
more
stage to remove
is
last
Fig. 41.
of the moisture
Taylor hydraulic
air
compressor.
and
if
that a
the pipe
vacuum
Humphrey apparatus
LXXXVIII, p. 737, and
The
Vol.
is
is
is
in
described
in
Engineering,
by Richards.
In all of these forms of apparatus the volume of air taken
might be the same while that discharged is determined by its
pressure and temperature.
To give some idea of the amount of
in
AIR COMPRESSORS
123
WORK OF COMPRESSION
The amount of work required to compress Vf cu. ft. per minute
shown by the diagram of Fig. 42 which assumes no
clearance.
The line ab is the atmospheric line and on account
of the friction of the inlet pipe and P
of free air is
is
be- a
pv n
= const, and
is
pi
d.
is
then
The
pres-
is
is
a
c
V\.
p
^ a and
Hence
p a Vf
Pl 7i
(1)
itself is
isothermal.
Reducing:
(2)
HEAT ENGINEERING
124
Now
p2Y 2
Pl^l"
work
^-j Pl 7i [l -
Hence
If desired
to compress
(^)
V]
(3)
work
Vf
work
^F,[l-g)^]
(4)
EFFECT OF CLEARANCE
Now
shown
if
in
there
is
Fig.
43.
The
air
from
2'
to
is
reached.
The amount
V\, or
V'\
is
V\ - Vi =
Vi of the
previous discussion.
"
is
to
area 1"
1'2'dc.
same form
lines, gives
-^i^'-^]['-vl
This
cu.
ft.
is
of air
has no effect
of air.
The
amount
of air
AIR COMPRESSORS
125
is
clearance.
The volume
and
since this
placement
it
is
may
clearance and
volume
is
the percentage
the displacement.
Now
l c
= 2'd( 2?)
w
Hence
Vi
= D
+ ID -
= D[l
ID (^)
+ i-z(g)]
(6)
if
if
ratio
is
known.
EFFECT OF LEAKAGE
If
there
is
the
amount
centage
is
work
amount
this leakage.
is
Actual Vi
in,
the per-
as the compression
is
carried higher,
it
may
be
considered that this loss occurs at the upper pressure only and
HEAT ENGINEERING
126
Vf
The
is
Vi
-j-
Vf
or -/ to be
Thus
(7)
effect of
leakage
VOLUMETRIC EFFICIENCY
The volumetric
efficiency
is
used this
is
If
the actual
is
is
Thus
b
if
ab
if
obtained.
is
e fficiencv
^
efficiency.
AT
Now
xy
'
D =
ab
VlVl
Pa
constant.
is
The temperature
is
air is
Substituting for
xy
its
Apparent
vol. eff.
True
vol. eff.
is
obtained
g = g [l +
actual Vf
ind. vol.
eff.
True
vol. eff.
g[l
(8)
=f X
- l^\
+ I
(9)
(g) ^]
leakage factor
clearance factor.
(10)
Vi cu.
ft.
shown by the
air
AIR COMPRESSORS
127
card.
To
is
size,
determined.
be it a steam engine
must again be divided by
___n
n-
piVi
1
(PA1
X/X 33000 L
eff.
\pj "J
nn
K
_ji
1 eff.
compressor
eff.
of engine
Pi7i
33000
['--]
M)
(p 2 \2=
T2
\pi
This
is
P2V2
71
/BT 2 \
p 2 l-nT 2
= PiVx
71
(BTi\
T,=
pJ-nTi"
T^y^r
(13)
COMPRESSION CURVE
The compression curve
on the way
in
pV lA =
const.
HEAT ENGINEERING
128
if
there
is
and engine.
If,
compression
is
const,
Saving due to
Fig. 45.
cooling on compression.
work
place
is
but
/.
Work = p V
To approach
oil is
then
when
12T
this
^=
VzV'z
is
loss
instead of 122'!'.
The
is
jacket
expression for
clearance
The
log e
p 2 V' 2
PiVi
PiVi
^
P2
= -
Vl V 1 log e
Pi
(14)
1.35.
before,
is
This saving
The reason
is slight.
is
it is
the jacket
is
made up
of
two
parts, that
during the part of the stroke 1-2 and that during the part 2-d.
AIR COMPRESSORS
129
An
during 1-2 by -^
may
Vi
u - ^n or
\P2/
,
^2^2
J
O
1
x
T
IS ow heat removed on line 1-2 =
,
PlVl
z
[r^ +
From
V2V2
-\
^M'-^]
following
is
PlVl
/,
the
obtained:
n-k
i PiVi V,
_ (vA -Ul-k){nl
1)J
[VA
\pj
^]
(15)
Work =
The work
Efxn _(a\==i]
_
n
\pi /
to the jacket
is
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
130
Or
',
G =
=
q'i =
q'
(17)
-qi
heat of liquid at
inlet.
is
does not give a great saving in work and moreover for high pressures
T 2 becomes
t*-*^]
that the lubricating
To prevent
this
oil is
and
to save
Fig. 47.
Two-stage compression.
made
the air
is
of
brought to
its original
temperature at
before
it is
AIR COMPRESSORS
131
pressed to
its
two cylinders
The
final pressure.
of different sizes is
com-
it is
is
)~n~
is
Work
in low-pressure
cylinder
=-
Work
in high-pressure cylinder
- p'zV'A
Now
pl V1
piT^i
( r)
= p\V\
Hence
=^^[2 -g)^ - J^
Total work
The only
condition for
f
minimum
must be equated
Wl
(total
work)
work, the
is
first
p' 2
Hence
(18)
to find the
to zero.
w-lV \^l_il
n
rT^i^H- -n7\TJ n
+ n \p 2/
^(^-^1
.,
(E^)-il-(^)-^
\pi/
\p
pi
Pi*
\p\P2l
r
^<n
PlP2
V'*
is
= VPVP2
minimum
if
p\
is
(19)
mean
proportional
H^AT ENGINEERING
132
to.
If
.- .
v,[ 2 -
pfl^-?.
yy?|
equation becomes
Tl o,U .
in
for
and
maximum
p\ =
if-
(total
or
VP2P2-,
>
conditions
work)
(total
These give p\
0.
2
f
y/pip' 2
and
= \Zpi Vp P2
= PlVp 2P2
= PlV2P2
= P1 2 P2
= Vp?P2
= Vp&pfa
f
PV
pV
pV
p\
p" 2
The
p'\.
^__^
P*2
For
and
are
minimum
work)
p' 2
m-
be
==
^/piW = ^P^
3
(21)
(22)
will
be
same manner
as above,
7
yp
p'
0"2
m-
^pl m
>2
~2
P2
p.'".-'
It is to
or
Pi
2
(23)
(24)
or
v^
'
i-i
>ip 2
If these are
S ^,[l-S?]
(25)
AIR COMPRESSORS
This
is
except
133
const., for
1.
INTERMEDIATE TEMPERATURES
it
(~)
all
2,
are
T2 =
7\ (^- )
(26)
pressure from
Heat from
intercooler in foot-pounds
If
leakage
is
j|^ cP (T 2
= JMc p (T
2
7\)
ro
Heat =
ifb
-"-]
n =
G
G =
=
q'i =
q'
/ork
(29)
a'-%
q
HEAT ENGINEERING
134
The area
Chapter
WATER REMOVED
If air at pressure
of 1 cu.
is
ma
p a has a
relative
Mw =
When
PalTlaVf
T\, after it is
the
INTERCOOLER
IN
ft.
amount
compressed to pressure
less
is
p' 2
V
This
found by methods of
III.
Mw
than
moisture precipitated
in
most
and volume
if
Y\
or
saturated, will
j-
V
be
Vf,
amount
of
is
Mw - M'w
If
M' w
is
greater than
Mw the
That
is,
Vi
be ttqTj
0.97
0.97
amount
0.97
0.088
0.09 approximately.
the
Vi
be tt^j.
of air to
Of course these
differing
amounts
of air
would change
Because
same pressure
ratios will
AIR COMPRESSORS
pression for total
Vh
-j- for
work
and using
135
will
as
/'s for
the
stages.
DISPLACEMENT OF CYLINDERS
The displacement
of each cylinder
The leakage
and
if
up
factors
cent.,
known
may
to four stages
is
be taken as 88 per
The
cent., 91 per
clearance factor
is
given by
K
or
+ -
will
Equations
cylinders.
greater
is
becomes
stroke
of
is
and
(30)
show that
as
or
becomes
less
quite noticeable.
volume
in.
(6)
expanded
air at
This
Having
is
fx
lx
p2x
fx
is
drawn
found by
lx
atmosphere to the
volume
fx Ki X) gives
initial
pressure on the
when
at the
HEAT ENGINEERING
136
now
If
number
of revolutions per
is
is
is
double acting.
Piston speed
SIZE OF INLET
The valve and pipe areas are such that the velocity of air is
from 3000 to 6000 ft. per minute. Although these are high the
loss in pressure is not excessive.
The suction valve is open
during a longer time than the discharge valve and for that reason
it seems to be necessary to use larger areas on the discharge
valves.
On the other hand, the effect of the drop is more noticeable at the lower suction pressure and therefore the suction valve
must have a large area. The valves are of about the same area.
This area of each set may amount to 8 per cent, of the piston
area for piston speeds of 300 ft. per minute while for speeds of
700
ft.
The
multistage
100
Work on
Work on
/.
r *-y-^
-j~^\
100
1 ~~
~^~
I
( )~""~
^fl>-(-)"l
f\ _
t
'|>-()~]
(34)
AIR COMPRESSORS
This saving
is
137
it is
sion
71
fm
The saving
fm \pj
\pj
loss.
Fig. 48.
*~
This
is
leakage.
is
equal to
^J
(35)
TWO STAGES
may
It is equal to 12ied
therefore be called
Vlied.
HEAT ENGINEERING
138
on two stages minus the work returned from one stage between
p" 2 and
pressures
This
is
shown
p.
in Fig. 49.
Fig. 49.
AIR ENGINE
Air engines are usually of one stage and as the air expands
temperature
falls so
its
many
To
may
be applied to the exhaust pipe, multistaging may be used as shown in Fig. 51 or the air may be initially
heated as shown in Fig. 50 by the dotted lines. This latter
method produces such an increase in the work done that it will
be carefully investigated later.
The pressures between which the air engine operates are p'
and p\. These are different from p 2 and p because there is a
drop in pressure due to friction in the pipe line carrying air to
the engine and in the valves entering the engine, thus changing
At exhaust the back pressure must be above the atmosPi to p\.
prevent this heat
pheric pressure.
If
there
valve
is
is
effect of clearance
on the work.
if
the exhaust
is no
Complete expansion or compres-
is
complete, there
means the carrying out of these actions until the final presThe effect of clearance on
is reached as shown in Fig. 52.
the displacement is the same as that in the compressor and the
sion
sure
AIR COMPRESSORS
139
The
will
not be discussed.
work
expression for
of
Work
of single-stage engine
Fig. 51.
Two-stage engine
card.
p'^V'\
pW'i
'
'
/
1
__*"/
-A;
is
it is
these
here at the
before
It is
p\V\
could be found.
(p\\ ^~L
to be observed that ( ^Vj k
Card with
Fig. 52.
plete expansion and
pression in engine.
p a Vf so that either
Work on
is
positive,
of these
single-stage engine
is less
may
comcom-
P\V\
be substituted, giving
tt^ZT VaV A
/""*""
V" 7
(^8)
(39)
HEAT ENGINEERING
140
If
leakage
is
mk
/'A *zl
..
The intermediate
/M5T
[l
~gr)^]
(40)
The
air is
staging,
and on storing
Wak-^fMBT^l -($)*?]
while after cooling to 7\ the
Wo*
Hence the
work
to be obtained
is
=^/^ [!-()]
loss is
-fV*[--Jfc-$)T]
In this the first bracket
second refers to the engine.
is
<">
shown in Fig. 53
unavoidably lost. This computation is made before
cooling the air to the temperature Ti and while it is at the point
P2V2. This loss is given by
that with a single expansion engine the area
by abc
is
AIR COMPRESSORS
141
W,-^!>-()-l-A!'-(S)-i]
Since
(42)
!T2
(p*\=l
T/
pvn=
Fig. 53.
Unavoidable
loss
from difference
T/
Const.
in values of
in compressor
and
engine.
to friction.
velocity
of the air
is
drop in pressure
In this
o.om +
w =
d =
1
=Ts~at
d 2g
ah
^^
is
is all
M^
dw
diameter of pipe in
feet.
HEAT ENGINEERING
142
g
dl
dh
=
=
=
32.2.
ft.
differential
because
Now
it
^j, dh
Tjpfr
dp
weight of
MBT
w =
and
F =
=
weight of
or
J
pi
p2
dp
BT
MB T
2
^ = d^
is
-2g)
dl
2g
dl
constant)
_b^M^BT ~ bM BT
~d F 2g L
^ L~
2
ML
p x *-p*
ML
V'^
Mean
28
b"
foot,
p =
final
d>
(44)
negative
air
(T
2
is
Hence
(dh
p
,
air.
decreases as dl increases.)
(45)
original
pressure in
foot,
Pi
?>2
b"
pL
X 520
X 144
-p
2
2
glVlng
b">^
(46)
AIR COMPRESSORS
Richards suggests &'"
=
=
Vf
L =
D =
and p 2
pi
b'"
The
if
iHzooo,
2000
expression (44)
may
(Pi-P)l 2 y =
V1
143
be simplified as follows:
d^
+ V2 = p =
2
BT
~2g
mean
pressure
mean volume
of 1 lb.
(Pi
-P.)
= ^ ^
5
Head drop
or
where
wm
is
the
mean
in feet of
Equation
is
(47)
is
,~
(47)
velocity since
MBT
-^velocity
air
7 =
Fand^
TT
w;
uniform.
Equations
may
FROM TRANSMISSION
out
its
entire length.
if
line
LINE
may amount
to a
of small
HEAT ENGINEERING
144
holes
is
M = 0.53
^P=
for
p2 <
0.5 Pl
is
found
this
may
be reduced to free
Vfl
The
air
by
~1)
Pa
quantity of
air.
100 -^r
Vf
The
been
is
reduced to
or
W - W" =
-^>m"-m
AIR COMPRESSORS
GAIN
p''
145
FROM PREHEATING
a pressure
7\)
(49)
Fig. 54.
The
increased
&W
The
work
=
k
will
air.
/
"
p 2(F 2
_yg]|\_^Yj
this heat
efficiency of this
used in preheating
is
(50)
therefore
t
AW
Eff.=
^^
p',(7".
2)
\h-\
r\ - r\
If
now
\~r)
'
is
higher
thermodynamically to preheat.
warm
10
HEAT ENGINEERING
146
given quantity of air
may make
is
AIR ENGINE
OR MOTOR
~-j p fV
Work
Work
Work
[ 1
- (^) V]
(38)
*"/[>
-(ft)-]
<)
may
may
If
is
known
as well as
the pressure available, the indicated power can be found from the
assumed
efficiency
From
the
equations above, the volume of free air necessary for the engine
V't
If
Y\
is
known
this
air
of the expansion
F = y
'
Displacement
If there is leakage,
(53)
--
*
D =
'
(S)^
(54)
r~
(55)
['+<-$)*]
-^-
(56)
AIR COMPRESSORS
147
ID^
Fig. 55.
Diagram for air engine
with complete expansion and com-
Fig. 56.
Diagram from air engine
with incomplete expansion and com-
pression,
pression.
Pz
=V
r
2
l
l
(57)
+
+x
l
(58)
33000 X D.H.P.
D.E
w
~
Work per minute =
"
.
mech.
p 8 (l+Z)Z>-p' 2
1
-p' 2
(z
V \[l
Dp 2 +
x]D
p\(l
+ x)D - pelD
1 -jfe
-(l-x)p\ +
I)
~ V^ (l
+ ^) - P'S +X)+ Pi
1
In this equation
D is the
effective pressure
-k
(59)
mean
+i)D
-k
P ,(l
for
eff.
HEAT ENGINEERING
148
required for this motor is ascertained by determining the difference in the weights of air at 2 and 5 and then reducing this to
volume.
If there is leakage,
BT
= MBT,
V<
Va
D is
p' 2
1
made
i)d
(-+
1
\r
BT
Va
/ in finding volume.
+ x)Dn
BT
ps(l
TiD
T2
Va
T 2 and T 5
(60)
T,
known on account
of the action
off or release.
found.
Although not
strictly correct,
same
T and T
be assumed equal to TV
as
v,=
will
T$
will
be assumed the
This gives
'4+')
(61)
Assume
N and find L.
(Fh + F )LN.
Now D =
may
output
mech. eff.
h.p.
From
be found.
i.h.p.
(62)
of free air
may
be found after the pressure limits and events of the stroke are
assumed. After this is accomplished the drop in pressure in
the supply line is found and finally the pressures, free air for the
AIR COMPRESSORS
149
The
overall efficiency
~
n
Overall
eff
is
found by
= t
h.p.
output
h.p.
-.
of engine
(63)
FAN BLOWERS
The turbo compressors and fan blowers not only
give a com-
discharge
is
is
an additional term
kinetic
energy.
work
is
-=^.[SI-(D-!4r a
<>
For the fan blower the action is so rapid and the path so short
is assumed adiabatic and the expression is
Wo^^{^[l-^l + ^j
In this p 2 and pi
differ
(65)
by a small quantity.
GOVERNING
The fan and turbo compressor are
card.
may
The
overcome the
friction
HEAT ENGINEERING
150
for a Certain
Time
Clearance,
Change
Fig. 57.
in
Clearance
Methods
from an
compressor of
air
ance
is
varied
by automatically connecting
quantity of
Time
air;
rises,
different
This
is
The
clear-
chambers
controlled
by
down
the
quantity.
When compressors are to be operated at different
pressures, the work of the steam cylinder is controlled by a
throttle governor, a variable cut-off governor or
valve gear.
by a Meyer
AIR COMPRESSORS
151
MOTORS
The engines using compressed
of engine or its equivalent.
Little
David
riveter of
air
Fig. 58
the Ingersoll
Rand
In
which
Co.
throttle valve
by the thumb
Fig. 58.
is
controlled
by the handle
this
is
the
pressed
The valve C
of Ingersoll-Rand Co.
which
is
driven at a high
speed against the shank E which drives the rivet. The valve C
shown in black admits air to the groove at I and exhaust takes
place through the passage running from the left end of the piston.
Fig. 59.
Ingersoll-Rand
David).
rushes through a small port and actuates the valve so that air is
cut off from / and the port
is connected to outlet and the air
is
discharged.
is
now
cut
off
HEAT ENGINEERING
152
When
is
The
increase of pressure
and that due to a leak into the groove I after this is covered
by the piston, causes the valve to reverse and the action to be
here,
repeated.
Fig. 59
This
drill.
is
a rotary engine.
Air
is
admitted at
reamer or
and causes
to turn
on the axis C.
In Fig. 61 a preheater is shown.
In this the passage of the air
through the hollow portions of the
heating surface raises the temperature to a
high point.
The
fuel
may
Fig. 60.
Rotary
Fig. 61.
air drill.
Sullivan
air preheater.
and
will
design.
LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION
The various
abed
efgd
gfh
=
=
shown
in Fig. 62.
due to change
of line.
AIR COMPRESSORS
=
ijkl =
knop
mnql =
mrst =
loss
hfji
Fig. 62.
loss
loss
loss
due
due
due
due
153
to cooling.
to leakage in line.
to throttling.
to high back pressure.
LOGARITHMIC DIAGRAMS
Before solving problems
it
will
struction of polytropics
log
This
is
log
If
const.
of the
straight line
ally
V =
is
lie
in a straight
pV n =
The value
const,
of
in
to be
n =
1.4
is
to
constructed
HEAT ENGINEERING
154
0.7
7.0
7H.0
0.C
CO
00.0
000
0.5
s,
50
0.4
4.0
LogP
st
\
\
0.1
10.0 ' 1
L0
0.4
4.0
5.0
0.0
6.0
0.7
7.0
0.8
8.0
0.9
9.0
10
10
40
60
60
70
80
90
100
Log
V
Table from
Log Diag.
P=
0.6
\\
VN.
x.
1-40
P
P
P
P
P
P
p
p
10
= 20
= 40
= 60
= 100
= 200
= 250
= 300
B 600
iooo
V=ioo
V= 61
V= 37
V" 28
V= 19
V= 13
F= io
V= 9
V = 5A
V=3.7
1=20
]
Fig. 63.
Logarithmic diagrampyi.4
with repeated coordinates for plotting
_
con st.
If in
and then cd
drawing
ef
is
drawn
parallel to ab,
single figure
fg,
and
and
a
on
be put
after taking d to e
a series of lines
may
if
a single
AIR COMPRESSORS
155
line
63,
x:
v\
_L\
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Fig. 64.
2.0
1.0
Log
4.0
6.0
8.0
10
p and V for any point may be found and the pV curve drawn
with simplicity.
To aid in computations of many of the above quantities charts
and diagrams have been devised from which results may be
obtained rapidly. A set of diagrams arranged by Professor C. R.
Richards and Mr. J. A. Dent, based on temperature entropy
logarithmic diagrams, is of great value. See Bulletin 63 of the
Engineering Experiment Station, University of Illinois.
of
PROBLEMS
To apply the above formulae, a problem will be assumed as follows:
Ten 5-h.p. air motors are to operate at 200 r.p.m. between 60.3 lbs. gauge
pressure and 0.3 lb. gauge back pressure.
Find the
size of
the motors
if
the
HEAT ENGINEERING
156
200
is
ft.
Problem
1.
Fig. 66.
Indicator card
for
ex-
h.p.
I.h.p.
eff.
0.80
6.25
6.25
33,000
j^-j 14.7 X
3.5
V/ = 78
2118
144
0.631
minute
_l7X78 ilM8
75
V'i
0.97 7/ [
0.977/ [
ri
15.26
(53)
*-
1_
Ki=l +
D =
0.05
'
q Sq2
0.05
X (~ )
52 cu.
ft.
1A
1.05
per minute.
0.158
0.892
(30)
(56)
AIR COMPRESSORS
Incomplete expansion and compression.
(6)
1.4
Pi
75
M.e.p.
'
05 4Q q5
0.35
26.25
33,000
'
0.9
13.5
-f-
144
Vf
If
leakage
2.89
is
loss in
4.66
30.0
(57)
- 15 X
- 0.4
0.15
0.4
+ 69.9 X 0.05
(59)
42.5 cu.
per minute
ft.
75
3.3
' 4
77.2 cu.
/I
15
"
144
05\ 04
Vox)
"I
' 15
(61)
per minute.
ft.
considered
77.2
q-q^
is
Vf =
The
33.75
= TiT^TiiL 144 x
=
15
21
15
75
D =
40
75
*'^
11
1.05
= D X
75
19.4
j-
Q Q5
[0
6.25
157
79.5 cu.
ft.
ttq^
6.25
=0.19 h.p.
seen that although the displacement is larger for the complete expanarrangement the amount of free air is slightly less. The difference
between the two cases is not great.
Problem 3. Size of motors.
It is
sion
(a)
and
(6).
200
(a)
If
L = ^ ft. =
D =
in.
+ A ) X 200 X
= (A h
52
52
u
Aa =20^ sq.ft.
144
_4
= 52 X
= 37
.
200
Assuming a
1-in.
37.4
d = 6.95
in.
C yi.
0.7854
Cylinder 7
D =
42.5
'
(6)
sq
cu.
ft.
A=
=
d =
Acyi.
in.
200
42 5
200
144
30.6
0.7854
6.33
in.
7 in.
V2
Cylinder 6.33
X6
XA
in.
30 6
'
=
in.
scl-
in
in.
HEAT ENGINEERING
158
Problem
4.
line.
14.7
150
Assumed
135.3
M
=
Vfi
Problem
60
150
50
150
XtX
^tt-t^
X
4
32 X 32
V460+70
tv
0.53
5.
Total
=
=
=
(6)
Leakage
(c)
(d)
air
(0.94
6.
Diameter
_.
M
For
first
146_2 X
78 cu.
105 cu.
885 cu.
ft.
ft.
ft.
per minute.
per minute.
per minute.
tt^-;
942 cu.
ft.
per minute.
is
885 X 14.7
60 X 53.35
X 144 =
X 530
0.02
U42 =
0.02
approximation
/150-
"
free air
(a)
Problem
"
P er mmute
.
^ cu
144
'
U0 lbs
per secomL
"
32.2
~
16
rf
^ ^
146*
14b
D =
D =
5
The drop
530
144
16.7
per second.
ft.
0.0204
close.
is
148
=
of 0.02
X
X
53.35
Hi X 0.7854
0-00145
0274
0. 012
oN
= nmo^
0.0124 +
-M- + ^- + 16 7Q x yi2 (43)
= 0.0124 + 0.0016 + 0.0044 + 0.0020
i.
b
The value
8852
200Q
990
3.97
in pressure will
X
x
in.
(4t>;
(46)
D5
or 4 in.
not be 4
lbs. if
pipe
4-in.
is
used with
0.0204
2
1442
X-0.0204
l.l 2
:
53. 35X5 30
'
x2
2X32.2X^X
2
p 2 = 22,500 - 1238 = 21,262
2
p = 145.8 lbs.
*
.
If
Drop =
//IV5
X3000
(44)
(&)
4.2 lbs.
is
assumed a drop
of 6 lbs. will
be cared
for,
AIR COMPRESSORS
Problem
7.
H
=
Loss
Problem
8.
150
159
lbs. to
X 885
[
6,550,000[0.524 - 0.518]
39,300
144
per min.
ft.-lbs.
lbs. abs.
g) * - g) ^
14.7
144
150
(48)
1.19 h.p.
lbs. to
75
lbs. abs.
0.4
Loss
Loss
if
6,550,000
=
=
=
6,550,000 0.631
(48)
0.518]
740,000
per min.
ft.-lbs.
22.5 h.p.
Problem
9.
780
22.5
gg^
r^ 530
=
=
=
6,550,000 0.113]
Loss
(g)"- 0.518]
530(10.33)
530
X0.94X94 2X 14.7X144[
Q 4
=
=
to 7\.
0.35
1 ' 36
(26)
7.7
718 F. abs.
258 F.
0.35
-l] [l-
6,550,000[1.355
1,122,000
1.355
1.4
19.8 h.p.
1][1
per min.
ft.-lbs.
0.4
) ]
<>
0.518]
34.1 h.p.
Problem
0.35
Work =
*}: S5
X
~
0.35
14.7
'
X
~
= 15,120,000[1
= - 5,370,000
0.955
0.955
1.355
ft.-lbs.
0.94 -j=
k
'-
X
~
-
144
*"''
0.97
'
i-mr]
per min.
(2o)
162.7 h.p.
V't
Problem
11.
= Vl50 X
14.5
in. abs.
(19)
Problem
12.
7,470,000[1
6,220,000
1.833]
ft.-lbs.
per min.
188.5
162.7
25.8 h.p.
188.5 h.p.
HEAT ENGINEERING
160
Problem
13.
if
on
0.4
U7V141Y
n-
885fl.4r
0.35
/150\IX|
/ISoXOsII
1.35[
Problem
14.
Problem
Loss
15.
=
=
on two-stage compressor.
1,950,000J7[1 - (1.95)
126,500 ft.-lbs. per min.
Unavoidable
if
in
loss
two staging
]-
7.72[1 -(1.833)]}
3.84 h.p.
=-
(36).
0.35
14.7
144
^[l - (j^j
= -
7,560,000[0.355]Tl
= -
705,000
ft.-lbs.
0.35
|_1
f^\
=
per min.
line of
21.25 h.p.
engine from n to
k,
starting
14.7
144
M> - ""HI m
X
885
1.355
3.86 [l
=
=
Problem
17.
2,540,000(1.755
124,500
18.
^ ~ ik
1.706}
per min.
ft.-lbs.
3.78 h.p.
= ^j X
= 40,500
Problem
3-^33
780
ft.-lbs.
14.7
144 [0.632
per min.
0.625]
1.23 h.p.
in compressor.
[1
leakage factor]
[162.7
21.25][1
0.955]
6.38 h.p.
AIR COMPRESSORS
Problem
19.
161
in line.
Problem
20.
[162.7
11.5 h.p.
21.25
6.38
3.78
-*
105
34.1]
885
Friction loss
Problem
ind.
162.7
power
,
ono
- = n nn = 180.8
efT.
0.90
mech.
180.8
162.7
h.p.
*
18.1 h.p.
21.
180.8
0.90
Motor
loss
200.1 h.p.
200.1
180.8
19.3 h.p.
TABLE OF POWER
H.p.
200.1
19.3
180.8
18.1
162.7
loss
Amount
21.25
6.38
3.78
34.1
Percentage
100.00
9.6
9.0
10.6
3.2
1.9
17.1
97.2
5.7
9.9
11.5
19.8
65.9
0.6
1.23
1.98
delivered.
1.0
62.70
12.54
6.3
50.20
25.1
3.84
25.8
100.00
1.9
12.9
It is to be noted that there is 9.9 per cent, loss due to throttling and 5.7
per cent, due to leakage. These might be saved, giving the overall efficiency about 40 per cent, in place of 25 per cent. The low efficiency has
In good installations
HEAT ENGINEERING
162
Problem
22.
Heat =
t
@$4 -(KS)
(15).
941
l4 7
-
][
0.35
[-(s)1
= = =
Problem
23.
!- 73
13,830
144
0.355
(28).
0.35
=-^Xl47XUi)[l-(a^]
= + 2,400,000 ft.-lbs. per
= 3090 B.t.u. per min.
min.
G =
F. in jacket.
^ =
= 206 lbs.
fiQ
per min.
2$.
Mean At, assuming counter current flow from 60 to 75
water and 70 to 258 F. for air, using Rensselaer formula.
Problem
F. for
7k
Ah = 258 - 75 = 183 F.
Ah = 70 - 60 = 10 F.
Note that
this
is
183 4- 10
97
K
&
126
iZb
46 6
'
144
53. 35(164
460)
v
X
M~W\X
QQH
S
6H
_
-
16 7
lb.7
(44)
.
a
Surface
= 3090X60
^y^T"^ =
Arrangement
Area
of
1flA
..
169 sq.ft.
of M-in. tubes 12
ft.
~ X | X 12
tube
ft.
Ch.
AIR COMPRESSORS
No. of tubes
169
2~Q5
163
72 tubes.
=7X
Amount
of
jg) X t^ =
water
Velocity of water
No. tubes
(t
in parallel
64 5
.
180
0.00258 sq.
ft.
per min.
ft.
0.00258
7 tubes
'
This means 10 nests, or the water will run from 7 tubes to 7 tubes
so as to give a path of 120
Volume
ft.
in cooler.
(942
340
60
X an
0.565 sq.
^
Area for
air
A
10
1
614
14 7
X ^0 =
0.97) j^-g
340 cu.
ft.
ft.
Suppose the 7 tubes are made in a case so that the air may pass along.
Area of passage 0.565 sq. ft. = 81 sq. in. To this the area of seven U-in.
tubes or 3 sq. in. will be added giving 84 sq. in. for passage of air.
Problem
28.
ft.
piston speed.
Ki
+ 0.05 -
=
=
i =
dcyi.
Size of
a qqo
1010 cu.
ft.
per min.
400 Amean
sq. ft.
A =
n 04
Amt = 2.52
Assume a
\14.5/
0.932
Low-pressure displacement
1010
/ 150\ 277
0.05
363
= 388
sq. in.
sq. in.
21.5
in.
2fro =
compressor 21.5 in. X 30 in.
2wft
= \/l50 X
00 r
D =
Stroke
Area net
Area gross
d C yi.
-I
X 0.932
0.97
14.5
29.
= 308
46^6
CU
ft '
"
30 in.
308
Problem
46.6 lbs.
a n
30
sq. in.
in.
is
0A
*
A =
(W
)
0.631
0.369
HEAT ENGINEERING
164
seen that this would pay. If there had been no throttling and the air
were at a 150-lb. absolute pressure the efficiency would be
Eff.
- (j^j
OA
1A
0.518
0.482
In most cases preThis, being better than 40 per cent., would pay.
heating will pay. It is well to note in passing that the efficiency of preheating depends on the range of pressure.
TOPICS
1.
this
is
2.
of
air
What
the purpose of the interWhy is moisture apt to collect in the air space of the intercooler?
removed ? What is the peculiar form of inlet valve used on the low-
How is it
is
pressure piston?
Topic 3. For what reason is air for a compressor taken from the atmosphere and not from the engine room? Why are water-jackets used? Explain the action of the Taylor hydraulic air compressor.
Topic 4. Derive the expression:
wo*=^^[i-^]
Topic
5.
What the
Explain what
is
effect of clearance?
Prove
this.
Topic 6.
is meant by volumetric efficiency.
Derive the
formula for true volumetric efficiency in terms of the leakage and clearance.
Show how to find the horse-power to drive a compressor.
Topic 6a. Why is jacketing of value? Is this true under all conditions?
Derive the expressions for the heat removed by
Is jacketing very effective?
the jacket, the saving by the jacket and the water required for the jacket.
Topic 7. What is multistaging ? Sketch a figure and show why this is of
value.
What is the function of the intercooler? How large should it be?
Derive the expression for two-stage compression:
work
Topic
8.
=^ 4 -(f^-(^]
2
Using expression
of
Topic
7,
is
minimum
when
What
p'l = VpiPi'
minimum work
9.
To what
of
does the
compres-
const,
when
pi,
What
is
AIR COMPRESSORS
Topic 11.
165
cylin-
of air.
Topic 12.
How are the inlet and
for the condition of the air discharged from it.
outlet pipes and valves designed?
Topic 13. -Derive a formula for the saving due to multistaging. Derive
the expression for the unavoidable loss due to two-stage compression.
Topic 14. Derive a formula for the work done in a single-stage engine.
What is the temperature at the end of expansion? To what does the expres-
and
sion for
work reduce
Topic 15.
Topic 16.
expansion in
Topic 17.
for
for
loss
lines
loss
in
line
loss
Why
T assumed
air.
is
is
losses
an air-transmission system.
two areas.
into
of
of air
in
common
use and
PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Find the power to compress 1000 cu. ft. of free air per minute from 14.5 lbs. absolute to 60 lbs. gauge in a single-stage air compressor;
n = 1.35, leakage = 3 per cent., clearance = 2 per cent.
Problem 2. Find the power to compress 1000 cu. ft. of free air per minute
from 0.3 lbs. gauge pressure to 160 lbs. gauge pressure in a two-stage air
compressor with n = 1.35, leakage 3 per cent, in each cylinder, clearance 3
Problem
formula.
HEA T ENGINEERING
1 66
Problem 6. Using the variable parts of the expression for work find the
work for single, two-stage and three-stage compression between 14.5
Find the clearance factor for these assuming 3
lbs. and 290 lbs. absolute.
per cent, clearance in each cylinder. Find the temperature at the end of
relative
minute?
Problem
12.
Find the size of an air engine to develop 15 h.p. (a) with
complete expansion and compression, and (6) with cut-off at 30 per cent.,
compression 20 per cent., clearance 5 per cent, pi = 125 lbs. absolute, pb =
14.8 lbs. absolute.
R.p.m. = 125.
Problem 13. Air at 1500 lbs. absolute pressure is stored in a tank and when
used in an engine it is throttled to 150 lbs. absolute pressure. The temperature in the tank is 80 F.
What is the temperature at the end of complete
expansion in the engine to 15 lbs. absolute pressure ? How much of the energy
in the tank is available in the engine after throttling?
Problem 14. In Problem 13 the air on leaving the throttle valve is heated
by a vapor lamp to 450 F. By what per cent, is the power of the engine
increased
Problem
17.
How much
is
loss occurs in
it. is
CHAPTER V
THE STEAM ENGINE
On account of the numerous improvements made upon it
during the two centuries of its use, the steam engine was, until
quite recently, the most important heat engine using steam.
The steam turbine has taken
due to the
efficiencies
The engine was developed without any theory of thermodynamics by Worcester, Papin, Savery, Newcomen and Watt, and to
account for the action of the engine in later times, Rankine in
England and Clausius in Germany developed a mathematical
theory of heat. The later development of the engine is connected
with the names of Corliss, Porter, Reynolds, Willans, Sultzer
and Stumpf. The engine has been improved by increasing the
Carnot efficiency through the use of higher initial pressures and
superheat and by lowering the back pressure, while the use of
jackets, reheaters, superheated steam, four valves, heavy lagging,
multiple staging and flow in one direction have all had their
effects
on its practical
efficiency.
In the steam engine (Fig. 67) steam containing heat is admitted to the cylinder A by the valve B, so that it moves
the piston. The valve B is operated by the valve rod C
from an eccentric or crank D so that when the piston E has
reached a certain point steam is cut off from the cylinder and
the steam is allowed to expand to a point near or at the
end of the stroke (release point) when the valve is so moved
The steam
as to allow the steam to escape to the outside.
admitted to the other end or the inertia of the fly wheel causes the
piston to return in its stroke forcing the steam out of the cylinder
until a point near the end of the stroke (point of compression) is
reached when the exhaust is closed and the movement of the
piston compresses the steam until the valve again connects this
side of the cylinder to the
steam chest
168
HEAT ENGINEERING
169
T3
a
o
O
o
'I
a
02
HEAT ENGINEERING
170
will
complete.
The
point of cut-off
4.
are
is
at
1,
release at
2,
is
2,
M
M
M M
limiting
points will
have the same area and represent the cycle with no clearThis is true because in theory the clearance steam exance.
Fig. 69.
line requiring
work.
steam and
is
and giving no
is
called the
cycle
cycle
form
of cycle used
on
It is
cycle
THE STEAM ENGINE
171
is of no value
warming other
The point which must be grasped
water
it
by the student
is
if
properly used, heat the feed necessary for the working steam to
(Note.
q'
q'
M(i 2
q'o)
is
to the
datum
.'.AW
= Q
M(i!
on 4-1
on 1-2
on 2-3
on 3-4, since
(1)
(2)
M=
because
is
used to refer
in all cases.)
-Q
= MKt! -
q'
-q'
(i 2
)]
ilffa
i 2 )(3)
Q = M[n 1
Theoretical
eff.
r? 3
ii-
q'
at
in
(5)
This
i'i
i2
A(p!
p 2 )v'
HEAT ENGINEERING
172
The last term is small. It really does not belong to the engine
being one of the charges against the boiler.
eff
771
= 7\- T
T,
m
If
work
is
M(i
q' ).
2546
lb
Fig.
(6)
of
Fig. 71.
6-4-3-1-5
Heat 12
Heat 23
=
=
=
ii
in studying
3 and 4
the cycle.
come
together.
q'
6-3-2-5
i%
q'o
ix
i2
AW
p 3 )v 2 ]
(7)
ii
773
i2
+A
(p 2
173
ps)v2"
Q.
(8)
tf'
7\- T
11
T,
^73
2
771
2546
775
773
Af(*x
adiabatic, hence,
q'o)
is
term
is
same
if
applied to equation
and
i\
i2
the entropy
(5).
known
for point
on the
1, i 2 is
Vi
= Mx v\
s\
+ ~y =
V = Mx
2
ii
ii
(To find
=
=
s' 2
(To find V 2 ).
(To find n).
(To find i 2 ).
v"*
q'i + XiTx
q'2 + x r
2
Zi).
is
should be so used.
STEAM CONSUMPTION
From equations (3) and (7) the amount of steam per horsepower hour theoretically required is given by
M=jm
tl
=
^l
To
(9 )
12
^2
+A
.
(p 2
rjr
Ps) v" 2
(10)
engine uses 26
gauge.
the applications of
lbs. of
HEAT ENGINEERING
174
14.7
h =
344.2
8i
=
=
p2 =
s =
fa =
v2 =
1.563
it
1172.5
q'
t
By
15
Charts
124.7
Vi
si
fi
p' 2
14.7
29.7
s2
1.563
f2
x2
1065.8
12.55
of (0.5
z; 2
14.7) lbs.
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
124.7
1.563
1173
29.7
1.563
1065
0.897
12.5
181.9
213.7
results,
=
=
*i =
p2 =
s2 =
Vi
129.7
it
318.4
X2
+ 0.98 X 872.7 =
0.4996 + 0.98 X 1.0820
1173.4
1.56
29.7
1.56
0.3673
1.1927
0326
1.3326
- 895
v2
be used.
Using the
first
771
= 344.2-213.7 =
713
344.2
1172.5
459.6
1065.8
130.5
803^
775
174
14.2
y^-~
"
2546
26(1172.5-181.9)
9.9
1T2
'
11 o
1172.5
16 2 per Cent
4^(29.7
no
= 1399 = 142perCent
9906
V2
15 2 ) 144
-
181.9
^ per cen^
"
?546
2580
per Cent
'
12 55
-
THE STEAM ENGINE
The
175
TEMPERATUREENTROPY DIAGRAMS
The
is
free expansion
Fig. 72.
T-S diagram of Rankine
cycle with incomplete expansion.
Fig. 73.
on the actual
is
They
and 72
the case
cycle.
substance the figures are used to represent this cycle. Moreover, the area of the figure 1234 of Fig. 70 or 123456 of Fig. 72
represents the difference between Q\ and Q2 and hence represents the work.
The
by the
efficiency
is
'
HEAT ENGINEERING
176
is
The
great.
pressure
is
to
marked
is
more
rapid.
Thus, to de-
Fig.
ot
74T-S
diagram
cycle with
Rankme
superheated steam.
of
87 F.
lbs. to
113
Q =
Q2 =
1
- q'o + r + fc pdt =
94328 = i 2 - q' - A(p - p )v 2
Q - Q 2 = work = 45c6 1234
<)cbl8
q\
ix
q'
Now
is
cbd 234:
it
effect
177
This reasoning
cbd 234
95 cbd 8
5
efficiency
is
made
evident
is
steam and
the same pressure ranges and the expression for the latter
made
by adding
b-l-d to
is
numerator and
denominator.
EFFECTS OF CHANGES
These facts have been shown by the late Prof. H. W. Spangler
Applied Thermodynamics. The curves of Figs. 75, 76
and 77 show how the theoretical efficiency is increased as the
pressures and superheats are changed.
in his
40 i
40 ^<
3056
30jS
40 f
30$
S 20tf
s
3 20 i
0)
e
H 10*
Nou-Coudeusing
1 10 #
lOjf
H
125^ 150^ 175#
100*
Gage Pressure
Fig. 75.
74"
Inches
15" 221/2" 30
Vacuum
Fig. 76.
76.
of
50
100 150 200
Degrees of Superheat
Fig. 77.
efficiency,
complete ex-
steam
77.
steam to
These figures are all drawn for complete expansion and, although in all cases the effect of vacuum increase is greater than
the effect of the same change in the initial pressure, the effect
is not so marked as that shown in Fig. 76 when there is incomThese figures are all drawn from theoretical
plete expansion.
considerations.
effect
12
HEAT ENGINEERING
178
TESTS OF ENGINES
To
made
is
steam
is
is
CALORIMETERS
The
may
throttling calorimeters.
here
shown
is
called because
The form
by the addition
C it may
care for
179
find the
tied
ntnStoi
P
Fig. 78.
The cup
HEAT ENGINEERING
180
To
same
in the
70
is
used.
of the
steam coming
M
M+m
(11)
is
mixture.
is
steam.
The steam is
shown by
that
I.
Throttling
action
content.
On expanding steam which
becomes superheated.
x er e
is
practically
dry,
it
^i
I'e
q'e
shown by E to
means constant heat
q'i
ii
+
-
+ fc pdt =
i{
(12)
q'e
(13)
r.
at /
corrected.
From
then
of
dry steam
is
is
181
(13).
The weight
then
xM
and the actual x
is
xM
(14)
yjt~\
X is
found.
1
is
%dry
tion.
A common way
it is
fires
called, is to
and a shut
is
dry.
p2
Error in gauge
Barometer
T
T
x
2
Wt. of drip
Area of hole
Exposed column
Observed pi
Error
Corrected p\
Barometer
Absolute p x
Ti sat.
7\ observed
Error 7\
112-lb.
gauge
=2 in. Hg.
= + 2 lbs.
=29.8 in.
= 335.20 F.
= 265.2 F.
= 0.2 lbs. per 10 min.
= 0.01 sq. in.
= 120 F. for 7\.
100 F. for T
=112
=110
=
=
=
=
=
=
lbs.
lbs.
14.64
114.64
337.92 F.
335.2 F.
2.72 F.
HEAT ENGINEERING
182
T2 =
Error
2.72
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
T
Corrected T 2
Observed
Observed p 2
Barometer
in.
Hg.
Absolute p 2
Temp.
sat.
Corrected
T2
Degrees of superheat
i
2.27 F.
265.2
0.98 lbs.
14.64
15.62 lbs.
215.07 F.
267.47 F.
52 40 F.
.
F.
267.47 F.
=
=
=
308.7
880 x
'-Itm =
The
for, if
880
1177
988
114.64
X0.01
X60X10==983
0.986X9.83
9.83
0.2
moisture
308.7
the
amount
is
"
' 968
to care for
any
large
amount
of
equation
q'
xt
ii
would give an
The
is
too
much moisture
present.
.
.
183
is
of the weight of
To
ANALYSES OF TESTS
To study
of
Hirn's Analysis.
of
Time
60 min.
10 X 15
10 per cent.
of test
Size of engine
Clearance
No.
Pounds
of
14,400
steam used
Average weight
of
2356
14400
0-816 lbs.
105
lbs.
14. 5 lbs.
99
120 F.
105 F.
85 F.
94,240
40
lbs.
lbs.
HEAT ENGINEERING
184
Average
Point of admission at
results
Point of cut-off at 2
25 per cent.
Point of release at 3
Point of compression at 4
22 per cent.
Abs. pressure at
48
lbs.
per sq.
in.
107
lbs.
per sq.
in.
90 per cent.
Abs. pressure at 2
Abs. pressure at 3
37
Abs. pressure at 4
Work
Work
Work
16
Wa =
5-1-2-6
= 6-2-3-7
Wb
Wc =
(3-10-8-7)
Fig. 79.
The
Average
results
in.
lbs.
per sq.
in.
5-1-4-9..
-0.98
0.52
sq. in.
sq. in.
above have
Wd =
per sq.
(9-4-10-8)
Work
lbs.
all
averaged together although at times they are worked up sepasteam being divided between the two ends
in proportion to the total volume at the point of cut-off although
rately the weight of
there
is
of division
to be dry.
would be
reliable as
desired.
With
assumption
7 =
M v'\
or
V =
v'\
v'\
185
is
specific
(15)
volume
total
volume
of dry
M
Knowing
steam at 4
found.
weight
M and M
is
at 4
No.
(16)
of revolutions
may
be found
known from
Xi
x2
if
the cards.
M v\
(17)
V
(M + M
2
(18)
)v\
V,
Xs
From
" (M
M )v%
(19)
all
points
= M (q\ + x m
= {M + M ){q' 2
= (M + M )(q'
AU* = M (q\ + P4
AU
AU
AU
(20)
+xp
+ x 3Pi
2
2)
(21)
(22)
(23)
From
the indicator
various periods
may
these
during the
be found.
Work of admission
Work of expansion
Work of exhaust
Work of compression
=
=
=
=
W
W
W
W
a
b
= 5126
= 6237
= - 94108
= 5149
(24)
(25)
73108
(26)
(27)
Q = M(q'
1
xr)
(28)
HEAT ENGINEERING
186
is
Q 2 = - M[q'
+ G{q' a
(29)
q\)
G =
=
q',
q'
q' d
water.
q'i
Now
Q = A[U 2 - U
If
found by
is
W]
(30)
the heat coming from the cylinder walls during the different
is represented by Q a
Qb, Qc or Q d using the equation
above, the various quantities are given by the equations
events
Ql
= AU 2 - AU + AWa
Qa = - Qi + AU 2 - AU!
Q = AUs- AU 2 + AWb
Qc = - Q 2 + AU - AU
Qd = AU - AU + AW d
Qa
(31)
+ AWa
(32)
+ AW
(34)
(33)
(35)
is given up by the
given to the cylinder
If these are added together the net amount must be
equal to the
there
is
mean that
amount given
no source
or taken
is
by the
sum
If
if
If
negative this
sum must
Qa+Q +Qc+Qd=
Qr
cylinder walls.
heat
heat
Q r may
(36)
condensation.
Then
Qr =
If there is
r (q'
+ xr-
q' )
(37)
sum
as
heat could then be given up by the walls from the heat in the
jacket.
In this case
Qa
Qb
Qc
Qd
Qi
Qr
(38)
187
and Qj
is
Qi
Q must
M,-
(q'
+ xr-
q'
(39)
is
at rest
by the con-
will
of
it
If
the value of
V = (M +
xl
v'\
(40)
shown
This quality
x.
is
in Fig. 79.
The
will now be applied to the test data.
diameter and of 15-in. stroke. The volume
swept out in one stroke is therefore 0.682 cu. ft. and if the
card is 4 in. long and has been drawn with a 40-lb. spring
These equations
engine
is
10
in. in
area scale
If
is
40
X 144
778
_
X
0.682
1.260 B.t.u. per sq.
in.
these
when
volume
multiplied
by the displacement
is then
the events as shown below, using Peabody's tables.
Event
2
3
4
Actual volume
0.068
0.238
0.682
0.220
Pressure
48
lbs.
107
lbs.
37
lbs.
16 lbs.
table
Specific
volume
a'
8.84
4.16
11.29
24.74
247.8
303.5
231.6
184.6
made
p'
846.2
801.5
858.6
893.8
for
HEAT ENGINEERING
188
=
"
~~
X2
tfi
U
U
U
AW
AW
AW
AW
2
3
a
b
C
Q
Q2
Qa
Qb
Q
Qd
= 00089
^?8
x1
*3
990
Mi
0.0089
8.84
lbs -
U 865
8D0
'
9*38
(0.0816+0.0089)4.16
"
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0^682
0.0905 X 11.29
0.0089 [247.8
0.0905 [303.5
0.0905 [231.6
0.0089 [184.6
2.83
3.91
X
X
0.98
0.52
1.260
1.260
X
X
' 633
" abb *
+ 0.865 X 846.2] =
+ 0.633 X 801.5] =
+ 0.668 X 858.6] =
+ 893.8] = 9.60
=
=
1.260
1.260
8.72
73.50
72.80
3.57 B.t.u.
4.92 B.t.u.
= = -
1.23 B.t.u.
0.65 B.t.u.
0.0816 [88
8.72
9.60
0.65
= -
Qr =
1.53 B.t.u.
16.89 B.t.u.
Total work
6.61 B.t.u.
96.5 B.t.u.
81 .3
B.t.u.
28. 15 B.t.u.
4.22
-7.57
1
B.t.u.
B.t.u.
53 B.t.u.
necessary are:
Size of engine
10
Average pressure
Average quality
119 5
in.
.
99
15
lbs.
in.
per sq.
in.
abs.
of
steam
2356
Revolutions
189
lbs.
14,400
Clearance
10 per cent.
Average compression
Average indicator card
22 per cent.
Fig. 81
Prof. Boulvin's
in reducing the
The average
indicator card
pressures at ten or
Pi
O
P
iifoe
Temperature
>
10
Temperature
in
V*
5
Cu. Ft.
Volume in Cu.
Ft.
Deg. F
Fig. 80.
card
may
M
M
-V
= 0.0089
Wt
2
as before.
0.0816
lbs. as before.
rev.
steam
HEAT ENGINEERING
190
x.
from the line of absolute zero pressure and lengths from absolute
The lengths are
zero of volume are measured and tabulated.
then multiplied by the scale of volume of Fig. 81 and divided by
the product of the scale of Fig. 80 and the value of
+
in order to get the distance to each point if 1 lb. of steam were
present on the expansion line. The heights are multiplied by
the scale of 81 and divided by the scale of 80. Thus, in the
M M
16
\15 e
\^14
\d\
10
12
13
Fig. 81.
M+M
is
15 engine
lbs.
per square
0.0816
test
ft.
0.0089
to the inch
0.0905
and 20
ft.
*^
^X^-X--0754
X
X
4
0.0905
2.5
steam on the expansion line. The multimerely 40/20 = 2.00. These distances are
tabulated to aid in the work as shown.
1 lb. of
Original
card
a
ID
<S
'3
P4
a a
33
1
4
5
6
8
9
10
Analysis
card
Original
card
to
00
191
fi
Q- 5
o
a
.2
.2
.2
5.70
5.62
5.56
5.28
4.02
3.12
2.56
2.20
1.86
1.40
0.40
0.90
1.23
1.40
1.90
2.40
2.90
3.40
4.00
4.20
2.85
2.82
2.78
2.64
2.01
1.56
1.28
1.10
0.93
0.70
"o
1.2
a&
-rt
0.30
0.68
0.93
1.05
1.43
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
^
//
>>
p.
,2
4.4
3.4
2.4
1.2
0.9
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4
+3
-d
W
0.80
0.80
0.80
0.80
1.02
1.60
2.36
3.00
4.00
5.00
3.31
2.56
1.81
0.93
0.68
0.45
0.31
0.31
0.31
0.31
fl
-L
3-s
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.51
0.80
1.18
1.50
2.00
2.50
11
1.81
2.18
2.56
3.00
3.16
r-^~_'
-2
o
Z
1.2
21
~-"^^/
Temperature
Ot
inl
""A*!
20
19
v\
Vs
\\l
18
</X
A
5\
Si
\.
16
\10
fix,
14
13
Temperature
Fig. 82.
Construction
Vll
\*^
12
^"*
Volume
of
,/
^yv
V^V^
^^
1 lb.
of
p-v diagram.
steam to be present on
line.
is now laid out from the table giving the figThis is then transferred from the p-v to the T-s
quadrant by drawing a constant pressure line until it strikes the
ure shown.
HEAT ENGINEERING
192
saturation line in the T-p quadrant and this fixes the tempera-
it
would be at
c if of zero quality
and at d
if
of unit quality.
Now
and
s'
xv"
(41)
42 )
In other words the volume change and the entropy change from
steam depends on x. Hence the point A' in the T-s
quadrant must divide a-b in the same way that A in the p-v
liquid to
quadrant bisects
c-d.
To
intersection e of a horizontal
from
and a
vertical
from d
is
from
c.
vertical
is
1 in.
1 in.
The
2.5 cu.
ft.
20
per sq.
lbs.
1 in.
The
=
=
=
=
in.
drawn with
m.
2.5
1 sq. in.
25
1
1
sq.
20 X 144
=^z
0.25
no ,
= 9.25
,
-p +
{p-v)
B.t.u.
The
sq.
in.
The
This
is
the conventional
THE STEAM ENGINE
It is
now
193
order to interpret
it.
of total
steam and
figure is
this is the
From
The
a changing weight.
drawn
according to the actual volumes which are proportional to entropies because each
ef
on which
Mo
,
is
proportional to
that
fa
Fig. 83.
then
line
AC
must be drawn.
M
M+M
EB
Zero Line
at Proper
Distance
0.0816
c
0.0905
line
If
the line
corresponding
AC
be drawn so
QM
T-S diagram
To study
Mx.
of indicator card.
steam only,
repre-
The
from CFA.
13
This
line
HEAT ENGINEERING
194
BH
is
CB
for this
constant.
is
if
of vaporization
The
the line
GH
mark the
line
line
compression
of
is
left of
It is necessary to
gine.
be the
line
ECBH.
and draw
On
this
EC
this line
CH
is
is
steam and in addition to this there must be HJ for the vaporizaIf x is the quality of this
tion of the steam from the boiler.
steam the distance HJ is equal to
*wfwSBI)
T
BI
Since
is
the value of
for
BI =
The
nJlk
1 lb. of total
due
is
moved
The
nKtk.
ing.
There
to
area
is still
is
and the
loss
mnba
called the
is
J is now
at b
to initial condensation.
steam,
BH + HI
is
(44)
due
shifted to
Since the
gM
the point
to initial condensation
is
loss
is
walls,
and
iedco
Now
the line
hence ieHJl
GH
is
195
of the exhaust.
Per cent,
Area
Sq- in.
Work =
efabcd
is
B.t.u.
brs
The
work
on T-s
of
8.43
4.74
23.80 17.50
13.95 10.30
717.50 527.00
40.40 29.60
ratio
=
wv
44.6
0.645
(45)
this can be found in the same manner for any point of the
expansion curve. For the compression curve x may be found by
drawing from e a line eO so that its distance from the line AC
and
M
M+M
c
is
A'B
to
IN.
Thus
BO = BI M
+ Mc
AC
to
HEAT ENGINEERING
196
be found are be and ef. The other lines are obtained by following
a scheme in which the product Mx at any point could be found
but not either of the terms of the product. Hence one cannot
There should
tell what losses occur at various points on this line.
be an agreement by the two analyses.
of quality 0.99
it
been reduced to 0.633. In other words 37 per cent, of the mixis moisture.
This has been caused by the action of the
cylinder walls.
Fig. 84 shows the actual form taken by the
indicator card of an engine.
The events in most cases take
place slowly giving rounded
corners; there is a drop due
to throttling on the steam
line and release occurs before
ID
the end of the stroke.
1
If the weight of dry steam
ture
^\
V*
a 2
Jig. 84.
is
*\
Actual
indicator
engine.
card from
ence
quantity."
supplied.
It is
caused by
ft
initial
^ = zr[
M
a =
F =
L =
D =
=
v" =
ait a =
I
If
is
al
steam actually
%^J
volume
of
dry steam.
m.q.,
< 46)
almost equal to
is
197
analyses.
This
initial
condensation
due to the
is
As the steam in the cylinder drops in pressure its temperature changes and the moisture on the walls of the cylinder
from condensation is evaporated removing heat from the metal
and moisture and cooling them. During the exhaust this action
walls.
is
when
fresh
condensed and
steam enters
on the
settles
faster rate
much
heat
no value
If
is
given up by the
when
it
can be of
it will
give up
its
heat to
the cylinder walls but the absence of the moisture film makes
may
heat
when
it
is
shown by theo-
retical considerations.
To determine
will
the
be necessary to
M
To
find the
=
1
it
m.q.
HEAT ENGINEERING
198
217(r
m.q.
r4
m.q.
(Perry)
m.q.
r^fe
m. _
-
+ r)
15(1
~ivw-
nvt
100 loqr
m.q.
= 30VT
dy/N
m.q.
100 m.?.
qi
100
iQfk
,_
(Perry)
(Cotterlll)
(48)
(4Q)
^
(
d x?
0.568
0.517
0.466
0.414
0.363
(47a)
(Thurgton)
1Mr
60
80
100
120
140
(47)
It
I
Pressure
0.7)
T^h ~^VW
'
(50)
Rice )
51 >
P
0.412
0.384
0.359
0.333
0.306
133
106
87
78
75
ratio
of
by the volume at
diameter in inches.
stroke divided
d
pi
N
I
m.q.
c\[Th
=
=
=
=
- T
e]
per sq.
in.
r.p.m.
percentage clearance.
d cos" 1
(127e
c =
Tb =
lbs.
cut-off.
^^-^ + [T
+ 0.055)s
temp, at
e]
(Marks)
0.02.
abs.
- T
cut-off.
(52)
T =
d =
e =
s =
b =
e
0.27
sT
m.q.
199
volume
fraction of
at cut-off.
stroke in feet.
volume
fraction of
at compression.
(Heck)
VW\ep
77i. q.
=
=
(53)
.-G4-
each in
T =
feet,
-T
=
=
p
e
volume
at cut-off to
volume
175
%
M
150
O
1
125
I-
alOO
a a
o
a
a
50
25
1
50
100
150
200
Values
Fig. 85.
The
follows
The
300
250
of
350
400
450
form
of these formulae
may
be given as
2 + Trd- L+F
*
diam. in
feet.
=F
is
(54)
HEAT ENGINEERING
200
L =
-
Fp =
stroke in feet.
point of cut-off.
surface of passages.
exposed
this is
is
k -^ minutes
where
=
=
a fraction
less
than
r.p.m.
is
some function
of
It
is
M
To
= F ^f(T)
(55)
shown by the
must be divided by the steam shown by the card.
given by
indicator card
This steam
is
it
M
Now
the
*
a
specific
compression steam.
77
volume
v'\
k"
approximately
fc'"
is
(56)
the
since
nearly a rectangular
^L(approx.)
Hence
Now
c
7
irdL, so
m.q.
mr
Ma =
may
that
m.q.
(approx).
m.q.
J
* v PF
be called
s.
= j
is
1V 1
m\Fc
i^f{T)^
ird
N
J v
(57)
J
v
practically equal to 2 -j
-,
(-
is
a function of
giving
-?
m.q.
*-
If r is written as -,
c
201
e,
(58)
this reduces to
mq =
-
By
examining a number of
F J /(r)
(59)
and with
same engine,
investigators have been led to the empirical forms shown above.
What in the simple theory appears as the first power has in
different speeds,
In
all
of the simpler
formulae the form agrees in the positions of the terms with the
k
simple theoretical form shown. In place of -^ being used for the
time term
last
1= or
Vn Vn
, ,
two terms
of
making F c equal
to the
f.
From
mulae
it
<d
*-d(|
i)
evidence shown by those who have derived these forappears that the formula of Heck
0.27
Vnh
is
VS
Mpe
It is applicable to
(57)
non-jacketed engines
the quantity
s.
HEAT ENGINEERING
202
with the actual amount of steam condensed which will not vary
very much as the cut-off changes. The large part of the condensation takes place when the steam first enters the cylinder and
as the piston moves along the additional amount is not great.
The surfaces which are most important in the condensation of
steam are the cylinder head and piston. For this reason greater
gain is to be expected from the jacketing of the heads than from
the jacketing of the barrel of the cylinder.
It
might pay to
supply the hollow piston with steam, making a jacket of the cored
The value of s decreases as the size of the cylinder inspaces.
creases giving less condensation in large cylinders than that
found in small ones.
This is to be applied to the card below, Fig. 86, which is the
assumed card in the design of a 20-in. X 24-in. engine to run at 80
r.p.m.
The clearance is 7 per cent.; cut-off is at 25 per cent.
Pressure at cut-off is 125 lbs. abs. and back pressure 17 lbs. abs.
24^20 = 1+2.4=
12
3.4
12
mq -
Fig. 86.
Amount
of
360
0.25
-27
217
= 143
= 0.32
0.07
m VMtS
ISA
143
steam indicated at
Mi =
(0.25
0.32
4.36
3.581
20
- 219
40 engine.
cut-off is given
+ 0.07) p^
12
85.
>
0.390
10 2
144
lbs.
by
V'l25
3160
(0.390
A1
0.0515
ft
0.0615)
80
60
lbs.
Mean
4.36
0.33
~o oo
203
height
m.e.p.
=
=
= 4000
o 1Q
lbs.
1.41 in.
56.4
56.4
H X 314 X 80 X 2 =
H 'P- =
3300(r
172
Steam
cons.
179
23.2
i.o7]
15
ra.g.
1
m.q.
20
m.q.
By
32 J
will
be com-
o 37
V80
0.271
Thurston's formula
30*
1
m.q.
m.q.
By
20
X V80
0.237
formula
Cotterill's
100 log
m -V1
_
20
m.q.
m.q.
1.07
t
X V80
0.293
0.226
The
result of 23.2 lbs. per hour per horse-power was low for
type of engine so that Heck's formula would not give as good
If 0.30 is taken
results as Thurston's, Perry's and Cotterill's.
for the value of mq.
The steam consumption is equal to
this
24.3
p g^
27.2
lbs.
HEAT ENGINEERING
204
On
slightly.
ment was 0.601 cu. ft. and the clearance volume was 0.060 cu.
The engine was made single-acting so as to study the action
ft.
in a better
To
manner.
1)4
in.
depths.
The
of the
in.,
0.02
in.,
0.04
in.,
0.08
in.,
0.16
and 0.64
stroke and at
0.32 in.
in.
in. of
the
inner surface and finally three vertical holes two inches deep were
drilled along the side of the barrel at 1 in.,
7% m
an d 15
in. for
bottom
of the holes.
To make
the same kind of wire was attached to cast-iron blocks cast from
These
the same ladle as that from which the head was cast.
were immersed in a paraffine bath at 212 F. The potential
E =
1692
17.86*
0.0094* 2
(58)
if the cold junction was at 100 C. and the hot junction at tC.
Later one of the couples in the cylinder was used as the cold
205
measured.
This method was somewhat similar to that used by Prof.
E. Hall of Harvard (Trans. A. I. E. E., 1891) but his results
were not very extensive.
To find the temperature of steam the authors used a platinum
resistance thermometer in the cylinder 3 in. from the face of the
piston and also one in a small %-in. hole in the center of the
piston head.
To
of revolving brushes
circular disc.
of a circumference
in length.
number of
sectors
on the
disc
42
Fig. 87.
45
48
51
From 20 X 40
of a revolu-
engine.
mometer
of the ther-
HEAT ENGINEERING
206
The
by Callendar and
Nicolson were that at Jfoo in. from the inside surface the variation
of temperature was only 4.3 F. at 100 r.p.m., while at %5
from
was
At }4
r.p.m.
in.
6 F. at 46 r.p.m.
and 4
F. at 73.4
to cyclic variation
Is
^>^ ^Aro/,
^A
^V?55Kr^fcLeo ' 0on Pen
Si
Head
_.<?
^2&* Clearance
Cycles shown by Couples
400
350
250
F.
Area cbd
+ abc
1.
Sq. In.
= Temp.byPt.Ihermometer
Attached to Piston
d'
200 F.
3
12
15
18
21
24
27
Sixtieth of
30
33
36
39
42
45
48
51
54
57
One Revolution
l"*=10-ir Rev.
Fig. 88.
Diagram of temperature at various positions of piston for different movement of crank.
Temperatures taken in head, cylinder wall and
steam space. (After Callendar and Nicolson.)
first
207
in., 3J F.
It was
found that these temperatures begin to rise before the piston
reaches these points showing that there was conduction along the
barrel and also the steam could leak around the piston as far as
the rings. A curious result near the middle of the stroke is the
temperature that is shown on the inner surface which is lower than
that some distance farther out. This shows that there is a flow
of heat from the metal to the steam at this point.
The experiments seem to show a gradient of 0.55 F. per inch in the head
while that on the side wall of the barrel was a variable quantity
in an axial direction being greatest at the center of the stroke
where it was 9.3 F. per inch.
Experiments were made to determine the conductivity of
cast iron giving 5.5 B.t.u. per square feet per degree per hour
for 1 in. thickness and then the diffusivity, which is the ratio of
this conductivity to the thermal capacity of the same amount of
metal, was computed.
The results of these experiments showed that the effect of
moisture in the steam is to increase the condensation while
superheat decreases it. The percentage amount of condensation varies inversely as the ratio of expansion making the actual
variation at 4
amount
of
in.
condensation practically
constant.
The
effect of
pressure
is
amount
+ Vn
-Tvf
i
or
Vn
JTvf
HEAT ENGINEERING
208
make
to
it
N revolutions
by
1.4 gives
42
758,000
If the pressure at
for
which
^~\ S0 X
+ V80
.
absolute
will
be
_ _
884000
= ~8876" =
887.6, the
missing quantity
1.4
in.
lbs.
Mtr
of
0.25.
and
release.
VALVE LEAKAGE
Callendar and Nicolson found that in their engine
much
of
beneath the valve into the exhaust and this steam never entered
the cylinder. The valve leakage of steam was found to depend
on the periphery of the valve, the lap and the pressure difference
or
W = Kl{Vi
(61)
when
periphery in inches.
The value
of
this leakage
209
the steam was practically saturated except during compreswhen it was superheated, while that in the %-in. hole in the
sion
except at cut-off.
fi
He
120
|ioo
f 80
temperature.
p.
In
this it is noted that the wall temperature
is usually higher than the steam and that
the steam is saturated except during comtemperature-piston
pression
when
it is
superheated, becoming
temperature.
cycle
is
diagram.
travel
it
Of course
reaches the
this
--
60
^/
//I
Steam Temp./
\/
k -X'
40
20
Sat. Temp.
Corresponding
to Pressure
0C.
Piston Travel
Fig.
89. Results
of
metal
true for one point in the cylinder but for another point
is
Duchesne
faster
This
compression,
Fig.
affect the
1
Revue de Mechanique, 1897, pp. 925 and
May, 1911.
2
Trans. A. S. M. E., 1895, p. 430.
3
Zeit. des
14
1236.
3,
1914.
HEAT ENGINEERING
210
Adams used
60* Spring
sure
measured and the correct scale of the spring is used, the expansion lines become straight lines on the logarithmic diagram
and the slopes of these lines are the values of n since
log pi
log
1
Vt,
log Vi
(62)
log Vi
Illinois.
211
shown
in the
in fifths
inches from
clearance line
Point
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Logarithm of
volume in fifths
inches
Logarithm
Pressures in fifths
inches from
absolute zero
pressure in fifths
inches
1
0.70
2.20
3.88
5.50
6.25
7.47
9.35
12.80
15.85
18.92
0.846
1.340
1.590
1.740
1.795
1.873
1.970
2.106
2.200
2.276
8.65
8.40
8.30
8.28
7.97
6.50
5.20
3.80
3.15
2.05
1.936
1.924
1.919
1.918
1.902
1.813
1.716
1.579
1.498
1.424
17.80
15.20
12.55
9.50
5.70
3.52
2.80
1.75
1.25
0.70
2.250
2.182
2.099
1.978
1.756
1.546
1.447
1.240
1.096
0.846
2.18
1.88
1.338
1.274
1.267
1.255
1.255
1.243
1.301
1.498
1.638
1.864
'
1.85
1.80
1.80
1.75
.2.00
3.15
4.35
7.20
of
2.00
2 1.75
1.50
1.00
0.75
1.00
1.25
1.50
Logarithm
Fig. 93.
Logarithmic
1.75
of
2.00
2.25
2.50
Volume
and
HEAT ENGINEERING
212
of the
lines
cator card.
On investigating
tests
on an engine
in
^0j50
U.8b
0,%
1.05
#=0.82
37=0.86
LI'S
#=0.90
1.25
50
90
Initial
Fig. 94.
150
110
Steam Pressure
n, x,
and p
The value
of
is
is slight,
and n
213
at different pressures.
The
results
0.85
^_^0i5jL
X^0;60_
^^TO^
0.95
X^S____
o
xl.05
a
3
x^90__-
>
-Y=1,00
1.15
___x^12
1.25
100
250
200
150
R.P.M.
Fig. 95.
On
n,
and x
steam consumption
The
compression.
may
may
error
computed.
Value of n for expansion curve, Fig.
Fig. 92 will be
Steam
x,
93,
0.98
from Fig.
94, for
n = 0.98 and p =
Pressure at cut-off, 93
Length to
comp., 0.73
1.22
3.14
Weight
of
...
w
Weight
ol
dry steam at 93
lbs.
108,
is
0.65
lbs. abs.
at
in.; of card,
314X42
X 1728 =
'x
0.2112
lbs.
lbs.
in.
2.96 cu.ft.
per cu.
ft.
2.96X78X60X0.2112
a
cut-off =
0.65
4470
3.14
HEAT ENGINEERING
214
Volume
of
clearance
Steam per
24
steam
v.
314 X 42
^ =
1-a
1.76
lbs. abs.
per
hour
1.76
78
60
486
Steam supplied = 4470
H.p. = 160 h.p.
0.0591
ttt\
Pressure at compression
Weight
- 73
at compression
i.h.p.-hour
486
3984
-t^tt
24.8 lbs.
lbs.
per hour
simple results
it
= constant, and
good reasons
has no theoretical basis and
the
for its
is only
common use. Of course it
used for the reasons given above.
In steam engines actually examined by Clayton the expansion
line had values of n near 1 in all cases except poppet valve
engines, where n rose to 1.3 with highly superheated steam and
in the Stumpf Straight Flow Engine with superheated steam
where n was 1.2. The compression lines were mostly near n = 1
although some values much lower were found.
In gas engines n for expansion varied from 1.09 to 1.36 while n
Guldner, according
for compression varied from 1.09 to 1.43.
to Clayton, gives values of n from 1.30 to 1.38 for compression
and 1.35 to 1.50 for expansion. The latter is due to hot water.
He states that Burstall gives 1.288 as the average for expansion
low.
215
+ "m =
s'
the line
is
'
const, or
dt
+f+
pv n
n =
n
n
=
=
=
=
const.
J^
+
+
-Q-,
const.
according to Rankine
(63)
Zeuner
0.000376p)z
(0.0706
0.000315p
according to E. H. Stone
pressure at point where quality is x
1.035
1.059
O.lz, according to
(64)
(65)
0.088)
1-
305
const.
(Goodenough)
EXPANSION LINES
It will
The
discussion
and curves
how
Rectangular hyperbola
(6)
Adiabatic
(c)
Isodynamic
Constant steam weight, x
(d)
(e)
pv n
(/)
pv 1
(g) pv-
From
=
=
=
const, of Clayton,
const.
const.
Clayton's diagram, n
1.02.
const.
n =
1.02
HEAT ENGINEERING
216
The diagram
for
steam
of
lb.
computed and
be
will
Vi
pi
For p 2
(a)
= Mxv" = 1 X
= 115 lbs.
= 95 lbs. abs.,
V =
2
2.71
=
X ^f
95
0.4881
(b)x 2
3.28 cu.
0.70
3.876
2.71 cu.
ft.
ft.
1.1026
0.4699
1.1363
=
V =
2
(b a )
0.70
0.695
0.695
4.644
3.23 cu.
ft.
Stone's value of n,
n = 1.059
0.000315
115
(0.0706
0.000376
115)0.70
n = 1.102
V2 =
2.71
(c) g'i
XiPi
x2
808.8
0.708
(d)
=
V2 =
V2 =
0.70
(e)
V =
2.71
x2
(ijf)
^=
= q' + x p 2
= 309.0 + 0.70 X
797.0
294.6
0.708
(^)
r52
)7 =
ft.
J_
(115\ji.2
(9
3.23 cu.
/1 1 5\
3.28 cu.
ft.
3.17cu.
3.41cu.ft.
ft.
2.71 (-g5-)o.8
Tabli of Volumes
,
Adiabatic
Pressure
115
95
75
55
35
w=l
2.71
3.28
4.15
5.67
8.90
Theory
Stone
2.71
3.23
4.00
5.30
8.00
2.71
3.23
4.01
5.31
8.00
Isody-
namic
2.71
3.28
4.15
5.66
8.82
= const. w = 1.02
2.71
3.25
4.07
5.45
8.32
2.71
3.28
4.13
5.60
8.70
= 1.2
n =0.8
2.71
3.17
3.88
5.02
7.34
2.71
3.41
4.62
6.82
11.95
rc
The
tables
Clayton
line,
217
If
is
worked out
The
lines
vary
found that although the mean effective pressure for the lines
and pv 1 2 vary 12 per cent, from the mean of the two, the
variation on the lines pv 1 02 and pv 1 1 which are the extremes of
the remaining lines vary from the hyperbola by 5 per cent., or,
it is
pv-
5 per cent,
is
the
maximum
120 a
The value
variation in general.
1.2
100
1-1
a 60
n =1.102\
\*\
71=1^"^^
Adiabatic
40
L20><^ ^
Isodynair
\l=1.0 2
20
2.0
4.0
6.0
Volume
8.0
10.0
12.0
in Cu. Ft.
Fig. 96.
Variation in various expansion curves. Constant steam weight
curve lies between adiabatic and pv 1 02 = const. Isodynamic can not be
separated from curve pv = constant.
-
is
in the m.e.p. for the card with this line is 14 per cent,
From
the above it will be seen that in general the rectanguhyperbola will give areas within 2 per cent, of the actual
cards for ordinary engines although with superheated steam or
very wet steam the use of the rectangular hyperbola for the exlar
HEAT ENGINEERING
218
pansion line
may
result in
an error of
less
may
the
this line is
may
be used.
\
a'
Fig. 97.
a.
NI ^-^^
b"
Construction
c"
of rectangular hyperbola.
and volume, they will cut the verticals in a', b' and c'.
from a, b and c intersect horizontals from a', b' and c'
in a", b" and c" which are points on the rectangular hyperbola.
of pressure
Verticals
= Va
= V\
= V' a
= v
n
From
similar triangle
->-
V a
V'
y"a
Vl
or
V"aV"a
PlVl
fulfills
219
tropic, pv n
is
r,
and to use
this to
compute
all
successive points.
Pi
Pi
7>3
Pa
=
=
=
rpi
rp 2
rp 3
Since
Pi
\r I
Vi
The
/vi\
=
~
=
=
by
r"vi
r"v2
pv 1 -*
is
plotted quickly.
constant
125
lbs. abs.
and
2.5 cu.
ft.
Assume
125.0
62.5
31.7
15.7
7.8
3.9
2.5
6.6
17.4
46.0
122.0
323.0
HEAT ENGINEERING
220
The card
Fig. 98,
this case.
= -pi +
D log D
pi
-jy
e
if
abode,
If r is
ed
is
the
assumed
pj>
r
'
area
m.e.p.
This
is
the line
line pv n
= -p- =
pi
.
[
log e
r]
(66)
P&
the formula
is
const.
m.e.p.
for all values of
= 7 Ll+-3T-J-^
n except
1.
If clearance is
Fig. 98,
Fig. 98.
Theoretical
indicator
cards,
showing
effect
of
clearance
and
compression.
On
The card
is
then
a number of cards drawn with different clearances, pressures and cut-offs the net result of these two effects
was to decrease the area or m.e.p. by 2 per cent. The variation
abfcdgh.
From
per cent.
expansion
If
the clearance
221
is
is
Tr
1
lr
E-+']
The
Fig. 99.
the quality at
b.
c'
line should be
taken in theory. This is from
J to 2 lbs. above the pressure in the region into which exhaust
takes place. At the end of exhaust the back pressure line will
rise due to the slow closing of the exhaust valve so that the point
This gives the line e'f
of compression e' is raised above e.
distinct from ef.
In actual cards such a point as g is considered
as the point of compression but, as was pointed out in the logarithmic diagrams, this point is not on the compression line.
c'd.
The
is
Area (db'c'de'f)
Area (abcdef)
= diagram
factor.
is
known
as
HEAT ENGINEERING
222
The value
actual m.e.p.
is
about
0.90.
The
then given by
m.e.p.
0.90
0.98[y
(1
log e
r)
p6 ]
(68)
actual m.e.p.
33000
2FLN
theoretical m.e.p.
1
Pi
+ log
(l
r)
(69)
b
Tests give the value of this to be about 0.85 for high-speed engines.
To find the value of the m.e.p. it is necessary to assume or
know the
values of p h p b and
r.
For ordinary
great
rela-
when a
much
is
higher pressure
used.
high pressure
steam
may
pletely.
Fig. 100.
Steam
consumption curves.
is
be utilized com-
This, however,
although the higher temperature range gives a higher theoTo reduce this loss a later cut-off is used giving
an excessive loss due to free expansion. This same reasoning
holds for the determination of the best value of r. If r is large
the steam is used to advantage expansively but the percentage
effect of initial condensation is great while for a smaller value
of r this condensation effect is smaller but there is a loss from
free expansion.
If the results of a test are plotted with indicated horse-power
felt
retical efficiency.
as abscissae
most
line
and
total weight of
efficient point is
is
is
223
AB.
If
In Fig.
the ratios of
consumption curve
CD
is
found on which
is
AB
would take
is
144
F =
L =
.V =
Mean
Fig. 101.
Effective Pressure
This quantity
Now
is
mean
const.
144
i.h.p.
33000
from which
is
p,
= 2pmFLN
i.h.p.
2FLN
33000
const.
X i.h.p.
(70)
HEAT ENGINEERING
224
of
(I
of
+ x)D
-
(>+t)
- m.q.
V" e
144
approximately.
of
m.q.
NX
(71)
steam weight.
m/
(rv\)(l-m.q.)
Mi =
is
.+
v" b
m/ =
Now
m.q.,
1
1
Fig. 102.
is
is
13750m/
2p mFLN
33000
(72)
Pm
Mi
m/ "
Pm
13750
or
That
straight lines
is,
(73)
of Fig. 101 are lines of
Pm
771 f
The
theoretical
amount
VOlUmeiS
since the
is
volume at
of
cut-off
is
m
a
is
t*
OTA\
=
if
of cylinder
bp
(75)
bp
shown
as
225
and pressures
of the
steam tables
in Fig. 103.
practically bp.
is
Pi
Now
-f loge
[1
Pr
r]
kM =
x
ph
Pi
r
rtif
Vm
&[l
+ log.r]
Pb
[1
In other words
Mi
loge
r]
kr
Pb
(76)
Pi
than
Pi
lit)
150
&
"
o
125
3
.2
100
a
3
75
S
03
50
9
Si
25
0.05
0.10
Weight
Fig. 103.
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.25
Steam
0.3
0.40
in Lbs.
and weight
of 1 cu.
ft.
of
steam.
initial
will
Mi
15
HEAT ENGINEERING
226
The
best point
is
% cut-off with
Pm
l.n.p.
total
Cpi
Pb
_ 2(cpi
-_
2LFN X
60
144
= i.h.p.
or,
p b )FLN
3300Q
2LFN
_
X
144
kpi
h"p h
i.h.p.
cr I
2Fm
pb \
(77)
line.
STUMPF ENGINE
Although
seems
by
Stumpf
Prof.
is
stroke when the piston overrides ports C, cut in the cylinder barrel,
rapidly
pressure
this the
boiler pressure.
when
it is
pump
227
is
controlled
by a valve
is
known from
Fig. 104.
Cylinder
of
so that
it
is
it
connected to
may be con-
in the hollow
head D, however,
card.
keeps
it
HEAT ENGINEERING
228
off
by the
piston from
when the
points.
Fig. 105.
Curve showing temperature
of wall and saturated steam for different
positions of piston as found by Stumpf.
piston
The
metal
line is
ration
line
is
at various
that
Mean
Fig. 106.
Steam
is
moving
at its
Effective Pressure
h.p. hr.
curves of Stumpf
engine.
highest speed.
in this engine
that
it
flows
is
229
from
is
The
it
sion engines.
when the
effects of initial
SIZE
OF ENGINES
To find the probable size of an engine to deliver a given horsepower, the formula for horse-power is used
b.h.p.
mech.
p =
F =
L =
N=
eff.
_ 2pFLN
33000
HEAT ENGINEERING
230
2LN, then
speed,
fixes L.
the diameter
To apply
is fixed.
this,
suppose
it is
Lh P
-
kw
0.746 X0.90
o.90
<
79 >
m.e.p.
275.
0.90
L =
i.h.p.
[^
0.98
0.91
33000
2pLN
"
"
(1
ft.
_
~
2.3
10.9 in.
50.9
200
2
0.602)
17]
X 33000
X 0.91 X 275 "
59 Sq
'
"
..g.^pm.^
The
size of cylinder
ameter
somewhat unusual
in. di-
ratio of diameter
mentioned on
clearance to a
p. 209.
minimum
is
to cut the
card for a given displacement and to make the steam loss due to
improper compression with different cut-offs as small as possible.
effect of
and by the
compression
is
tests of Heinrich
231
Area
= pi
PiD
f-
[I
Dp
-] log e z
b [l
x]
X
+ X] l0g +
l
p bD[l
It is desired to eliminate
from the
that
boiler,
is,
x"D.
xD
Fig. 107.
Dp
Hence
Stumpf
(l
x)
method
= Dpb [l
I]
- Dp
b [l
1]-
}~x")
log e
DpJLl
x]
D Vl +
x"]
[l
and
p b D(l
m.e.p
-* =
l
x) log
area
_=
~D
Pl D(l+
A_!L^
1^
p\
+
7 + p,[z+]log.^-pJl
~ +
r
Z]
[t
Pill
Vl [l+--x"] log.
+ h*'[
Vi
Suppose now that the volume, x"D, of working steam remains constant and there is a change in the point of cut-off.
HEAT ENGINEERING
232
The
which gives
relation
maximum work
under
this
change with
is
derivative to zero.
rf(m.e.p.)
+ Vi -
l+l
.
,
^l y
+ --x"
2i
Vi log*
Pid
+l
x")
1+--
x"
+
X
-+
r
l+
l
Pi log,
Pi
Pi log,
-+ x
r
Pi log,
l+x
(80)
'-+1
or the point of cut-off divides a line from the end of the card to
the axis of volume in the same proportion as the clearance divides a line to the axis of
of compression.
^h
a"
H'
Fig. 108.
Webb's method
by Webb
then lay
off
CB
ABCD
is
The
point
is
233
make up
steam
CC
since
C'CHH' _ CBEFGH
CC "
CB
But the area JC'C
JCHH'
tity
is
CC.
the line were
H"C"K,
but the
work would be
CC"
sumed dry
lost
or proportional in
all
SPEED
The speed of an engine affects its efficiency in changing the
amount of condensation. As this varies inversely as the cube
root of the number of revolutions per minute it would naturally
be expected that high-speed engines would be the more efficient.
That this is not so is due to the fact that the term s varies
inversely as the linear dimension of the engine and hence this
term
is
it
The
large, slow-speed
pumping
HEAT ENGINEERING
234
engines represent
the
best type
of
engines
using saturated
steam.
The
effect of
at the end of
made on
235
distinct gain.
large engines
TOPICS
Topic 1. Sketch the Rankine cycle of the steam engine with complete
expansion and compression and explain the difference between this and the
Carnot cycle. Explain the variation in quality on the various lines in these
two cycles. Show that clearance has no effect in this case when initial
condensation is not present.
Topic 2. Sketch the Rankine or Clausius cycles with complete expansion
and incomplete expansion on the y-v and T-S planes and derive the various
HEAT ENGINEERING
236
calorimeter?
What is Hirn's analysis? For what is it used? What observamade? Explain how the quantities
and
are found.
Explain how Xi, x 2 and x& are found.
Explain how AUi, AU2, AU3 and AUi
Explain how Qi and Q 2 are found.
are found.
Topic 6. Given the average indicator card, show how the quantities
AWa AWb, AWC and AWa are found. Give method of changing from
square inches to B.t.u. Having the U's, Q's and AJF's explain how Q a Qb,
Topic
5.
tions are
Q and Qa
are found.
What
lines?
is
this
mq
30
rnq
VT
VN
027
mq
"Z/N
Topic 10.
for s?
is it
pe
Why
uf
\
that
it
may
=K'Fc^fT
0.27
3/
jsf
\j
What
is
Heck's expression
237
speed, pressure and cut-off on the actual condensation and on the percentage condensation, m.q.
Topic 11. Give a statement of the work of Callendar and Nicolson,
How do Callendar
Hall, Duchesne and Adams on the effect of cylinder walls.
and Nicolson plot their results so that initial condensation may be found?
What do their results show in regard to variation of steam temperature in the
What is the nature of the temperacylinder, and in a small hole in the head ?
ture cycle at various points in the cylinder length and at various depths?
Which has the greater effect, clearance surface or clearance volume? When
does the major part of the initial condensation take place? To what is it
due?
curves?
Topic 14.
const,
and
pVn =
Topic 15. Explain what is meant by the real and apparent ratio of expanDerive a formula for the real ratio of expansion in terms of the
apparent ratio, r, and the clearance, I. What is meant by diagram factor?
How is it found? What value does it have?
Topic 16. Sketch the curve of total steam consumption and show how to
Exfind from this the curve of steam consumption per horse-power hour.
sion.
What is
the same as the curve between m/ and p m
Prove that it is true.
Topic 17. What is the Stumpf engine? Why is it of value? Sketch it.
Sketch curves showing the temperatures of the wall and saturated steam for
plain
why this
curve
is
how
an engine to produce
to
for
Stumpf and
jackets?
this power.
Topic 19.
Topic 20.
to
What
Webb.
difference
What
is
Of superheat? Of
found between governing by throttling and by
is
automatic cut-off?
Topic 21. Sketch and explain particular features of the locomobile.
HEAT ENGINEERING
238
PROBLEMS
and
and
Problem
7.
Time
of test
Clearance
Number
of revolutions
14
in.
test of
an engine
(neglect rod)
60 min.
7 per cent.
15,000
Steam used
3003
112
lbs.
lbs.
per sq.
in.
0.99
135 F.
120 F.
75 F.
58,100 lbs.
Work
Work
Work
of
admission
of release
93
0%
0%
of stroke, ....
of compression
20.0%
of stroke,. ...
of cut-off
33
sq. in.
44 7
14.7
.
lbs. abs.
per sq.
in.
lbs. abs.
per sq.
in.
of admission
3.22 sq.
in.
of expansion
3.32 sq.
0.70 sq.
in.
0.46 sq.
in.
of exhaust
W^ork of compression
Make
239
in.
Problem
8.
In the
of pressure
Points
Volume
Pressure
Points
Volume
Pressure
0.28
0.78
1.28
1.60
2.28
3.28
3.78
4.02
4.18
2.48
2.44
2.36
2.28
1.60
1.19
0.94
0.88
0.60
10
4.28
3.28
2.28
1.08
0.78
0.48
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.29
0.41
0.63
1.08
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
1.78
2.30
constructed from the data of Problems 7 and 8. Also find crank positions of
events of stroke.
Construct the Callendar-Nicolson diagram for this card
and find the probable initial condensation. Express this as a percentage of
the steam given in Problem 7 and compare results with those of Problems
7,
8 and 9.
Problem
Using data
Clayton's method.
CHAPTER
VI
is
engines.
that there
is
surfaces
smaller
(i.e.,
high-pressure
in
the
cylin-
stracted
If
Fig.
Fig. 110.
Indicator
horse-power and to
gram.
To form
this
ends of the diagrams are placed on a new axis of volume and the
base lines with their ordinates are drawn in after making the card
lengths proportional to the volumes swept out
by the respective
In most cases since the strokes are equal these are proportional to the squares of the diameters.
This increases or depistons.
240
all
horizontal dimensions.
If
now
241
pressure and the ordinates from the atmospheric pressure line are
this
new
may
'I
^ Spring Scale
steam
^>
"^
\2
13^4
known
as
pressure.
to high-
In
-L8
known
and low
12
p IG
^ -1
^-^11
112.-
addition
first
and second
in-
HEAT ENGINEERING
242
When
when the
high-pressure cylinder
sure cylinder
is
is
ready to receive
if
it,
the engine
is
known
as a
in a receiver before
Hence the pressure falls from 2 to 3 in the high and rises from 12
and from that of 8 to that of 3 or 13 in the
to 13 in the low
8
Fig. 113.
The
pressure at 13
is
the same as
forces the
steam out
is
a larger
on
the
low-pressure cylinder in
many
cases.
The
pressure
243
expands from 7 to 8 at which point the cut-off occurs in the lowpressure cylinder. From 8 to 12 the events on the low are the
same as those on a single cylinder.
The combined cards from a receiver engine are shown in Fig.
113.
In this case at the end of expansion the high-pressure
cylinder discharges into the receiver in which the pressure is that
at 11 if cut-off in the low pressure occurs after compression on
the high-pressure cylinder, while the pressure
is
that of 6
if
this
compression in the high occurs later than the cut-off in the low.
In either case, the pressure in the receiver is usually lower than
that at 2 and there
is
a drop in pressure.
The
low-pressure
is
The
9 in the low.
line
3-4
is
its
first.
then usually
It
falls
before 6
is
5,
The other
cylinder.
Let
V =
V =
r
receiver volume.
volume
p with subscript
pressure at point.
by sub-
HEAT ENGINEERING
244
M
or the weight of steam
pV.
Hence
kpV
(1)
is
if
and at
different
tiplied
mV =
by the sum
of the
of
2pV
(2)
With
p%
Pi7i
-^
P*
Pi
_f
PiiVj
P5-P9-_
p&
(known)
(3)
\P 11
_j_
T/
Vr)
unknown)
In terms of pu)
puVlb
is
since
W
.
known)
P14F14
(7)
'
+ +F
y + y^ + y
P 5 (F 4
(5)
+ P15F15 dn terms of p n
F4+Fr+Fi5
P15F15
(4)
Vr
(In
15 )
terms of pu)
(8)
P&Vq
Vi
= ~YV
Pw(Vio-{-Vr)
^7
pu =
17
HIT
:
Vr
n
(In terms 01f pu;
.
pu is known)\
PnVn
Pl2=~r^K12
To apply
(9)
nt\\
(10)
.s
n
(11)
these a table
is first
computed
for all
volumes in pro-
as
shown
numbers
if
in Fig. 114.
The
may
Thus
by
the compression
is
to occur at
on the high-pressure cylinder, the diagram for an inconnecting rod would be shown in Fig. 114, with a crank
0.1 stroke
finite
be used.
of 0.5.
its
stroke
The
high-pressure cylinder.
when the
of the stroke
245
when compression
high-pressure piston
occurs in the
is
at the middle
is
at 0.1 stroke
is
150
lbs.
Fig. 114.
Diagram by which to
Call the
(Finite or infinite
and
Vh =
Vi
V
V ch
V
r
cl
p2
V>
=
=
=
=
0.8
0.06
0.05
164.7
60.6
X
X
=
=
Po
(34.5
1.06
0.20
(47.2
0.39
1.06
0.56
= V
= V
3
b
0.16
+pn X
+ 0.8
0.8
Q 5
K
34
'
+
.
A
,Q
- 43
0.20
0.20
4.20
0.20
= 1.00
= 2.00
= V 13
= 1.00
0.8
^ 11
47 2
+ ' 59?>11
+0.59p n 1.36 + 10X0.2
1 36 + 02
=
=
=
=
60.6
0.43^)1.86
0.56
P9
0.06
| =
X 1.06
1.06
P4
= 0.33 + 0.06
=
1.00 + 0.06
V2
7 4 = 0.50 + 0.06
7 6 = 0.10 + 0.06
V = 0.06 = V 8
V 9 = 0.20 = Fib.
Fio = 0.20 X 4 +
7u = 0.45 X 4 +
7 18 = 4 + 0.20 =
V u = 4 X 0.20 +
Vi
'
= QO + nK1>l Pn
-
HEAT ENGINEERING
246
Plb
P6
Pii
Pl1
1.00
(43.2
0.16
22.1
OT36
p8
47.4
P7
46.7
2>i 2
30
Pb
Pi
10
+ 0.514p n 1.56 = UA - 41
Pl1
+
+ 0.8 + 1.00
(34.4 + o.41 Pl Q(1.00 + 0.8)
= 22A + - 264 ^ n
=
2.00 + 0.8
Pl
=
=
=
=
Pio
02"
P6
=
=
P9
64.9
30
46.7
58.7
X jg =
|g
125
14.3
EQUIVALENT
On
WORK DONE
BY ONE CYLINDER
it will
be
if
the intermediate
of expansion, then
it will
and
if
same
total ratio
is
well to note
what
differences occur.
With the
single
is
The
it is of the Stumpf form of cylinder.
would be subject to full high pressure not only
requiring heavy walls for the cylinder but causing the rods, pins
condensation unless
large cylinder
247
and bearings to be excessive. The cut-off on the single card occurs at about one-tenth stroke, while on each of the separate
cards the division of the expansion caused the pressure to be
continued to nearly the middle of the stroke on a smaller area
giving a more gradual curve of turning moment.
On looking at the computations made above it will be seen
that if the receiver volume had been made very large there would
have been little change in the intermediate lines and were the
receiver infinite in volume these lines would be horizontal.
Such
an assumption is usually made in determining the preliminary
relative sizes of the cylinders of a multiple expansion engine and
in addition the effect of clearance and compression are omitted
in this work.
Although in practice the receiver is not more
than 1}^ times the volume of the cylinder which discharges
into it, it is formed at times by the large exhaust pipe between
cylinders.
The size seems to have no effect on the operation.
could be developed
alone
by
The
is
ef
if
Pi
/N
<^h
d'
d"
Pi
^^P
with
infinite receivers,
There
is
and
The
by the
lower cylinders.
cut-off, in
the high-pressure
is
is
known
this
must be on the
line of ex-
HEAT ENGINEERING
248
cylinder.
often
is
made
work
that increasing
of that cylinder.
If
power
of the engine.
=/[|
=
=
=
=
=
(1
-p ]=P
log e R)
clearance factor.
compound and
pumping engine.
0.90 for
m.e.p.
From
and
(12)
diagram factor
pi, pi,
= f[p
may
(l
log e
g) -
p]
triple land.
of expansion is
= P
be found by assuming
2LN and
(13)
finding
Fz.
2PLF N
t
lh -P- =
-3300T
Having
,,..
(14)
of
cd'
ef
r and r
ab
Thus
Fi
ab
= F >i
Fh = F,
(15)
(16)
249
Thus
cd
ab
(17)
Vr
ef
ab
(18)
f-
equal works,
(b)
ture ranges
(a)
= D
Area card
Area
1.
p.
card
= D
Area
1.
p.
card
+ i.p.
= D
Area
areas.
[p r (l
log e
^) - p6 ] = F
[p r (l
log e
p6 ]
(19)
=F
(20)
card
l
Vr (l
+ log, ^) - Vb ] = F
D\vr
(l
F
^
For n stages:
+ log, 2J) -
p]
= F3
may
l[p r
lo
(l
(23)
(24)
(25)
+ log, g) - Pb] =
'
*P "
2
(22)
= -F,
^<
Thus
(21)
(n
*) I
Pr
(l+
log e
j)j
- f\ + \ l0 ^ g +
pb
Vr
Hence
(26)
(27)
HEAT ENGINEERING
250
(6)
R _
is
used
Pi
Vr
R = n x
r = VR
p'>
P"*
m
P2
=
=
=
r2
r3
(31)
rp r
(32)
r 2p r
r mp r
= rV
rp' 2
(33)
-l
(34)
Tl
Th
m
T' 2
= AT
= Tb
T" 2 = Tb
Tm = T
2
(d)
(35)
+ AT
+ 2A7 =
+ mAT
7
(36)
T'%
+ AT
(37)
(38)
is
no necessity
are:
Compound
Dh
engines
Triple expansion
Dh
Di
Di
Di
=
=
2 to
2.5
1
:
6.5
i.e.,
are used.
lbs. absolute.
m.e.p.
0.90 [9.7(l
u
i.h.p.
onnn
2000
n/
X
=
d =
2LN =
3200
sq. in.
Fi
_
L =
64
1 a
1.6
lo ge
^|^) -
33.0
1000
251
2]
XF
33.0
33^
in.
1000
1000
K ., = Aft
= 5ft
60m
.
2^000
Method
(a)
logeP'2
(|
= -
log e
0.53
log e (l89.7
2.73
p'2
15.4.
p" 2
-S-JO+M
3.99
v\ =
52.1
Fi
Fh =
Fl
= 320 X
3200
60.
i9 5
9.7
595; d h
= Vl9^5 = 2.69
= 2.69 X 9.7 = 26.1
2
V" 2 = (2.69) X 9.7 = 70.2
di = 39 in.
d h = 24 in.
r
p' 2
189.7
60.
2020;
28
in.
15.4
(b)
H
9.7 2
)
9.7
+ 4.25
0.26
3.26
= -
ethod
- |y] +
l) [l
di
51
in.
HEAT ENGINEERING
252
Method
(c)
=
T2 =
AT =
7\
377.5
di
dh
457.5
= U0A
T\ = 236.6;
T\ = 347.0;
di = 42 in.
<4 = 17% m.
Method (d)
Assume ratio
80
126.2
p' 2
p" 2
=
=
23.5
129.4.
60.
of 1-2-6.
=
=
45
26
in.
in.
60.
two
253
Method
(a)
is
fix
the relative
size of cylinders.
JACKETING
In these engines the effect of jacketing is not always a source
economy except in small sizes. The gain on a triple expansion engine is probably larger than that found on a compound
of
To
cut
down
The value
is
now
coil
containing high-pressure
dry steam
is
carried
In both jackets and reheaters the apparatus should be thoroughly drained and the supply of steam should be taken to the
apparatus alone. The steam should be hotter than the steam to
be heated. The use of steam on its way to the first cylinder for
HEAT ENGINEERING
254
is
down
radiation.
GOVERNING
The multiple expansion
by changing
changing
it
ratio.
Fig. 116.
changing
Method of governing by
on high
cut-off
pressure
Fig. 117.
on
only.
in the receiver
In the
first
is
governing
cut-off proportionately
each cylinder.
Method of
by changing
is
shown
in Fig. 117.
if
In
the pressure
to remain constant.
V_
Vi
7'i
method the
V2_
from a to
a'
it
will
255
is
With small
fluctuations either
down
it will
not be
method
is
The method
good.
of
high pressure about the same while the method of Fig. 117
affects all in the
Throttling would be
in the receiver
off
first
Fig.
119.
Governing
throttling.
by
stroke.
less,
there
the reduction
is
little
HEAT ENGINEERING
256
pressure steam
many
where
its
by passing
available energy
desired temperature
it should be brought
through an engine or turbine
may
it
be
and pressure
utilized.
may
steam
this
be used. If
connected to a
made to take off
is
is
Fig. 1 2 Combined
cards from a compound
engine with steam removed
from receiver. Cylinders
of equal sizes.
shown
p
Fig.
^
The volume a has
1on
120.
sumed
cylinder in this case.
If
no steam
is
line.
REGENERATIVE ENGINES
The preceding
entering
the
boiler.
Steam
water
p^
To
it is
shown
in Fig.
121.
The
257
steam from the feed heaters is pumped into the feed. Of course
be done. The expansion is assumed adiabatic in
theory and 1 lb. of steam will be assumed on the lower card.
The pressures are p h p 2 pz, Pa and p
Heat to raise 1 lb. of water from t to tz = q z q
this should
Amount of steam
=
#3?*3
Amount
Amount
from U to
of
of
t2
x2 r 2
Amount of steam on first card
= Mi
= 1 +
+M
lbs. of
water
M + M
+ M + M lbs. of water from to =
(1+ M2 -^M )(q -q
Heat to vaporize (1 + M + M lbs. = (1 + M + M Xin
= Qi
Total heat from outside = (1 + M + M^Ih - q
Work done on cycles = (1 + M + ikf i)U'i - i + (1 + M
Hi - u] + 1{U' - u] + A(p - Vo)vi\ = AW
Heat
to raise
x)
2]
2]
2)
Efficiency
is
2)
This
ti
2)
t2
>
compared with
1 lb. of
steam from
AW
-yy
same weight
in each
cylinder.
Efficiency
= h -h
A(p.
p.)v<
(39)
is shown.
Let this be applied to a compound engine working between
150 lbs. absolute and 2 lbs. absolute with original dry steam
and a receiver pressure of 45 lbs. absolute and a pressure at release in the low of 8 lbs. absolute.
=
=
h =
v3 =
x ii
1192.6
i2
1100.0
987.0
39.9
0.92
243.7-94.2
=
Ma =
0.92X927.5
17
=
=
q
q' 3 =
q\ =
=
r2
-
176
q\
330.0
243.7
150.9
94.2
927.5
HEAT ENGINEERING
258
Heat = 1.176[1192.6
243.7]
Work =
1100]
(8
1.176[1192.6
1113
l{ll00
987
144
778
2)39.9}
108.7
157.4
266.1
Theoretical
eff.
1113
266.1
0.236
144
[1192.6-987+^(6X39.9)]
Theoretical eff. of ordinary cycle
=
1192.6
250.0
1098.4
94.2
0.228
LP.304b.sp.
60x66
Fig. 122.
Individual
test of
pumping
engine.
is
pressure cylinder.
9
8
pump
259
Size of cylinders.
Steam
Water
30
in.,
33
in.
60 in. 90
66 in.
in.,
66
in:
Pressures by gauge
Steam supply
1st Receiver
2d Receiver
Condenser
180. 2
lbs.
per sq.
in.
25.4
9.5
lbs.
per sq.
in.
in.
26 7
in.
86 9
14.86
lbs.
per sq.
in.
lbs.
per sq.
in.
Water discharge
Barometer
Revolution in 24 hr
Displacement per revolution.
Temperatures.
Return from condenser
28,989
732
gal.
113 F.
40 F.
Water pumped
Water leaving condenser
40 F.
70 F.
Outside air
30 F.
Condensing water
Quality of steam
Water pumped
vacuum
vacuum
989
9,266 lbs.
196
135 lbs.
58
lbs.
lbs.
8,877 lbs.
661
lbs.
422
lbs.
361
lbs.
High pressure
332 02
Intermediate
269. 10
Low
260 22
pressure
861.34
Total
Water end
Delivered horse-power
839
822
193 04 B.t.u.
Duty
per 1000
lbs.
10 37
.
lbs.
dry steam
181,000,000
these engines
is
not
all
at the temperature of
HEAT ENGINEERING
260
by the main
engine,
and
engine
Hence if
pounds of steam are used
and m r are the amounts used in
the amount of heat chargeable to the
m,-
is
Qi
In this
= (M
q'j
and
m,-
+ m )ii Mq
r
m^qj
mq
r
'r
q' r
(40)
and
reheater.
The
efficiency
nOW
AW
" (M
77
is
7]
+ mj + m ){i-q'
r
m)
)
AW
+ m r^ Mq
Tjr-,
(M +
-
/7l/f
-,
m,jq
r) i
rrij
(42)
Qc
= Qr~
first
Q2
Qb
(43)
Qa)
cylinder
is
AU + AW - Q
Qi-Q - A(W + W + W + W
Q 2 = AU* or
(Qa
= Q2
Qh -
Qi
(44)
d)
(45)
is
(46)
is
is
Qh
or
Q r = M(i -
(47)
261
a similar procedure
and
= M(i -
Qi
If
an engine
is
jacketed there
Qr
and
Qa
Qb
is
Q =
c
Q = Q
2
Q,
(48)
new term
Qc
Then
q')
+
c
is
Qd
in
(49)
Q,
given by
- (Qa + Q + Qd + Qi)
- Q - A(Wa + W + W +
Qr
(50)
d)
(51)
BINARY ENGINES
Another method of utilizing the waste heat and avoiding the
waste due to free expansion on account of the great volume of
low-pressure steam is to use the exhaust to volatilize a liquid,
such as sulphur dioxide, which has a much higher saturation
pressure than steam.
In this way the same limits of temperature
may be
steam engines.
HEAT ENGINEERING
262
The reason
is found in the
on a large cylinder
These
or the effect of free expansion have been eliminated.
The range of temperaare practical reasons and not theoretical.
ture has not been increased but the pressure and volume limits
have been so changed that these engines have a high practical effi-
ciency,
TJi.
Josse has installed the engines commercially and has found that
they are valuable provided a high load factor can be had. For
an intermittent load or for use at intervals the engine is too
expensive.
TOPICS
Topic
1.
What
is
Explain
how
Why
is constructed.
the difference between the Woolf and the receiver compound
engines?
Topic 2. Sketch the combined cards for a Woolf compound engine. Write
the formulae by which the pressures at the various points may be computed.
Explain why
VaVa
+PvVv
;
Va
+V
Vr.
^
PaVa+
Va
Topic
4.
Explain why
it
may
PvVv
+V
_ p
the low-pressure
does the
the size of the high-pressure
size of
On what
cylinder
Knowing the
pressures,
found assuming
(a)
this effect.
Topic
9.
Explain what
is
263
or turbines
and why
is
of value.
Topic 10.
of the lower
may be
sent
PROBLEMS
Problem
for a
and with 8 per cent, clearance on the high-pressure cylinder and 4 per cent,
on the low.
Initial gauge pressure is 125 lbs. and the back pressure is 2
lbs. absolute.
Cut-off is 25 per cent, and compression is at 20 per cent, of
the stroke from the end. Cranks at right angles.
Problem 2. Construct the combined cards for Problem 1 to scales of 1 in.
= 30 lbs. and 1 in. = 0.435 cu. ft. Find the m.e.p. of each card. Construct
the h.p. card to scales of 1 in. = 60 lbs. and 1 in. = 0.1745 cu. ft. and the
l.p. card to scales of 1 in. = 20 lbs. and 1 in. = 0.884 cu. ft.
Find the
scale of B.t.u. per square inch of area of card, and of ft.-lbs. per square inch
of card.
Find the h.p. of the engine.
Problem 3. Find the equivalent m.e.p. to be expected in Problem 1 if
the complete ratio of expansion is 10. What is the size of the low-pressure
cylinder to develop 350 i.h.p.?
Problem 4. Find the size of the low-pressure cylinder of a compound
Corliss engine to drive a 2000-kw. generator.
The initial pressure is 160
lbs. gauge, the back pressure is 3 lbs. absolute, and the pressure at end of
expansion in the low-pressure cylinder is 4 lbs. gauge. Find the size of the
high-pressure cylinder by four methods.
Problem 5. Find the receiver pressures for a triple expansion engine
operating between 175 lbs. gauge and 2 lbs. absolute, with a complete ratio
of expansion of 22.
absolute.
Problem
7.
Find the sizes of cylinders to be used with a compound engine
developing 1000 h.p. if the steam consumption of the engine is 15 lbs. per
1 h.p.-hr. when 30 per cent, of the steam is removed from the receiver and
the engines develop equal works. The limits of pressure are 150 lbs. gauge
65
lbs.;
12 lbs.
second receiver, 5
lbs.;
end of expansion,
lbs.;
back pressure,
HEAT ENGINEERING
264
Problem
mission
is
15 F.
CHAPTER
VII
w2 =
\/2gJ(i!
i2 )
-k
223.7\A'i
C1)
in kinetic energy.
If y{i x
i 2 ) is
the
amount
of energy used in
energy
amount
left for
is
(ti-(l -y)
(2)
w2 =
when
if i is
so small that
v>2
when Wi
223.7 Vfe
is
preciable as
/iii
*"
2 )(1
If
w\
is
(3)
y)
be neglected or
= 223.7^-^(1
appreciable.
A
^ may
-V)+^f
200
ft.
per second
it
is
4)
inap-
is
term
of the bracket
may
HEAT ENGINEERING
266
By
shorter tubes.
by
wx =
and
lb.
the area
(5)
ix)
of
may
F
The
223.7\/(ii
Ml^
wx
"*
= Mxv =
wx
per second
"iM.
(6)
tabulated below.
Nozzle Data
Heat
Specific
content
volume
75.4
0.987
0.972
0.953
1193.3
1178.3
1161.0
1138.8
3.04
3:55
4.30
5.51
50.0
24.97
14.99
4.97
0.929
0.894
0.872
0.830
1108.1
1059.3
1026.0
959.9
7.91
14.58
22.91
61.20
Pressure
absolute
149.1
124.4
100.2
Quality
0.4 sup.
The diagram
sq. in.
Diam.,
meters
865
1270
1640
0.592
0.487
0.484
0.87
0.79
0.78
2060
2590
2890
3410
0.554
0.810
1.140
2.580
0.84
1.02
1.20
1.81
Velocity
Area,
specific
267
It will
x.
this the
volume makes
of specific
it
necessary
150
o
^J'e Pnil
r^as
.
75
I*
^Sq
to.
3000
2000
VeV> Uyj^
t.-f
et
,eco^
Lh
1000
1 20
15.0
"?
10.0
A^ (>
Spec .&c^j
"
5.0
1.5
1.0
\\
/
A ~nea_ -Fass age
0.5
^'S
d.^
^J
S 0.75
*0.5
Radii of
Nc zzlel*^
0.25
Length
Fig. 123.
Curves
This
critical
jrjn-i pi
(2
\
when
Whenever p 2
minimum
is less
point
is
than
1.135.
(7)
Such a tube
is
must
be'
spoken of as a
HEAT ENGINEERING
268
end
is
known
is
known
On
as the mouth.
to the throat
made about
of the section
shown
and
At various
in Fig. 124,
to carry
w =
2
F =
223.7\A*i
The
-k
(1)
x 2 v"2
(6)
w2
position on the curve of area for this value will fix the posi-
tion of the
assumed pressure.
is
obtained.
The
following table
lbs.
pressure.
160.8
Pres-
121.1
90.9
50.0
30.35
20.02
14.7
10.17
sure
i\
U
w
X 2 V" 2
Area
-f-
1191.2
1191.2
ii
ii
ia3
At 0.57
By
ft.
70
160.8
X1
=
X 144
0.00302 sq.
ft.
This
known
as overexpansion
lbs.
pressure.
will
is
than the
loss
It
means a
loss in efficiency.
due to underexpansion as
This
be
will
seen later.
269
w2 =
F =
2
ii){i
223.7\/ft
of nozzle in the
formula
(6)
(4)
(6)
same manner
is
T abe
may
form
-y)
or
No zzle
Secti on
0.0010
0.005
*5
V- ^"
150
100
50
^2^e
Fig. 124.
column or
line as that
on which
i\
is i 2
in this case
HEAT ENGINEERING
270
end.
Holes were bored into this around the circumference at
one point in the length. In place of being normal to the tube or
There were
at right angles to the axis they were inclined at 45.
two tubes, one with the holes inclined in the direction of flow
Fig. 125.
of flow.
The
The mean
it in the other.
In addition normal holes were introduced into
end
of y
of the nozzle
was a
showed that
The
271
nozzle showing that with the conical nozzle there was pressure
If
there were
no wall
100 lbs.
Stodola's exploration
curves for nozzles.
Fig. 126.
Fig. 127.
Stodola's exploration
curves for
orifices.
is
have an acceleration
only another
way
axially.
This cen-
HEAT ENGINEERING
272
is
an
Riemann's Theory
illustration of
although
it
is
practically constant
With a sharp-edged
orifice
orifice.
made
although here the pressure at the outer plane of the orifice seemed
to be the critical pressure. The crossing of the pressure lines at
the mouth of the orifice means that the velocity at this point is
the same whatever be the outer pressure, hence the quantity
discharged will be the same whatever the lower pressure is, pro-
IP
m
gjjl^
mm
Fig. 128.
vided
Mouthpiece or
it is less
than the
orifice.
Fig.
critical pressure.
129.
Rateau's
Above
The
ms
orifices.
greater and
p2
is
273
On account of the
it may be
well to stop the curves at points earlier than the section with the
a nozzle.
The
velocity
or the throat
illustrated
of the orifice
will
per second
0.9966 into a
The
absolute.
vacuum
of
20".
be best
of
steam
quality
lbs.
p2
<
sec.
per sec.
v m is
im
found on the
equal to 953.1
64.0 at
18
1.617.
but at a value of
This is found to be
HEAT ENGINEERING
274
10X4.60 = AnQ1
F = [zqi
- 031
_,
^ = ^^ =
Moyer states
that
s q- ft
0.202 sq.ft.
F =Fi [0.172^
2
0.70]
(8)
Applying this
F =
2
0.031
[o.172^~
0.70]
0.195 sq.
ft.
This rule would therefore make the nozzle with slight underexpansion and the effect of this would be to reduce the velocity
by the percentage shown by curve of Fig. 130 given by Moyer in
his
Steam Turbines.
|_5
>-
-0-3
o
-5-1
PL,
20
25
%
Fig. 130.
of
10
15
10
Under Expansion
oi
loss
15
25
20
30
Over Expansion
due to variation
in area of
mouth.
202
195
or 33^ per cent.
202
The
effect of this is to
puted velocity.
With a
the pressure p 2
show that
this is
is
is
no support
results.
above the
critical
made 3d 2
it
at the end.
is
If
275
In this case
is
friction factor of 4 or
w2 =
v for
223.7\/(1191.1
121.1 lb.
and
__
F =
2
1168.1)0.96
(1168.1
10 X
jggg
3.605
0.92)
_._
= nn
0.0343
how much
less
p2
is
than 0.57pi.
is
This method
All that
is
used regardless
meant is that the
is
This
is
INJECTORS
The
injector.
by
jets.
Giffard's injector
was
intro-
HEAT ENGINEERING
276
the entrainment of air by the steam jet gradually sucks the air
from
feed pipe 0.
The function
of the
steam nozzle C is to lift the water to the insteam nozzle P is to give sufficient steam
Fig. 131.
to
mix with
this
Seller's
improved
self-acting injector.
is
The
and change
The
valve
opening inward
is
pressure in
by a
caused by too
much water
overflow L.
steam is shown
Thus the tube C will
for the
and I care
for a deficiency
277
is
known as a restarting
The important parts
self-acting injector.
steam nozzle,
result of
be discussed
first.
treatise,
and The-
of
135-
~\
120-
105-
90-
Critical Pressure
75Mouth
60-
45-
30-
Atmosphere
V'-^-
Steam Nozzle
Fig. 132.
Discharge from nozzles
showing action of steam, according to
Fig.
133.
CombiningTube
Exploration
curve of
Kneass.
Kneass.
ent forms.
orifice
although this is not so great as that in the discharge from a diaphragm in a mouthpiece. In this there are a
disturbance,
great
is
it is
practically
HEAT ENGINEERING
278
The enlargement
in the first two jets is due to pressteam while in the last two cases this
pressure has been utilized in driving the steam forward so that by
the time the end of the nozzle is reached the pressure has been
utilized.
These indicate the form best suited for the purpose.
To study what takes place in the injector he then explored the
center of a nozzle and combining tube in the manner described
before and obtained the pressure curve shown in Fig. 133. In
this it is seen that the converging part is rather longer than has
been described but the critical pressure is seen to occur at the
throat.
It will be observed that the end of the orifice is reached
before the pressure is reduced to atmospheric pressure but this continues to fall to a lower point and in the combining tube there is a
strong vacuum, which is gradually decreased, reaching atmospheric
pressure before the throat of the delivery tube is reached.
With
no water present the steam pressure, marked by the dotted line,
shows a drop below atmospheric pressure and then a rise. These
two curves show that the condensing effect of the water is felt
but this does not seem to change the pressure curve within the
steam nozzle as the curves agree almost exactly.
eliminated.
sure which
still
exists in the
of
one with a
is
The
areas
w = 223. 7 i^Jt
w m = 223.7V\i - iatm )(l - 0.10)
w = 223.7V\ii - H>(1 ~ 0.10)
iatm heat content at atmospheric
t
(9)
(10)
(11)
same
it
on
line as i\
heat content at 4
same
pressure
lbs.
absolute pressure on
line as i\
WATER VELOCITIES
The water
enters the
friction
head
is
279
equal
true:
=-(1
From
+ 2) =
2.30(pi
Vc)
- M
34.0
this
(12)
c)
=
=
hi
34
Now
in
pc
atmosphere
lbs.
lift
in feet
feet
wm
-t>
2g
2
.
p c 144
2
b
t>
2g
P&144
h losses
M(-_S iuh^
to,
(l3)
==
nib =
m =
w
pb
pc
m =
c
m =
b
=
nib is
0.80
X m
t.
(14)
F.
HEAT ENGINEERING
280
momenta
is
and
obtained.
The underlying
The sum
(11), (12)
is
before impact
is
equal to the
momentum
is
in
many
directions
of 0.5 will
1 lb. of
0.5|> c
This
is
zw w
(1
z)w m
lifted
by
(15)
Steam on account
of 140
ft.
per second.
There
is
ww and wm
mixture.
ix
z(q'w
^f)
(1
x) (q' m
^~f)
losses (16)
pound
of
281
steam
is i\
it
plus the kinetic energy and the same is true for the discharge.
These energies are figured above water at 32 F. as a datum plane.
The terms representing the kinetic energy are so small that they
may
From
(16) q' m is
zq' w
(1
(16a)
z)q'm
cu.
ft.
of water.
If this
STEAM WEIGHT
Having
boiler feed
3600s
sec.
STEAM NOZZLE
Knowing the weight
and mouth
of the
F =
Having the areas
is
found by making
(5)
in 6.
COMBINING TUBE
The combining tube is to be designed in the next step. The
form of this tube is mainly the result of experiment. The water
must be sustained as it is struck by the steam and condensed
steam. The form is a gradually converging tube which is made
of a length of about 18 or 20 times the diameter at the throat
of the delivery tube.
The end should be slightly rounded and
HEAT ENGINEERING
282
water with a velocity due to the pressure at this point which would
probably be about one-half the velocity of the water at the
point of lowest pressure.
DELIVERY TUBE
The
delivery tube
is
The throat
next designed.
is
designed to
wm
sumed
is
as-
the overflow.
-M*^)+*
w' d
The area
(l7)
given by
is
(18)
3600
m m Aw'
This area
Fd
A =
relative density
of the
combining tube
fixes
0.8
the
number
of the
injector as
Ft
three.
The shape
"
^J
_._^
_..Length_.
^_._
Fig.
in various forms.
It
to
is
made
eration
is
to be reduced
is
given by
w'd
time
w' d
length
wd
Wb
w'd 2
2
b
2 length
(19)
velocity at
_ w'j - w b 2
404
The
is
283
any point
(20)
at distance x
is
404
2x
204 L
\w'J
w'i
UdA
w
But
(21)
\rdl_J
Hence
do;
w/ 6 about 140
ft.
V
Now in general w
wvJ
'204L
will
w' d V204
be equal to about 4
per
v second so that
r^ =
w' d
ft.
This
twf^-
1200
is
negli-
Hence
gible.
dx
(22)
X
<l>
The
solution of this
is
204
X
1
12
16
1.254
1.496
19
19.75
57
dx
1.013 1.027 1.040 1.058 1.138
2.118
3.00
dt
DENSITY
HEAT ENGINEERING
284
If
If for
give the
into the
at the throat
is
0.00054 sq.
ft.
lbs.
gauge pressure
may be
the density
found thus:
The weight of 1 cu. ft. of water at 148 F. is 61.22 lbs.
the head corresponding to 160 lbs. with a density of A is
160 X 144
61.22A
Hence
376.6
^ = 8.02^=.^a/a
155.7
Weight discharged
16,600
UK7
-^j=-
0.00054
3600
61.22A
IMPACT COEFFICIENT
The value
of k could be
worked out
after
knowing A and
find-
determined experimentally.
This has been done and the values found vary from 0.25 to 0.60.
if
is
INJECTOR DETAILS
The value
Fig. 131
The first jet lifts the water and forces it into the second nozzle to
be driven into the boiler. A lifting injector is one which will lift
its supply and drive it while a non -lifting injector is one which will
only force water. In injector testing the term maximum capacity
means the greatest quantity of water which could be sent through
the injector with a given steam pressure and temperature of feed,
while the minimum capacity is the least that will be discharged
without waste.
flowing temperature
is
285
maximum
capacity.
The over-
ft.
p = 0.57
164.8
93.8
c
t
w = 8cno
- 2
n
351.0
[1
1160.8
0.072
=
=
mm =
t,
is
of
m mA
1lrK K ,.
175 - 5 ft
Per SGC
(1
of 60
"
20.1
20
778
323
X 6^4
q' m
The value
220.1)
64^
sec.
2)175.5
3310-351.0
36A
60X0.8
1/2(3310
as this
/(164.8- 4)144,
2i
' y0
9 95
-
9.95g' m
17^
^ 2 ~\
X
l/ + 778 H4A
6.17
148.5
180 F.
61.0
0.8 will not
will
have to be changed
warrant.
It will
be seen
HEAT ENGINEERING
286
that the expressions for the kinetic energies are so small that
they
may
be omitted.
42
(164.8-14.7)144
:.02^<
Mass
of
Mass
Mass
of
of
steam per
sec.
x
dx
0.202
m_
0.8
= a000224
X
^o^r
67
/-
No.
144
n
- 202 ln
0.314
mm
in.
as follows:
The
is
3.8 in.
is
shown
ft '
0.60 in.
is
5.
The
The
The
This
.,
* 00155 scl- ft *
3.
=
=
,0.000224
/0.0002!
Fig. 135.
The
ft.
0.000224
size is therefore
=
=
m
0.000543 sq.
0.000543
between 2 and
61
0.187 lbs.
1.66 lbs.
169.6
2760
F- =
F _
Fd
The
lbs.
_,
'
[4 q 5
0.187 X 22.86
Fm =
dd
4 34
,18
n.
o.yo
is
w
X
og . A
oolMJ
F =
This
= ,
169 6
--6Ti
61X0.8
in Fig. 135.
18
=
=
0.202
2J
0.78
in.
=
=
3.7 in.
0.314
0.312
1.25 in.
287
STEAM TURBINES
operated by the force exerted when a
moving blades. If a jet of a certain
cross-section, discharging m lbs. of steam per second at a velocity
The steam
steam
turbine
is
IV r
(24)
At
if it is
this
assumed that
fluid
the
During
^
vJ
jet
there
strikes this
vane
(if
Fig. 136.
desired At
jet
of
per second).
is
given by the
general formula
P = ma
mAt
(25)
wb
At
= m(wa w
b)
m(w a w p
P =
If
is
made
(26)
mw a
P =
In this latter case there
is
(27)
is sta-
HEAT ENGINEERING
288
the
jet.
changed;
its
velocity in
all
Fig. 138.
Actual and relative
velocities of the stream over a moving blade. Entrance and exit triangles.
Fig. 137.
Jet impinging on vane at
angle with path of motion.
In equation (26) the numerator represents the change of vemotion of the blade. If the plane of
movement
moving blade
wa is
is
(W a COS a
Wb)
(28)
in velocity in the
direction of motion as
shown
in Fig. 138,
would be
wa
cos a
w' a cos a
P = {w a
cos
wa
cos
a)
(29)
289
does not equal w' a and there is a relation between these and the
angles of the nozzles and blades if the best conditions prevail.
If
wa
is
is
of
the angle
(3
if the blade is to
should be tangent
conducted over the blade
to this direction.
now
If
the stream
is
it
j8
at the angle
a.
Work = P X distance
Distance = w X At
(30)
(31)
TYl
Work = (wa
M
Workfor M
cos
mAt =
but
.*.
lbs.
wa
M
(w
cos
a) iw b
cos a
cos
-M
w
aw b and
At)
w' a cos
M
w
cos
is
(32)
a)w b
the
(33)
amount per
wb
its
HEAT ENGINEERING
290
In other words the reaction of the discharge jet at exit mulby the velocity of the blade subtracted from the impulse
of the jet at entrance multiplied by the velocity of the blade at
entrance is equal to the work per second.
tiplied
turbine
work =
M
[w w
b
cos
In this case
(34)
Velocity of Whirl
Entrance
%
r
180
\B
^f a
S \ix
,,
w6
'
Wh
\Zw'r \w a
-w
'
_il
_>j
i
Fig. 139.
ities
Fig. 140.
'^Velocity ofWhirl
I
Exit
Triangles
at entrance
of flow
and discharge.
w' b
(w a cos a
w' a cos
a)wb
(35)
if
a.
In
all
is
point toward or
The
If
This
minus.
is
is
shown
clearly
by the value
of
measured from
291
r.
friction
W =
r
W' r
w' r
= ^2g[j(n -
+ ||[1 -
i 2)
(36)
y]
friction.
tached above.
For impulse turbines with friction
V)' r
Now
= W \/l
r
= fw
(37)
Vl^
r
.
(37
The curves
tan p
" <**
WaCOSa:
<*
Wb
(38)
HEAT ENGINEERING
292
W =
w a sm a
(39)
sin
w b = wa
W' r
W' a
sin
W' r COS
Thus
if
wa
q:'
/3
and
a,
cos
= W -\/l
= \^w'
w'r sin
= W
j8'
w
y
COS
= fw
(40)
(3
(41)
+ Wb + 2WbW'
2
COS
is
close
enough
in
(42)
/5
(43)
a
COS c/
(40')
there
is
to be no shock
/3'
and the
graphical
0.40
0.30
s/
s
S0.20
0.10
Fig. 141.
2500
2000
1000
1500
Velocity Relati-ve to Blade
500
above
equations.
and
a
y
[a~ (~b)]
c(a
Hence
to the scale of
is
6)
(44)
in the steam, as
it
is
(45)
2g
since d represents the velocity of the jet leaving the nozzle.
efficiency of application of this jet to the blade is
is
293
The
spoken of as
equal to
2c(a
b)
(46)
T)k
cP
known
as this
A\
Fig. 143.
MAXIMUM
wb
Triangles with
plement of
let
/3.
EFFICIENCY
or c of Fig. 143
work =
is
[w
Wb,
W' a COS a
work =
[w
cos
/3
cos a
=
cos
w' a cos a]
W' r COS
cos
$'
(w' r cos
V)
(35)
(40')
Wb
/3'
+w
fw r
b )]
(41)
HEAT ENGINEERING
294
[w
work =
Hence
cos a
+ fw
(3
= wa
cos
cos
/3
b]
where
Now
W
work =
Hence
COS
[(1
is
b,
first
COS a
cos
maximum
2w b
(48)
Fig.
and with
is
derivative to zero.
friction.
for
(47)
+ /[W
No
Triangles of discharge
a.
(40)
+f){wa cos a w b }]
wb = ybwa
Fig.
d work
dwi
Fig. 144.
maximum
b.
Friction.
efficiency
without friction
friction.
there
is
perpendicular as
is
be a discharge at an angle to
and b. The work in
shown
in Fig. 144, a
4 Wa 2
this
this
case becomes:
work =
ri
COS 2 a
2
2
Ji Wa COS
a]
(i+/)
4?
The
kinetic efficiency
wa 2
cos 2 a
(49)
is
work
(1+/)
COS z a
(50)
2?
no
friction
rj k
The
fixed
and
becomes
this
cos 2
295
(51)
that in which
is
(3
and
$'
are
Now
cos
j8
Work =
(w
cos
(w
cos
|8
w (cos
/ cos
j8'
is
(3
w' a cos a)
+w
b
-fcos
w' r cos
(35)
ft
b)
(52)
ft)
quantities.
The
**
2w b w
~
=_ work _
~wJ~
/ cos ft')
w?
(cos g
(53)
2<7
wa 2 = wb 2
**
or calling 2 (cos
~
(3
+w +
2
2w bw r
cos
(42')
/3
'
/ cos
Vk
/?')
/c
and
= R
(55)
2 cos/3
cos
+|+
(i2
# = 1
E = +
2 cos
|8
.'.
at entrance
w = w
r
is
(56)
isosceles.
= 2a
Hence the work becomes:
work =
(cos
jS
/ cos
/?')
HEAT ENGINEERING
296
wa sin
Now
sin
Wa
work -
Hence
4 cos
Since
(COS
2(1
=
cos/3
3^(1+
cos
180
cos 2
/3')
(57)
cos
/3'
and / =
/ cos
COS
_
jS)
jS')
a
cos /3
cos/3)
/3
"
/ COS
(3
1
(cos
for
2 cos a
2g
a=
wa
2a
/3
1.//Q
^2P
=
=
tan 2 a
(58)
/3
sidered.
wa
From
(52)
^- (cos
r
work =
/ cos
(52)
/3')
In this w b /3, / and (3' are known and hence the maximum
work would occur when w r is as large as it can be made. Since
,
Vk
/cos/3')
2w b w r (cos/3
= work
1
Wa
* Wa 2
Wa 2
(59)
ig
Now
wa = wb
2
'
This
is
2
r
2w bw r
cos
/3
(420
(590
kw r
Vk
...
...
maximum when
-.
0; or
k(w b 2
2
r
2w 6 w r
w
or the triangle at entrance
This
fixes
wa by
= w6
2
r
= k(2w
2
r
2t0&w r cos
/3
(60)
isosceles.
is
w a = 2w
w (l
wa =
2
or
cos 0)
(1
cos
cos
jS)
w^
cos }i
jS
/3
),
,
(61)
is
in reality the
for a fixed
for a fixed
w and
b
same proof
297
is
isosceles giving
if
wa
be the most
efficient.
The
the turbine blade must travel at one -half the velocity of whirl,
whether there be
friction or not,
and that
obtained
when
if
wa
the angles
fixed or
/3
and
ft
fixed is
whether there be
is isosceles.
This holds
In the first case without fricbe perpendicular to the movement of the
friction or not.
blade while in
If,
Fig. 145.
Velocity compounding.
In the above figures it has been seen that when the steam is
used on one blade the velocity of this blade has to be equal to
if
is
fixed
and
/3
this
HEAT ENGINEERING
298
The
0i
=
=
combined
180
180
work
- a
in Fig. 146, in
which
ff
/3\
is:
+6+
ai
6i
A\
Fig. 146.
Combined
The
in a turbine
with velocity
efficiency is:
work
2c(a
+b+
a\
6i)
(62)
Fig. 147.
The value of w b
to
make this
or the
efficiency.
work a maximum
is
desired.
been shown that the last stage to give a maximum result should have a velocity of blade equal to one-half the velocity
of whirl and hence the figure to give the best result should be in the
form shown in Fig. 147, in which c is one-half of the velocity of whirl
It has
To
fit
299
value of
a of the diagram, continue the lines until they intersect the lower
The
line.
first
slanting line
intercept
is
c.
= fw
r.
"
c
is
since the
7,
From
similar
triangles
lower intercept
or
__
Wr_
~ fwr
intercept
=
7
The second
The
fourth intercept
is
Construction
Hence
2i
Fig. 148.
Kj Kj
is
2 5
(^ j or
same manner
+ / + 7J
(63)
determination of
for
for
multistaying with
friction.
If
To
+ /+?+
/W
(64)
.]
any
dis-
tance 12, Fig. 148, which is called c; at right angles lay off the
distance 13 equal to unity to any scale and 34 equal to /to
this scale.
Draw an
indefinite line
from 4
parallel to
12, pro-
HEA T- ENGINEERING
300
ject 2
on
Project 5 to
Hence
[(1
5',
draw 3 5'
2)
(1
5)
(1
1-5
16
and
to 6
5.
the distance
is
c
is
equal to
(1
6)]
j2
cfl+J + J]
from 3 to 6 "'and line 3 7 is laid off equal
If 7 and the last 6'" are joined and
to a, the velocity of whirl.
2" 8 is drawn parallel to '" 7 the distance 3 8 will be
equal to the correct distance c for Fig. 146. This same construction can be used for any number of stages.
To make use of the same angle of inlet into the various steps,
the angle a of the second fixed blade is changed from the value
These are
laid off
Fig. 149.
180
Diagram
This
el to a.
is
in
which
Friction on blades.
a\
in Fig. 149
made
is
various kinetic
efficiencies
for
these
where
way
made
The
In this
arrangements of blades
Fig. 144a
7j k
Fig. 1446
T] k
Fig. 147
rjk
Fig. 149
7] Jc
=
=
=
=
81 per cent.
78 per cent.
73 per cent.
84 per cent.
second
is:
P =
Without
- [w a sin a
301
(65)
If,
axial pressure.
The
simplest turbine
is
the DeLaval
Fig. 151.
Fig. 150.
Fig. 151.
Fig. 150.
Sections of
The
now be examined.
turbine.
rotor.
of pressure
and
velocity.
This is an
Fig. 150 shows a section of the DeLaval turbine.
impulse turbine in which velocity is generated in a single set of
nozzles
on one
number
set of blades.
To
increase the
velocity
power
of
is
utilized
the machine a
is
The
as large as possible.
The
which
is
is
in
a
very
proportional to cos
to
HEAT ENGINEERING
302
wa
great.
is
is
from 150.1
equal to 3820
lbs.
Wh=z
y2X o.9
3820
1719
ft.
per sec.
This would mean 16,400 r.p.m. for a radius to the blades of 1 ft.
The pressure drop for the axial distances of nozzle and blade and
the absolute velocity changes are shown in Fig. 151. This figure
gives a section through the axis and one parallel to the axis through
the blades and nozzle.
The Curtis turbine is shown in Fig. 152. In this steam enters
the nozzle at A and is discharged against moving vanes. The
Fig. 152.
to another set of
better
shown
is
in Fig. 153 in
by
shown
303
side
Pressure
Section
Perpendicular
to Radius
through
Blades
Fig. 153.
HEAT ENGINEERING
304
discs to insure the
of
one stage.
Axial Length
Section
Perpendicular
to
Radius
through
Blades
Fig. 154.
Sections
of
of pressure
and
velocity.
all
of these the
steam
is
cumference covered
steam.
The
is
305
falls
cir-
The Parsons
moving
blades.
shown
This
is
of the
steam as
it
called lead.
and diagrammatically
admitted around the complete
circumference to a set of fixed blades. These discharge on the
movable set and these in turn to a fixed set from which the action
is repeated.
In each of these sets of fixed or movable blades
there is a pressure drop on all blades and hence this type will be
in Fig.
156.
turbine
is
In this steam
in Fig. 155
is
Fig. 155.
Parsons turbine.
is
balanced by connecting
balancing drums of proper area to the proper parts of the turbine and connecting the back of the last drum -to the space lead-
A thrust bearing is used to ensure alignment. In the type of turbine shown in Fig. 155 a double flow
arrangement through the center A balances most of the thrust.
To make the turbine more efficient the Curtis element C has been
used for the first reception of the steam. The high-pressure
steam is discharged from nozzles attached to the steam chest
B. The steam from the movable blades C then passes to the
ing to the condenser.
fixed
This rep-
HEAT ENGINEERING
306
turbine.
of the ordinary
Absolute
Telocity
Axial Length
Fig. 156.
Sections
of
la
zJ
i 1
\
\
jj
jf
J,
jj
Section
Perpendicular
to Ka'dius
through
Blades
the same shaft in which the steam passes to right and left, may
exist and for that reason a small thrust bearing is used to ensure
alignment.
The
space which
is
air
307
steam stuffing box. Fig. 156 shows how the pressure drops on both movable and fixed blades although the
absolute velocity decreases over the movable blade. The
decrease of absolute velocity would have been greater on the
movable blade were there no drop of pressure here.
The great disadvantage of the DeLaval turbine is the high
blade speed and the resulting complications. For structural
reasons the maximum output of this type is limited to about
300 kw. The absence of packing and the simplicity of the
machine do not make up for this great disadvantage. Between
the reaction and the other impulse turbines there are advantages
on both sides. The reaction turbines are very inefficient on the
high-pressure stages, due to the leakage at the ends of the short
blades; while in the impulse turbine packing around the shaft
between the discs separating the stages is necessary. The combination turbine used by the Westinghouse Company in their
use of a Curtis impulse stage for the first utilization of the steam
and then the use of the reaction blading after a reduction of
pressure has been made to combine the advantages of each type.
some form
of
EFFICIENCY
z'i
q'
may
of the turbine
be computed.
_
~
Q'i
1*2)
(1
is
i 2 )(l
ii
y)
q'o
if
Vn
qx
+ #2 +
:
ii
The kinetic
and
is
efficiency
is
#3
-,
by a
series of
diagrams
equal to
2c(a
_
*--
+b+
a'
+ b' +
-52-
.)
These quantities may be found graphically or computed analydrawing such a figure as Fig. 147. The use of
tically after
HEAT ENGINEERING
308
work
in
The
to
may amount
loss
per cent, of the heat supplied and the loss due to leakage
varies from 1 per cent, in the case of impulse wheels of the DeLaval form to 5 per cent, in the case of reaction turbines. The
efficiency of transmission due to leakage and radiation may be
taken together and called the efficiency of weight.
t\
(loss of radiation
loss of leakage).
is
is
known
as
r)
is
The
The
loss
(windage
If
have an
Vt
put
loss
Vn
7) k
is
y]w
efficiency of
f]m
is
rj e .
therefore
f\e
found as follows:
Amount
Amount
Amount
of
B.t.u.
steam =
steam =
i\ t
(i
{i
q'o) q'o).
3410
r.
r\
309
The
0*1-2 2 )(1
nozzle efficiency
#)
is
The
theoretic action
will
DeLaval Turbine. It is required to get the leading dimenDeLaval turbine to develop 200 kw. with dry steam
at 132.5 lbs. gauge pressure and the back pressure is 2.5 lbs.
sions of a
gauge.
ti
p =
pm =
it
im
Vi
t
w m = 223.7VVi -
1*2)
(1
=
=
=
1192.2
1146.7
1034.8
q' m
188.4
y)
=
w = 223.7VVi - it = 223.7VH92.2 = 5.043 cu. ft.
v
t
1146.7
1034.8)0.88
ft. per sec.
2630
1508
ft.
per sec.
vm
20.75 cu.
Assume a =
wb =
yX
2
a
tan (3
.
ft.
(for
17.19 and
1034.8
+ 0.12 X
157.4)
20
X cos 20 =
X 0.342 =
= 2630--^z.
2630
1315
_
^ 00
0.728
0.9397
1235
ft.
per sec.
HEAT ENGINEERING
310
- 2' = 36
2630 X 0.342
=
w = ~^588
=
36
'
/ for 1500
= -y- X
axThermal efficiency
i
0.9
Q0
Kinetic efficiency
per sec.
ft.
153
of nozzle
(0.94)
0.840
-(1192.2-1034.8)0.88
=
1
1ino
Generator efficiency
Overall efficiency
, 000
= 0.1382
per cent.
8 per cent.
95 per cent.
0.1382
0.99
0.840
0.92
0.95
0.1008
2546
746
(1192 2 _'i 88 .4)0.1008
33 8 lbs
'
n
w a
Combined
+
area oft nozzle xl
throats
1
33.8
6760
lbs.
=
= 1.87X5.043X144
TzFiQ
0.903 sq.
n w a area
Combined
If
of*
in.
+u = 1.87X20.75X144 = 2.124
01 _. sq.m.
mouths
ofvx)
.
sq. in.
0.339
in.
on an angle so that
0.520
its
a = 0.520 X 0.342
t^jt,
-t
1.52 in.
sin
made
as
shown
in Fig. 157.
The
thick
part in the center being introduced to stiffen the blade and also
to keep the area through the blades of a constant width.
1.87X20.75X144 =
8
1530
is
0.457 sq.
in.
The
311
equals this
now
0.457
0.778
0.588
jS
is
0.778
1 .52
This
if
is
blade thickness
0.50 in.
X 60
X 1.5
1235
2tt
157.
Fig.
Arrange-
ment
of
blade thickness to give
uniform
7850
p a
s s
a g e
width.
If this is desired at
8000 r.p.m.
1235
radius
2tt
Fig. 158.
60
8000
12
17.65
in.
Curtis Turbine.
/.
in.
dimensions
between 175
lbs.
absolute pressure
HEAT ENGINEERING
312
is
structed.
From
this
Ma + 6 + a' +
ftp
^2
is
= n799
0.722 =
rj k
rj k
of the jet of
This
is
it
This heat
i2
is
at dis-
charge from the nozzle to find the heat content at entrance into
Whether the
kinetic energy
is
is
considered as
chapter.
REHEAT FACTOR
The
effect of the
heat
This
is
heat content
i\
i2
is
kinetic energy
and
y)(i\
On account
changed into
be taken as 0.06.
i2)
may
is
i2)
-q
should remain,
stage
at
313
outflow to next
is
iout
=
=
i2
yi(ii
*i
yk(l
Vk)(l
y)(ii
12)
(64)
is
is equivalent to saying that the heat conequal to the original heat content minus the
work, which gives the point 3 for the proper heat content at the
pressure of 2, hence the condition of outflow from the first stage
or inflow to the second stage is given by the point V at which the
pressure
is
the same as at
2,
but
i is
the
i of 3.
The entropy
Entropy -s
Fig. 159.
Mollier
same
same
friction is
first
is called, will
HEAT ENGINEERING
314
and
c,
than a
times
it will
spreading
diagram,
the heat which would have been available for a single expan-
The
sion.
The determination
Buckingham of the U.
2 to the length
is
or
12 for all
1
Since
and
is
of
S.
stages since
= f-=i)
3 of Fig. 159
is
(R. H.)
(65)
is
the product of 77 n X -q k or ?7 S
In the triangle 321' in the saturated region
This
is
is
ii
(xv
x 2 )r
Now
sv
Hence
s3
2-3
1^3
1'
0r tan
=
=
by the heat
(xv
~(ay
(XV
is
equal
of vaporization.
X2)
x 2 )r
7p
T=T
- Xz)^
zontal
is
tan
= kT
(66)
315
Since
5 is
and
since
when
they should
through the
pass
between
and
much
logarithmic in form.
s is
these lines
is
if
tan
(67)
If
may
now 7 be
tany =
1'
and 3
1'
the tangent
be written as
di
(68)
The negative
is
sign
must be used
since di
is
negative
when
ds
Now
n, 1
j/
tan t
tan
from
Vs
.,
rj s
ds
S
rj s
i
T} s
rjs
di
If this is integrated
tan
Vs
or
.) 1
tan
rjs
ds
(1
Vs
di
Hence
-,
2-3
and
the following
results
T
Log*
rjs
^7; io ge
Si
(69)
Since
U _
^
Sd
s
HEAT ENGINEERING
316
tan
because
i
id
=
= v
Sd
but
Sd
.
'
tan
id
ix
'
Si
Si
id
v
s
~ F
kT, hence
= hTd sd
= IcTiSi =
.
'.
id
id
and
hTiSd
i\
_
~
(70)
Tjr
i\
Td
Ti
F_
(iiTd\
(T d \*
i\
i\
Now
if
Since
id
ix
Sx
Now
-='.(-')
-q s
{ix
all
r) s
id)
and
this
would
= kTdSd
= kTxSx
= sd
amount available with reheat
amount available with no reheat
'TdV
"
1
I
- TJ
may
formula
known
and
be found and
to be used
The temperatures
be computed.
may
the temperatures
317
its
number
The formula
would be
therefore of value to
of
rj s
0.94
0.679
370.5
101.1
+
+
460.7
460.7
831.2.
561.8.
68
0.23
1,U
0.68X0.324
561.8\
"
=
=
83L2J
repared by
will
be used
problem:
superheat
189.7
quality
0.98
R.H.
Reheat
Vc
=
=
=
V831.2/
X831.2/
jj
=
=
0.722
n*o/i
' 68
1
Vi
value of
first
561 .8\X
/ 561.8
for this
number of definite
The formula
slightly different.
in
r) s
T
T
used
computing a problem.
for this problem is
have to be adjusted
The value
the
fix
is
is
if
upper temperature.
for the
{l
(1
V2
=
=
125 F.
Si
0.82
sc
- 0.68)
98.7
= 1297
98.7
iv
= 1198.3
31.6
iy
= 1229.9
98.7
iy
= 1131.2
31.6
iy>
= 1162.8
98.7
P2"
22
5.3
i\"t - =
1065.9
31.6
iv =
1095.5
98.7
=
=
1.646
ix
1.646
ic
no
n
98.7
%x
= 1297
= 918
12
31.6 B.t.u.
ii
= 75
=
=
918
Pv = 75
Vv = 22
Pi"
nA 1297
1.04
ic
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
1198.3
1229.9
1131.2
1162.8
1064.1
Superheat = 32 F.
D
1.684 superheat = 95' F.
x = 0.97
1.728 superheat 6 F.
x = 0.93
1095.7
pi
996.8
p v
=
=
5.3
1.0 s
=
=
1.781 x
1.781
=
=
0.965
0.895
HEAT ENGINEERING
318
The
may
was 0.98
The value
can be expected.
now be found.
close as
wa = 223.7V98.7 X
0.94
and
lbs.
of i\
2146
this result is as
per
ft.
sec.
77
The
rj s
(n
ii)n
H-q'o
_
~
7}
Ve
rj t
=
=
=
=
(0.01
(0.07
69.2
actual
_
"
98.7
therefore:
is
- 219
by assuming-
+ 0.02) =
+ 0.01) =
0.97
0.92
0.96
0.219
0.97
Vw
lbs.
1297
.68
"
and wa
correct
i 2 is
0.92
kw.-hr.
0.96
=
=
0.188
18.8 per cent.
3410
~
^ i as
9 7
14.8.
was 15.75
builders
5000
14.8
74,000
lbs.
per
hour.
=
=
=
=
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
X
X
X
X
189.7
75
22
5.3
=
=
=
108
42.8
12.55
3.02
lbs. s
i(for
42.8
i(for
12.55 lbs. s
i(foT
3.02 lbs. s
lbs.
w =
V =
wn =
w > =
t
=
=
=
=
1.646)
1.684)
1.728)
1.781)
223.7\/l297
=
=
=
=
223.7\/l229.9
223.7\/ll62.6
223.7\/l095.7
0.97
1059,
0.94
1230
1180
1118
1059
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
quality
quality
quality
quality
1830
ft.
per sec.
1580
ft.
per sec.
1493
ft.
per sec.
1350
ft.
per sec.
is
V t"
V t '"
vm
vm >
Vm "
Vm '"
319
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
The
4.99 cu.
ft.
10.56 cu.
ft.
30.2
cu.
ft.
110.0
cu.
ft.
6.24 cu.
ft.
for
18.0
cu.
ft.
for
64.8
cu.
ft.
for
cu.
ft.
for
307
specific
to the specific
p =
p =
p =
p =
75, i
22,
5.3,
volume
0.94
1229.9
1162.2
1095.5
98.
=
=
=
93
93
93
sum
The
is
77
1204
1069.2
1002.5
is
equal
and
for
equal to
1136.9
From
=
=
=
r.e. is
0.98, i
where
1297
i
(I-77)
or friction equals
r.e.
equal to
- (J
Fig. 158
0.065
- 0.065 = 0.213
0.06 + 0.94 X 0.213 = 0.260
Total friction effect
per
stage = 98.7 X 0.260 = 24.7 B.t.u.
Heat from friction
=
0.722
=
=
!V =
v '" =
p =
Vo
6.51 for
*V
18.30 for p
65.5 for p
From
303.4
Fig. 156
Wr'
The
for
=
=
p =
^
1
54
75,
22,
5.3,
0.98, i
2146
=
=
=
=
+ 24.7
+ 24.7
1063.9 + 24.7
996.8 + 24.7
1198.3
1131.2
690
ft.
per
=
=
=
=
1223.0
1155.9
1088.6
1021.5
sec.
as follows:
Ft
Ft"
20.55
4.99
144
1830
20.55
10.56
144
L580
'
29.55
30.2
j^g3
m
.
sq
sq
*
144
59.70 sq.
'
in.
HEAT ENGINEERING
320
*"'
20 .55
20.55
Fm =
20.55
Sq ln
20.55
144
18.0
144
"
Fo'"
_.
64.8
144
20.55
307.0
144
from the
20.55
last
6.51
20.55
X
X
144
18.30
65.5
8 -0 sq.
144
144
27 9 Sq
sq in
*
'
"
ft
79.7 sq.
'
001
ft
303.4
144
in.
sq
*
^
70 sq m
690
20.55
gQQ
20.55
= oon
2 *
2l46
690
Fc =
Sq
2146
outlet area
2l46
Fm '" =
Fo
6.24
'
The
144
2146
Fm =
Fm"
110.0
1350
= 1Qnnn
1300.0
is
given by
in.
m.
sq.
For the outlet area from the blade of each stage use specific
volumes at about one-third the difference between the volumes
for
and m, using from Fig. 156,
r>
3 149
-r
^ X 2146
4.96
Fo'
F'o
F'o>
20.55
18.17
mean
ft.
144
y^t?
20.55X65.3X144
306.9
144
j-^te
=
=
t^t^
1515
20.55
ft.
J515
1515
20.55X6.36X144
equal to 1040
per
r
10/1
12.4
sec.
sq.m.
1fVrfl
127.6 sq.
in.
600.0 sq.
in.
two
cases, giving:
may be taken
STEAM NOZZLES, INJECTORS, STEAM TURBINES
=
Ff
321
Ff =
Fr =
186.0 sq.
in.
Ff =
870.0 sq.
in.
52.0 sq.
>
in.
These
turbine.
will
made
If these are
required.
in.
y
ot
sin 20
%
;
TiKS
These
will
allowance
The
1-95
m.
made
w
A
X
8.06
X g^g =
0.75
or
0.47 sq.
0.63
in.
may
made
If
in.
1 in.
be
ok
The throat
will contain
1 in.
will
2m in
26
These
will
19.7
0.34
take up about 42
in.
2.35
20.8 sq.
side.
made
On
1%
If this is
in.
in.
on each
be
20.8
26
in. for
may
be worked
the width.
made
9 sq. in.
4%
in.
These would take up about 160 in. on a side or 320 in. in the
circumference.
If this were to use the complete circumference
the diameter of the turbine pitch circle would be 102 in. or 8 ft.
6 in.
If this is considered too large the width might be made
6 in., this would require 92 in. diameter.
The blades of the first
21
HEAT ENGINEERING
322
movable set would be slightly higher than the width of the nozzle
mouth. They will be determined by their area at discharge.
These will have to be investigated from
length
Fm =
length
Fa
Now
Hence
since length
The
height
X
X
sin
jS.
sin a.
F sin a
" h"F^In7
,
helght
h '
1X
35.50
27 6
X -~-
- 9 in -
0.34
X Oil = L19 m
"247
1
1.75
8i x uf[
=4^X
h*>
height
is
X
X
*H
X^j
0 x
jgf
2.20
5.3in.
in.
made
longer than
first
18 4
*'"
*"=
V' =
^4
1.75
^ X ^g =
870
24
=
4Kx|^X
of the second
2.3 in.
5.83in.
/'.'
h'
xg|x||=1.07in.
79.7
X 2^7 X
1.75
^ X ^|| =
1300
h'o>
0.34
0~79
= ^A X ^22 X
0.34
0.79
m
2.41 in.
5 98
'
in>
323
it is
to 0.9-in.
movable blade,
all
symmetrical.
The speed
of the wheel,
j-^77
4.96
from
Fig. 158
2146
433
ft.
a diameter of 102
D =
is
per
r
in.
sec.
This is a possibility.
1500 r.p.m. showing that a smaller
use this diameter of 66 in., the heights of
the vanes would have to be increased by 50 per cent. This
would make the last blades 9% in. long.
Rateau Turbine. In this turbine there are many pressure
stages and only one velocity stage to each pressure stage.
If
this is the case and 20 is the value of a and the desired speed of
blades is about 500 ft. per second, the velocity across the vanes
will be 750 ft. per second which gives
If
100
in.
is
rik
Vs
0.94
Q4
_i_
'
2
vn
t]k
0.97
0.94
0.857
cos 2
is
(0.94)
0.857
0.805
to
of
805
\831.27
0.805 (l
0.94
is
561. 8\
831
0.805
X 0.324
.2,
found thus:
ft.
with a
20
HEAT ENGINEERING
324
2w b
wa =
The
1000
The amount
is
/1
i2
0.94
065
Use 20
is
= 1297-918
=
sttt
oft stages
B -t-u.
21 5
20.4
1.035
u
Number
(^37)
21.5
at
1065
0.94
= ^r^- =
cos a
loly
1*'
stages.
ii
918
= 1297
t.
2q
w = 223.7V19.7 X
w&
961
0.94
961
= 452
at each stage
1.035
0.94
ft.
19.7
per sec.
per sec.
ft.
19.7
(1
0.805)
3.84
B.t.u.
3.84
Overall efficiency
0.245
15.06 B.t.u.
1
907
0.97
_
X
ftQ
0.90
0.245
0.96
0.205
M = 55 663410
X 1127.8
E ,u
14 75 lbs
i\,
'
'
w b = wa
Hence
for
cos
- wa sin
--^a =
of
.|cOfl
wb wa
,
sin
al
^J
could be found.
wr
a
(73)
sm/3
Wr = fw r =
325
wa
f
sin
(74)
sin/3
now
it is
of discharge
it will
be necessary for
w' r actual
Fig. 160.
= wa
or
,.^r(H-.a-r) +.(/=^
w,
(223.7)
n
/'}
J
a\\ 2
sin a
sm
sin B
sm/S
(ii
12
(1
*'
2 )(l
y)
-[' ll
(75)
my]
y)(223.7y
(76)
blade.
HEAT ENGINEERING
326
For the
Wa =
w a sin
Wr sin
^T = W r
sin j8
T~ =
sin
/3
It leaves this
that of the
first
kinetic energy
from heat.
'f
i i
sin \
-I'-e-s)]
,
i 2
(1
y) (223.7)
work =
=
The heat used
[w
Wh
Wb
is i\
a
sin "
Sm
r
Jl
+
L
cos
+'i-i
w
-
i*
300
"
n
n,
' 94
wr =
0.34
(79)
^J
^2
*'i
354 X2
354
1
(
is
J*00^ _
0.849 "
300
ft.
per second
dM
H4
124
= LOO
-[ LQQ
to;
_
"
(80)
- 373
* -* =
(78)
a lJ
tana"]
C
cos
Sg
/3
sin p
/3 cos
cos |_1
i\
(77)
= Q
i'i
expression
w' a cos a]
ia
Hence
cos
first
X^
] )
= OQn
2 30
-
o.o4
i\
2.30
STEAM NOZZLES, INJECTORS, STEAM TURBINES
m
Work per pound per stage
,
Stage efficiency
The
for
rj s
reheat factor
This
0.95.
=
=
4.38 B.t.u.
4.38
j^tj
3400
'
0.94 r
L
0.36l
3~73j
ft.-lbs.
0-95
same pressures
0.95
rj a
for the
RH =
354
^2~Tfi
may now
is,
300
327
as before,
= L013
0.324
This answer
diameter
is
drum
enlarge the
lf
the second
D =
2
and
Z> 3
The speed
the above
is
often
is
drum
is
hz
424
4.6
(ii
i2)
-~-
2.3
(ii
i 2)
portion
second portion
Total number
rule for the total
u
Number
w
X
55.
27.
9.2
4.6
379
Q
96 stages.
number
at
is
379
Q
if
212
w = 300V2 =
first
of
made
= a/2 D 2 = 2D
V2
vStages in
customary to
first
a/2 Di
,= ^= =
Stages in
is
=14.
This
is
rather high.
A common
of stages is
r
of stages
2400000
/01
(81)
HEAT ENGINEERING
328
In case above:
first
2400000
/^.^o = 54
(212)
2400000
LV second
{Qf\f\\2
(300)
2400000
^V*A*rd
The other
quantities
(AOA\2
(424)
:
may
problems.
From
200-300 superheat,
in superheat
per cent.
14 F.
increase
in
superheat
will
be
For an increase in vacuum from 26 in. to 27 in. the steam consumption will decrease 5 per cent.
For an increase in vacuum from 27 in. to 28 in. the steam consumption will decrease 6 per cent.
For an increase in vacuum from 28 in. to 28J^ in. the steam
consumption will decrease 3.87 per cent.
For an increase in vacuum from 28J in. to 29 in. the steam
consumption will decrease 5.75 per cent.
For low-pressure turbines the following corrections may be
made:
Increase in vacuum from 26 in. to 27 in. decreases steam consumption 12 per cent.
Increase in vacuum from 27 in. to 28 in. decreases steam consumption 13.75 per cent.
Increase in vacuum from 28 in. to 28J in. decreases steam
consumption 8.5 per cent.
Increase in vacuum from 28J^ in. to 29 in. decreases steam
consumption 11.25 per cent.
329
The
lbs.
cent,
increase in pressure
In any case
if
two sets of conditions are computed the ratio of steam consumption may be assumed equal to the ratio of the efficiencies
and the equivalent steam consumption thus found.
for
is
first,
after
The
is
exhausted
turbines using
may be
steam
low-pressure steam.
TOPICS
Topic
1.
What
= \2gJld, -
i 2 )(l
-y)
+ ^p
would
is
%<*.
it
HEAT ENGINEERING
330
Topic
4.
Sketch Rateau's
mouth?
throat to
z_
4
/
\
Topic
9.
of a jet
20d
_ mw
9
P = {w a cos
Wb).
Sketch the
inflow
What
meant by
is
velocity of whirl?
What
w' a cos
ct')wb
are impulse
and reaction
turbines ?
all
trigonometric relations.
efficiency
12.
is
fixed
'.
efficiency
13.
of
|8
fixed
p'.
14.
compounding. Explain the construction of a one-stage and two-stage veExplain how to find the
locity diagram with friction and without friction.
work and kinetic efficiency from this.
Topic 15. Explain by diagrams the peculiar features of the turbines given
Sketch the curves showing the variation of pressure and velocity
in text.
through the turbine.
Topic 16. Give the expressions for the various component efficiencies of a
turbine and the expression for the overall efficiency. Explain these and the
method of computing them. Explain the similarity of thermal action of an
engine and steam turbine.
Topic 17. Sketch a Mollier chart and on it show why a reheat factor
exists and derive the expressions
= kT =
331
U
i
R.H. =
Topic 18.
power.
<r
1-^
Ti
PROBLEMS
Find
Problem
1.
xi
Problem
4.
gauge,
0.99.
boiler
45 and 0'
135.
w a 2700
Problem
8.
cos oT 1 =0.93.
sec.
with
Assume
per sec.
and
wa =
2700
ft.
per
friction.
Problem
Problem
when
ft.
rjk
9.
0.75,
r)
0.90.
The
pressure
Problem
heat factor
on.
10.
11.
is
efficiencies?
dimensions.
range
is
from 175
lbs.
gauge
vacuum.
Find the pressure on the four stages of Problem 10 if the reWhat is the thermal efficiency? What are the various
What is the probable steam consumption? Find leading
1.03.
Problem 12. Find the reheat factor for a twenty-stage Rateau turbine
with the same values of efficiency and range of pressure as that given in
Problem
10.
HEAT ENGINEERING
332
Problem 13. Determine the leading dimensions of a 200-kw. DeLaval turbine generator to operate between 150 lbs. gauge pressure and
Give the probable steam consumption.
2 lbs. gauge pressure.
Problem 14. Determine the leading dimensions, number of stages, reheat
factor and probable steam consumption of a Parsons turbine to develop 3000
kw. with pressure of 175 lbs. gauge and 50 superheat to a 29-in. vacuum.
CHAPTER
VIII
when
it is
They
Fig. 161.
Surface condenser.
baffle plate
of the tubes
333
HEAT ENGINEERING
334
Modern
practice has
pump
is
of the condenser at
The
steam at E.
dry air pump, and by taking this air through a space cooled by
tubes containing the coolest water available the volume of this
air is decreased by the increase of air pressure due to the decrease
of the vapor pressure.
PRESSURES IN A CONDENSER
If
pc
is
vacuum
is
equal to the
sum
of the pressure
due to the steam and that due to the air; Since the steam is in
the presence of water, the steam pressure p s is the saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature and the air pressure
pa
is
The
Pc
(1)
Ps
If
volume
The
air
pump.
is
added
this pressure
open heaters to 187 F.; 0.0151 per cent, of the 0.93 per cent, is
air mechanically mixed and 0.916 per cent, is in solution.
This
air is referred to its volume at atmospheric pressure.
Although
the feed water contains 0.93 per cent, of air the water in the
air,
ft.
0-022
&
0.018
0- 016
ft
0.014
0.012
0.010
a
o
0.008
0.004
0.002
.a
212
192
172
152
132
112
Temperature in Degrees
92
72
52
Fig. 162.
amount
of air at atmospheric
of
varied from
or 20 cu.
ft.
may amount to
air pump does
HEAT ENGINEERING
336
To reduce this
made
broad and shallow.
The drop
denser proper.
the condensers
should be
amounted
Fig. 163.
of
lbs.
Y Condensate
Contraflo
Uniflux
Fig. 164.
Sections
of uniflux
sages grow
and
During these tests the absolute pressure was about 1J^ in. of
mercury and was obtained with 15 F. to 20 F. rise in the cooling
10 above the
tem-
To
velocities of the
may be shown
This of course increases the velocity of the
steam and so improves the
This is a
heat transmission.
development of the English
contraflo condenser. In
Weir's Uniflux Condenser, Fig.
164, the shell is so made that
the velocity of steam remains
the partitions
clearer.
nearly constant as
it
is
Steam
con-
diminishes.
The
Barometric Tube
34
ft.
Long
uniflux
the
partitions
of
the
jet condenser.
When
it is
HEAT ENGINEERING
338
pipe
and
highest trough
in succession.
and
The
C and
enters at
cold water
D from which it
Air
removed by a dry
is
air
pump
connected at
CONDENSER DESIGN
The first point to be settled in the design of a condenser is the
temperature of the cooling water and the vacuum desired. In
most cases there will be a rise of about 20 in the cooling water,
its outlet temperature will be 10 to 30 less than the temperature in the condensing space and the temperature of the hot
well will be less than the temperature in the condenser by about
10 or 20.
A standard assumed by condenser designers for
high vacuum work is a 15 rise in the cooling water and a temperature of outlet of 15 below the temperature corresponding
to the vacuum carried.
The greater the difference in temperature
between the water and the steam, the more effective the surface
will be.
If then U, the inlet temperature, is known, t03 the temperature at outlet, is assumed and finally t s of the steam is assumed. From this p s is known, and then if the amount of air
present
is
it
The
p c the con,
ratios of
Pc
will
be about 0.8 or
is
Knowing
0.9.
this,
the
amount
of
given by
oJf7^
where
(2)
If this is
a jet condenser
<A
These
water
may
q'o
(3).
After
is
amount
is
of steam.
is
The quantity
of heat
= G X
kw.
(4).
is
Q = G X
W X kw.
fe'o
(5)
q'i)
Using the formulas of Chapter III for the surface the following
results
K mean AT
ft.
'
In computing the heat per square foot the velocity of the water
be taken as 4 ft. per second.
The tubes are arranged in nests so that the velocity of the water
is that desired and then the spaces between the tubes are made
to give a uniform velocity by means of the partitions.
After this the power and size of the water pump may be computed by assuming a pressure of say 5 lbs. for the resistance in
the condenser tubes. The power and size of the air pumps are
then found.
These various points will be brought out in the problems below.
may
PROBLEMS
Problem 1. Suppose that 20 cu. ft. of air per minute are found to be
present in the exhaust of a 10,000-kw. turbine. At a temperature of 75
in the condenser chamber and a pressure of 1 in. what would be the values of
pa and p a and what would be the amount
;
pump
if
the air
kilowatt hour
is
14 lbs.
lb.
per sq.
It will
in.
pc
sq. in.
be seen that by the cooling of this air the pressure has been increased
fourfold.
Volume
= 20 X
15
Q 2 ooq
1283 cu.
ft.
HEAT ENGINEERING
340
The pressure of the air in the dry air pump is raised from y lb. to 15 lbs.
and the clearance factor and leakage factor would be computed as in the
case of the air compressors of Chapter IV.
1283
clearance factor
_n
n-
Jh -Pin
leakage factor
piFi
leakage factor
"
W~
'
8)
33000
50
U = 75
t
assumed 65
th
Value of
2 75
43.1
55
1049.2
(0.895
G=
0.895
983.1-23.1
,
=641bs
33.1- 18.1
in
983.1
Chap. VII)
'
Problem 3. Find the surface required for the condenser above using
admiralty tubing and assuming clean tubes with a water velocity of 4 ft.
per second.
Ah = 75 - 50 = 25
At 2
Mean
i/8
(25-10)
L(26)*
630
K =~
75
65
"1 8/7
- (loH
10
/1.875\9*
16 4
'
1.0
X (^|) 0.98V4
-=
(16.4)H
lol62;
8,950,000
F =
12,200 sq.
15
67
= 670 X F X
16.4
ft.
F =
14,600 sq.
ft.
or 1.46 sq.
ft.
per kw.
In the N. Y. Edison Plants 1.1 sq. ft. are used per kilowatt in one of
new turbines. At the Interborough Station in New York 1.67 sq. ft.
are used, and at the Fisk Street Station in Chicago 2.08 sq. ft. are used.
their
The
amounts
to
33^ per cent, of the power of the engine or turbine, about 3^2 P er
cent, being taken for the air pump and 3 per cent, for the circulating
pump.
temperature.
II.
COOLING TOWERS
Where
large city
cooling water
and
it is
is
not obtainable as
Fig. 166.
them
air is
'in
the center of a
Cooling tower.
These are
In all
condens-
of different forms.
warm
a draft by the
warm
air
air into
the bottom of
HEAT ENGINEERING
342
the tower.
has
its
The fans
by an engine
air
are driven
The amount
on the amount
taken up by
air
depends
back from the space into the liquid. The number of particles
leaving the liquid is greater than the number falling back until
the pressure exerted by this vapor is equal to the vapor tension
or saturated steam pressure in the case of water, corresponding
At this time the space above
to the temperature of the liquid.
is said to be saturated and the weight of vapor per cubic foot is
the weight of a cubic foot of saturated vapor given in the tables.
the
is
= m
(9)
are constant.
= vi
is
Of course
(10)
To
common form
amount
The fall
is
found.
- y
Bar.
9
Vt
=
p =
Bar. =
t =
=
Vt
V
K
1.28*'
p'
t'
If
2755
now
barometric pressure
temperature of dry bulb
and
of relative
foot
is
humidity
amount
pi the
ti
raipi
where
ra x
One
weight of
1 cu. ft. of
it
of
may
t2
to
water.
of the outlet
to
and
t2
t{ .
The moisture per cubic foot leaving the tower is ra 2 but the
number of cubic feet have been changed on account of the.
changes of temperature and pressure.
M=
Bar.
Pi
=
=
(bar.
P ,p l )lAAV l
BT\
humidity at
(bar.
lbs.
air
be
p 2 )144F 2
(
BTi
barometric pressure in
relative
per sq.
in.
HEAT ENGINEERING
344
Pi
_
Vi
= saturation pressure at 1
= absolute temperature at
= volume at 1 = 1 cu. ft.
The volume
entrance
cu.
at
ft.
is
bar.
The weight
Ti
p2
air is
m =mV
2
If
pimi
(14)
is
The
late Prof.
energies at entrance
{Ma - m
II.
Energy
in air at entrance
A (bar. III.
Energy
q'
[ii
(15)
above 32 F.
pipi)144
in moisture entering
pim-i
i is
e)
=
n .
T7
= pmiii Api X
Apiv'"]
above 32 F.
1
superheat of h t s degrees.
IV. Energy in water at top of tower above 32 F.
V. Energy in air at exit above 32 F. =
A (bar. 1.4
p 2 )144F 2
or better
2]
Work done by
=
air in
changing
(18)
2 ].
a q'i
*2
m F W2 + r Ap V
U = m 7 W2 + p
2
VII.
(17)
1 cu. ft.
to
2 0)
cu. ft. at
barometric pressure
bar.
144
(V 2
1)
(21)
Now
sum
the
III
IV =
+V+
From
VII
(22)
unknown is
a and this may be
number of cubic feet of air required for
may be known and from this the size of the
the
a given installation
fan,
VI
work:
345
power required,
of
size
may
be
ascertained.
PROBLEM
air at 70 gives a
Suppose
of 58.5 F.
and
used in
is
How much
air
water per
lbs. of
hour.
P58-5
p 70
0.2428
PI
0.3627 ~
0.668 - 0.171
0.001152
0.000576
0.00814
2.885
m =
x
P\m x =
mi =
V2
14.7
2
0.00814
0.0113
in air at entrance
Energy
in
0.1814
moisture
144 1
0.497
0.3627
2.885
X
v
70
2755
58.5
1.28
58.5
0.5
601
531
>
1.39
in water at
u.
Energy
0.2428
X 1.39 = 0.0113
- 0.000576 = 0.0107
Energy
0.2428
0.3627
0.3627
0.5
14.7
mV =
m =
2
14.7
=
=
-==z
0.000576 [19.1
Ua =
^-j
1061.8
19
0.43]
0.515.
a n
6.70
TT
U
3 2-
L778
0.600.
of 70.
HEAT ENGINEERING
346
Energy
....
Energy
at top
in air
= ==~
C/32
0.600
[14.7
108.0.
2.885J144
1.4
0.0113[108.0
cu.
ft.
14.7
of
947.5]
volume to
144(1.4
= 48.1Ma -
108.0
0.515
ft.
of
'
2 82
u
C/32.
volume at
1.09.
7.65
__
7.65
11.9.
1.4 cu.
1)
TJ
U32
tt-j
= ==^ X
atmospheric pressure
6.70
in
j?
- U S2
11.9
1.09
- a214
amount
This
is
the
ft.,
apparatus.
It will
air entering
warm
347
makes evaporation
SIZE OF
F- The area
of the
m
This
is
3 36 sq
-
ft
the
mats would be
_,
ifs -
of
assumed
30000(140
looo*
80)
= 1Qnn sq#
Fm -
*%?
1200 sq.
ft.
much
cent, of the
In the case above the practical use of the fan is
to give velocity only, as the drop in pressure is practically nothing.
For this reason the formula for the power of the fan need only
engine power.
air,
750
141,000
60
ft. -lbs.
14.7
5 3.35
per min.
144 /700\
531
Uo / UA
HEAT ENGINEERING
348
tain.
velocity of discharge
water
is
per hour.
A number
349
Fig. 167.
mulator.
in the
Rateau accumulator.
form
In this one a
tank B containing a set of tubes C held between two tube plates.
The space
D between the tube plates is separated from the remainder of the
shell.
This space is supplied with steam or some other hot vapor.
The vapor gives up its heat to the fluid within the tubes and is
condensed, the condensate leaving at E. If the pressure in the
chamber above the level of the liquid is such that the boiling
temperature of the liquid is below the temperature of the vapor
entering the space D from the pipe F, the liquid will boil and its
stills.
Fig. 168
liquid to be evaporated
is
of evaporator.
in a
HEAT ENGINEERING
350
vapor
may
Fig. 168.
Triple
effect evaporator.
Where three of these are used as shown in Fig. 168, the arrangement is known as a triple effect evaporator, a single one as a
single effect, two as a double effect, four as a quadruple effect.
pounds of
Assuming the arrangement as shown, suppose
e\
liquor enter at J.
Of this ei pounds are evaporated and
centrated solution.
and condensed
differ-
is
351
if
is
assumed
to be lost in radiation.
Heat Entering:
First Stage
With
With
ei
lfa'i
e2
+
q\)
1 lb.
e3
steam
lbs.
eite'2
e 3 (q\
feed
Q = q\ + r
Q = (ei + e 2
(23)
q'i)
c 2 (q' 3
e^)q
q\)
+
(24)
q'i).
U)
Heat Leaving:
With
With
62
+e
e lbs.
lbs.
evaporation
Q =
ei(q' 2
With
1 lb.
condensate
Q =
+
(e 2
rj
Q = q\
r2)
(25)
e 3 )q' 2
(26)
(27)
(28)
HEAT ENGINEERING
352
The equation
q'i
is
2)
The equation
=
The
0.1^2]
same manner
2]
e 3 [q'z
is
q' 2
(30)
e 2 [0.9r 3
0.1 g' 3 ]
and
e s [q' c
+r -
e 2 [q' B
3)
6![0.9r 2
i)
rc
sufficient
q' 3 ]
- m
(31)
e3.
term
m q'
is
PROBLEM
As a problem, suppose water at 65 F. is to be distilled in a triple effect
with steam at 228 F. with 10 per cent. loss. Suppose the temperatures of
boiling are 208, 188 and 168 and that the temperature of the outlet water
from the condenser is 85 and the hot well is 90 F. The equations above
then become
0.9 [196.5
959.4]
33.1
ei(972.2)
+e
(176.2
156.1)
+
=
ei[0.9
e 2 [0.9
e 3 (176.2
+ 984.7 - 176.2]
+ e [176.2 X 984.7 - 0.1 X 156.1] - e [136.0 + 996.7 - 156.1]
1007.3 = 972.2ei + 20.1e + 118. le
= 857et - 964.6e + 20.1e
X
972.2
0.1
176.2]
e2
ei
e3
=
=
=
=
870.7e 2
1.12e 8
i.21e 8
The amount
of
is
amount
of
976.6e 3
0.84
0.93
of
condensate
3.52 lbs.
evaporation
The amounts
=
=
0.75
The weight
total
156.1]
first
58.1)
e 2 [156.1
0-75I136.0
heat can
996.7
-58.H _
now be computed
of evaporation
is
known.
^^
If this
amount
is
M,
when
the
is
the
of
second stage,
denser.
By
^9 M
is
first
stage,
~o M
^9 M
is
is
condensed
353
in the
required for this heat under the conditions given can be determined.
of the percentage.
Its
is
e 3 ) q' 2
esq
Condenser
56.54 lbs.
Fig. 169.
To remove
chambers,
Hodge's multiple
air
may
still.
condensing
to the boiling
23
HEAT ENGINEERING
354
/
the evaporator.
is
a condenser and
is
a feed-water heater
still
by a
controlled
is
float
mum
amount
limited.
is
is
and
is
fixed
by the
the condenser
is
fixed
and hence
this
suffi-
The
value.
is
low
still lower.
Although not used in
a feed heater on the outlet of the
condensate from each still would increase the efficiency if the
feed to that still were passed through it.
To
design such a
Still,
still
the desired
amount
of distillation, or
The
assumed.
the
stills
From
and
total capacity
amount
water to be evaporated or condensed, together with the temperature difference, the probable size of each
unit is found.
From the size and temperature the amount of
heat lost may be computed. The problems are now solvable
since equations for each still may be written out as soon as the
amount of blow is assumed.
the
of
PROBLEM
water are desired per hour and from the size
condense y8 X 400 lb. or 50 lbs. the radiation is 4000
B.t.u. per hour and that 3A lb. of steam blown per hour would be sufficient
to keep the evaporator clear of air.
The temperature drop in each unit will be taken as 10 and since the
pressure even in the condenser is to be above the atmosphere its temperature
must be above 212 F. Suppose this is taken as 220 F., then the temperatures of the various stills will be 220, 230, 240, 250, 260, 270 and 280.
The temperature of the boiler steam will be 290 F. The absolute pressure
will therefore be 17.2 lbs., 20.8 lbs., 25.0 lbs., 29.8 lbs., 35.4 lbs., 41.8 lbs.,
Suppose 400
lbs. of distilled
of still required to
49.2 lbs.
and 57.5
The amount
of
lbs.
50
X U =
406
is
lbs.
if
entering any
The equation
406g\
50%(g' 22 o
= H(q
r 22 o)
is
220
406?' 2
+ 4000
=
U =
q'i
The equation
(50%
for
)(g' 230
is
r 230 )
f q' 210
+ 50U(q' iM + r
+ U(q' M + r +
= 50% + 50 + %
50g' 23 o
22 o)
+M
M
50%
The equation
6.54
b )
for
will
be
4o
r 240 )
(q'
+M
+M
M
M
56.54
(35)
(37)
44.96
(38)
f q' 210
50q' 2 4o
(36)
+M
M& + M
M
=
f
f =
6 =
Mf =
50
(39)
3,4
503/4
6.41
44.34
Feed to
Mb
8.44
8.03
42.31
43.00
42.98
43.48
44.11
44.70
44.96
7.48
7.18
6.58
6.19
5.79
50.75
Condenser
The amount
(34)
Staged
Stage
Stage
Stage
4000
+M
Staged
Stage
Stage
3o)
= 50%
= 5.79
The amounts
(33)
69.0
101
boiler
100.44
Total feed
of evaporation per
= 406
pound
lbs.
of
steam
is
TnrTTi
4.05.
only a
quintuple effect.
The temperature of the distillate is found by adding together the heats of
the liquid for each discharge and then dividing this by eight to get the average heat of the liquid. This is true because each evaporator sends 50 lbs.
into the distillate line.
This gives
result that
is
little
q' m
t
=
=
223.9
255.l
HEAT ENGINEERING
356
The temperature
or to 218.8 F.
cooler.
If
of the
To
the distillate
is
M,
%
[218.8
= 400 ^
-^
oO
bo
80]
= 3690
lbs.
distillate to
warm
the feed at
DOUBLE BOTTOMS
The design
TEMPERATURE OF BOILING
The difference between the boiling temperatures of a liquid at
any two pressures is equal to a constant multiplied by the difference in temperatures of water at the same pressures. The
values of the constants are given for some substances in the
table below:
Water
1.0
0.904
Alcohol
Ether
Acetic acid
Benzene
Turpentine
Mercury
Carbolic acid
1.0
1.164
1.125
1.329
2.0
1.20
The temperature
is
given by:
674
400
2 (212
tx)
mercury at 400 F,
Pressure
is 2.
75.
may
is
F = KAT
Where
k
k
(40)
What
Topic
this
1.
pump
first effect.
boil
if
How
PROBLEMS
An
pump
used with a 10,000-kw. turbine. The temThe vacuum carried is 29 in. How much
air is present?
If the air and vapor are carried around cold water pipes so
that the temperature is reduced to 50 F., how much has the volume of air
been reduced? Is the air leakage in this condenser system excessive?
Problem 2. Find the amount of surface to use with a 10,000-kw. turbine
with a steam consumption of 13 lbs. of steam with a vacuum of 29 in. and
temperature of steam of 65 F. if the cooling water operates from 45 F. to
Problem
1.
air
is
is
65 F.
HEAT ENGINEERING
358
60 F.
How much
water
is
required?
How many
%-in. tubes
would be
used in a nest?
Problem 3. Find the amount of air to cool 3,900,000 lbs. of water per hour
from 110 F. to 80 F. in 70 F. weather with the barometer at 29.6 in. and
the wet bulb at 60 F.
Problem 4. How many spray nozzles would be required for Problem 3?
How large a cooling pond would be required?
Problem 5. Compute the amount of distilled water made per pound of
steam from a triple effect heated by exhaust steam at 3 lbs. gauge pressure if
the condensed steam in the first effect is of no value, x of the entering exhaust steam is 0.90. Temperature of water supply is 60 F. Vacuum
allowed on condenser, 20 in.
Problem 6. Find the pressure at which mercury will boil at 300 F.
Find the area required for a double bottom to drive off 700 lbs. of water per
hour from a solution at 15 in. vacuum. Neglect heat of solution.
CHAPTER IX
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES AND COMBUSTION
The
improved
known
the
last
of their
work
or similar proposals
by Abbe Hautefeuille
HEAT ENGINEERING
360
of the piston,
The
hausted.
is
first
of
Fig. 170.
The
1st.
greatest
possible cylinder
least
2nd.
If
3rd.
If the
4th.
If
He
results.
The
1st.
2nd.
3rd.
4th.
Fig.
cycle.
stroke.
hour
this engine
OTTO CYCLE
This was followed by a number of engines by Brayton, Gilles,
Andrew, Clerk and others, but in 1876 Otto
brought out the Otto Silent Engine. This engine operated on
the Beau de Rochas cycle although independently invented by
Otto.
This engine was a great success and the form of cycle
for many years was known as the Otto cycle.
It is one of the
Halliwell, Bisschop,
commonest forms
of cycles.
It consists, as
shown
in Fig. 171,
361
below the atmosphere due to suction of the air from the outcompression stroke be with explosion at the end
of the stroke, bringing the pressure from c to d; third, an expansion stroke de followed by free expansion ef to a point just
above the atmosphere; and fourth, a discharge stroke fa at a
pressure above the atmosphere due to the discharge being driven
out against atmospheric pressure.
In the Beau de Rochas or Otto cycle, the lines of compression
and expansion are practically adiabatics because the action is
The gas near the
rapid and also because gas is a poor conductor.
cylinder walls is cooled by the water jacket used but this transfer
of heat probably extends only to this film of gas.
The cycle
requires four strokes for its completion and engines using this
form are spoken of as four cycle enside; second, a
gines.
The
cycle
is
practically
ume lines.
The mixture
of
unburned gases on
amounts
be
of
burned
two
lines.
temperature
rises
of the
these lines.
all
HEAT ENGINEERING
362
considering
discussions
the
and
heats
specific
results are
as
known
constant
quantities.
Such
present
lb.
substance
of
the
cycle,
follows
=
= c (Td - T ).
=
= cv (T Tb)
Work = cv (Td - T - cv (T - T
Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
on be
on cd
on de
on eb
c)
Thermali^e
eff. =
mi
C v \l d
rjs
J-
Cv\
c)
Td
<
J-
h)
J-
b)
_ yj
T ^
Td - T
Te
Tb_
T
Te
Td
T - Tb _ T d - T
Td
T
c
/_,>.
(1)
(t> .
K }
(3)
T - T
Td - T
e
Since
This
is
b
c
Tb
T
T
Td
e
T T = Tb Td
e
HW
Now
-<rb)--- to)
Vv
(l
^
Hence
ID
L)U
l)D
is
7
I
+
"T
ft-l1
N*-
(5)
l+l
T
L
-L
*-l
*
(6)
I'
As
increases.
Of course
363
c,
hence
in-
The amount
of compression is fixed
of compression
As
before:
Td - T
m =
Td
m =
*75
a=
AW
V3
The explosion cd is
by a long stroke so that
be.
followed
The
charge stroke
ea,
which
is
disFig. 173.
long,
Atkinson
cycle.
cv (Td
To)
is
Q2 =
Work = Qt
is
- Q2 =
V-i
c p (T e
c v [(Td
T
- T - k(T - Th )\
T - T
Td - T
b)
c)
(7)
HEAT ENGINEERING
364
Here there
is
Rudolph Diesel
is
efficiency.
He
that to obtain high efficiencies, the cycle of the gas engine must
Fig. 174.
Original Diesel
Fig. 175.
cycle.
Final Diesel
cycle.
Progressive
Age
in
is
oil
which
is
proper rate the pressure will be kept constant until cut off at c.
From c to d adiabatic expansion takes place followed by exhaust
from d to a and finally to e. The suction stroke from e to a
This
air.
a four-stroke cycle.
The
by
c (T -T )-c (T d -T a )
= P
c
^73
-T
-T
-T
cP (Tc
The high
is
365
Td
k(Tc
theoretical efficiency
is
b)
(8)
d)
ACTUAL ENGINES
The form taken by an actual engine is shown in Fig. 176.
This represents an engine of the Otto form. In this air is drawn
into the cylinder by the outward motion of the piston A through
the valve B. Gas is admitted by C which is so arranged as to
_J
Fig. 176.
4-cycle.
B by means
open after
valve gearing.
They
are closed
its
stroke or
leases
them.
valve
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
366
jacket
The
cylinder
contains a water
inder wall low enough for lubrication and also to prevent seizing.
The
two-cycle, Mietz
and Weiss
oil
is
similar
in action
Fig. 177.
oil
engine.
ports
367
the crank case from the base of the engine by the partial vacuum
In the Mietz and Weiss engine kerosene is
existing there.
near the end of the stroke by the pump
cylinder
the
sprayed into
G,
Scale 120
lb.
= l"
Cylinder Card
Fig. 178.
Cards
of a two-cycle
engine.
GOVERNING
Internal combustion engines are governed in two principal
ways: (a) by the hit and miss system and (b) by the throttled
charge system. In the hit and miss method of governing the
governor acts on the gas or fuel valve so that no gas is admitted
when the speed exceeds a given limit, but as long as the limit
is not exceeded the engine receives its full charge.
In throttle
governing the charge of fuel and air may be throttled or the
HEAT ENGINEERING
368
may
be throttled alone. In the first of these less fuel mixintroduced into the cylinder although it is of the proper
mixture, while in the second case the mixture is changed. In
each of these the explosion pressure will be reduced and the
fuel
ture
work
is
will
be made
less.
Of course the
efficiency in throttle
The disadvantage
governing
is
reduced.
IGNITION
The charge in most modern gas engines is ignited by an elecspark made by breaking a circuit between two platinum points
or else causing a high-tension spark to jump a gap between two
points of platinum or tungsten.
The method of compressing
tric
the charge into hot tube until the mixture comes in contact
is
in
Fig. 179.
after burning.
is
in throttled supply.
The
efficiency of the
is
The amount
sufficient
of dilution
oxygen
is
by
a matter of experiment.
The
excess air
may
sufficient to
make
mixtures.
much
larger variations
The time
amount
although
369
it,
amount
It
of
slight
the best efficiency was obtained even with 100 per cent, excess
air.
2000. C
(3632 E)
oloOOC
Oioooc
g(1832F)
a
Q
500C
Compression
Su_ctioji-
ISO
270
Angular Fjjame
Fig- 180.
Cycle
.Discharge
Expansion300
of
Crank
450
in
540
Degrees
in gas
HEAT ENGINEERING
370
The
results of
one
test,
made
is
greater
loss.
by
an increase
of the
FUELS
The
and
fuels
oils
solid fuels.
The
gases in
common
Natural gas
is
rich in
mouth
methane.
where
are found.
oils
May,
T. R.
It
Wey-
Methane,
CH
Nitrogen,
Carbon
CO
dioxide,
Helium,
Oxygen,
87 00
6.50
20
0.20
Trace
5 50
0.50
0.10
Trace
Ethane, C 2 H 6
Ethylene, C 2 H 4
Carbon monoxide,
Hydrogen, H 2
C0
He
:
100.00
pared with
air
is
was 887.3
of the gas
and 60 F.
The
B.t.u. per
specific gravity
com-
was 0.6135.
Illuminating gas
cost
in.
prohibitive.
is
Its
gas
may
371
An
is
given below:
is
Hydrogen, H 2
Methane, CH 4
34.3
28.8
9.5
Ethylene, C 2 4
Heavy hydrocarbons,
1.7
Carbon dioxide, C0 2
Carbon monoxide, CO
Oxygen,
Nitrogen,
0.2
10.4
0.4
14.7
100.0
gas.
illustrates
Wood &
Co.
this, air is
air,
by the heat
ering.
,0 2 and
as well as
some
volatile gases.
Fresh coal
and from
is
this it is distributed
by a
into the
special device
chamber
which
HEAT ENGINEERING
372
Fig. 181.
Pressure producer
of the R.
D.
Wood
Co.
extractor
if
This
is
practi-
373
this a suction is
Fig. 182.
The blower G
three-way cock
Suction producer
is
of the
The
is produced in starting a fire.
with coke over which water trickles and
through which the gas passes. The spherical charging ball
at the hopper mouth prevents gas discharging or air entering.
An analysis of producer gas from soft coal gave the following:
chimney before burnable gas
scrubber
is
filled
HEAT ENGINEERING
374
Carbon monoxide, CO
Hydrogen, H 2
Carbon dioxide, C0 2
Oxygen, 2
Ethylene,
C 2H 4
Methane,
CH
N
Nitrogen,
20.9
15.6
9.2
0.0
0.4
1.9
52.0
100.00
under standard
conditions.
An
CO
C0
is
given herewith:
25.83
9.37
0.54
2.96
61.30
CH
H
N
100.00
84.9
13.7
1.4
H
O
100.0
pound.
from crude petroleum
Gasolene
It is easily
is
the light
first distillate
by a form
of
it is
oil.
usually delivered to
Its
heating value
formed
is
375
is
H
N
83 5 per cent.
15.5 per cent.
1.0 per cent.
.
2,
S,
and
It is
oil.
car-
The
oil.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen and oxygen
84^ per
14
cent.
per cent.
per cent.
V/2
will
heating value.
COMBUSTION OF FUELS
The combustion of these various gases is accomplished by the
mixing of air with the fuel. To get a mixture which will explode
or burn rapidly the quantity of air must be within certain limits,
usually the amount necessary for complete combustion plus 15
per cent, will give good results. To find the weight or volume of
air to burn any given constituent, reference is made to chemical
formulae and Avogadro's Law.
Thus to burn 1 volume of CH 4 2 volumes of oxygen are
required which means 9.54 volumes of air. From this burning 1 volume of C0 2 results and 2 volumes of H 2 0.
The water
may condense. The weights of these per pound of CH 4 are:
4 lbs. oxygen, 17.40 lbs. air, 2% lbs. C0 2 and 2}i lbs. of
water.
These statements are seen from the following:
,
CH +
4
By
+ 2H
Avogadro's Law:
20 2 = C0 2
volume
CH +
4
2 volumes
C0 +
volume
2 volumes
2 0.
By
chemical equivalents:
[12
4.032] lbs.
2[2.016
CH + 2[16 X
H 0.
16] lbs.
2] lbs.
[12
32] lbs.
or
1
lb.
CH +
4
4 lbs.
= 2%
lbs.
C0 +
2
2J4
lbs.
0.
C0
HEAT ENGINEERING
376
is
79 to 21.
mean
4
tt-^
17.40 lbs. of
of air
Hence 2 volumes
and 4
lbs. of
of
oxygen
air.
The heat
To
find the
amount
numbers
28.7
MRT
MBT
TT
l
1
mol. wt.
mol. wt.
14.7
144
359
(9)
mol. wt.
The
specific
weight
is
m =
For
CH
given by:
1
mol. wt.
^59~
359
16 032
= 22A
( 10 )
cu
ft -
This gives the values of 1072 B.t.u. per cubic foot for the greater
heating value and 963 B.t.u. for the lower value for
4
CH
Using the methods above for various gases and elements the
following table
is
computed
GAS COMPOSITION
To study
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CD ID
.
O
i>
tH
O W
CM
-P
<*->
~ a
U
u
O O
d O O d O O O O
OS rH
+3
ft
~ a
ID
CM
ID
rH
COCDOO<N)OOOSCM
10
OINKJNOHNHCIOO
lOOiOillONOHH
dodooddo"*d
CM
00
tH OS CD CO
ID
CM
00
ID
(MrH-H^rHrHrHCMrH
00
rHOr^OCMOCMOOrH
COOCMOCOOCMOCOO
CO
+3
OM*NMHHN00
^OCOOCMOrHOCOrH
O
O
r-i
CO
CM
.p
00
00
CM
ID
>D
ID
OODrHOOO00
O O OOi'ffiOiONW
ID 00 CO CM
O
d O
TtHi-HOCDrHOOOCM
CD
Z
ID
O CMOrHOrHOrHOOSrH
O
IOOH H H O O d O" O O O O rH O
nohh wm SS
00 CM
CM
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10
CM
CO
10
CO
OO
'spixouour
CM
OSrHCOTHOOiDCM
-ID
O
ID
b-
co
CO D CO
t> CD ID
HH N
O*
TfHNHNHlOHHOO
CMOrHOCMOrHOCOrH
Tf IO
rH rH
O O
<NOrHOCNOrHOOrH
Q O d OO 0' O O CM C5
OOOO
ID
H N O)
M
(M N N N
fill
co
00
CS|
S*H
'apiqdjns
co
00 <N
lO
O
O
d d
r}<
0"
O O d
rH rH CO CO
rH rH
Tj*
Tf*
CO
D CO
co i>
rH
O O
00
CM
* 00 CO CO
l> rH CO rH
CD
CO
CM
CO CD
CD
O O
O O
s
I -.
tJ*
rH
ID CO
CO b-
T-l
O*
1>
rHOSTHCOrHOO
ID
CM
TflHSHMHtDHOOOO
CMOrHOCMOrHOCOrH
O
O
O O
1
W5
O
O O
O
i-i
O
O
'
00 OS
.1
rH
<N
00
<M
00 >D
O O d d O
rH
00
OOOOOOOOrHO
*
*
O
ONiOHCNNH
O
CMOrHOrHOrHOCOOO
rfi
O O
O O
r-l
ID
CM
lONNNOHNH^OO
rHOrHOrHOOOOrH
'
377
^j
tH
3
.5.0
:
- S^
a rt
i3
1
(-.
<U
Ji
-Q
M
.
ft
-D
^i
ft <~
ti
0)
ft
+a
<U
-p
CO
1->
a^
-ti
0>4J
3
u
JD
.O
.D
XJ
'
_^
_^
1-*
<j
jj
3
3
3
3
3.D 3
O O 3
jWq
JO JO qOjO^O^O^O
'
a~ a
n^ a~
.
u
8
J2
P-fpHPLlPHrHPHrHrHP-lP-l
..
ft.
.
..
lb
cu.
J5
<?
required...
required...
Oxygen.
B.t.u...
per
B.t.u
per
Air
ur pi nc
TTI
DO J
B1
an po Id
c?
HEAT ENGINEERING
378
may
combustion.
of
CO
.....
C0
CH
N
...
Per cent.
Volume
Vol. gas
air
Products
of
CO2
tion
49.9
37.2
0.0
5.7
669
0.8
1.9
18.1
2,037
1.9
110.9
27.7
i4,896
138.6
14,896
7,060
combustion
39.3
29.5
5,130
SO2
15.6
9.2
4.52
14.30
52.00
52.0
Air ....
of
20.9
20.9
15.6
9.2
0.0
0.4
100.0
Excess
Heat
combus-
5.82
32.8
0.8
3.8
21.30.
5.82
160.92
20.2
This table has been prepared from table on p. 377 for 100
of gas in the following
Air for
CO =
lbs.
manner:
20.9
2.38
49.9
ft.
^8 6
in0
Vol. of mixture
^90 ^
02.5
1.386
2.38 cu.
ft.
C0 =
0.328 cu.
ft.
0.058 cu.
ft.
The values
=1.609
of B, c p
cu. ft.
and
c v for
379
sider.
The
puted.
a's of
the expression
bt
for a"s
is
This
eliminated.
by
by
is
mixture
Mol.
vp
wt.
Mb. mix
2(v p
?{vp
tl mix ==
c pmix
^
(12)
b)
(13)
2vp
mix ==
a')
(14)
2v p
?{v P
H)
(15)
Zv p
("mix
^ v mix ~ d
mix
any constituent.
a)
Zvp
Omix
&
of
(11)
VVp
?{vp
("mix
volume
partial
Omix-L
~l
'(16)
Omix-L
(17)
1544
D-mix
Molwt. ~
^ pmix
(18)
Mol.Wt.mix
359
B
4.3'
(19)
(20)
t-'
vmix
HEAT ENGINEERING
380
PROBLEM
Suppose the natural gas given on
required to find the
it is
amount
if
p.
C0 =
N =
O2
and the
is
These analyses show no water vapor from the burning of the gas nor from
that taken in with the air and gas. Suppose the gas is at 80 and saturated
while the air is taken at 70 and is H saturated.
The pressure
by volume
is
is
Hence
14.7-0.5056
Per cent, volume of
air entering
On account
0.1814
" iZb
per cent
of pressure
amount
theoretic
equal to moisture
14.7
air
the
14.7-0.5056
14.7
0.1814
460
460
+ 70
+ 80
u y
'
to give the actual cubic feet of air per cubic foot of gas.
The
multiplied
volumes
The
by the
of the products of
multiplied
by
The computation
is
volume
87.00X0.964
C2H4
C2Hfi
CO
N +
2
C0
He
If
from the
is
now made.
Per cent,
CH
a percentage.
CO2
83.90
0.19
6.23
0.19
83.90
0.38
12.46
0.19
5.41
0.48
3.60
0.48
100.00
97.41
Air
Heat
90,100
318
11,420
64
3.60
722.41 190.47 907.42
101,902
The volume
of the
907.42
100
907.42
=
=
0.012
381
10.90
201.37
is
10.9
1018.32
is
722.41
+ 201.37 =
1021.19
0.79
7^X4 X 65A is
' 49
from
burn
air to
The
0.49
Of
total nitrogen
is
85 7
oo.l
free air
722.41
C0
= 952
is
Total air is
Moisture with free air = 0.012 X 289.6
The products of combustion are:
of nitrogen
IJ
The
= volume
gases.
|^X97.41
3.48.
97.41
952.00
7.42
72.40
61.10
4.62
204.85
15.56
1315.36
100.00
2
2
3'4g}
As a check, the
total
volume
Volume gas
Volume air
Volume moisture
Total
of the
is
100
1197.0
14.4
.
1311.4
air
HEAT ENGINEERING
382
The
907.4
-The
is
n n
9.07 cu.
ft.
9.07
1197
0.96
8.71 cu.
An cu.
11.49
ft.
is
=^r
0.96
ft.
is
101902
T 3 ira =
The
specific
77.6 B.t.u.
is
Volumes
Air
CH
CH
CH
CO
N + He
2
C0
M2
1197.00
83.90
0.19
6.23
0.19
5.41
1292.92
0.48
0.48
3.60
14.40
18.00
1311.40
Va
1292.92X0.018
0.48
18.00
X
X
0.0202
0.0188
=23.3
= 0.0098
= 0.339
1292.92
0.48
18.00
1292.92X0.185=239.0
0.48 X 0.807 =
0.3875
18.00 X 0.668 = 12.0
X
X
X
251.3875
Ya'
0.0125
0.0147
0.0132
= 16.2
= 0.007
= 0.238
16.445
23.6488
+ 251.39 X
10~ 5
For
T =
CP =
0.0180
VCV =
16.445
Cv =
0.0125
+ 0.191 X 10~ T
+ 251.29 X 10" T
+ 0.191 X 10~ T
5
VCP =
VC =
V
26.1588
18.9554
Cj, _
~ Cv ~
true:
Vb
23.6488
VCP =
is
26.1588
18.9554
_
~
1,d8
CH
CH
CH
CO
N +He
2
C0
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
1197.00
83.90
0.19
6.23
0.19
5.41
0.48
18.00
Air
(18)
Molecular
weight
Volume
383
28.8
16 032
28.032
30.048
28.0
28.02
44.0
18.016
.
Per cent.
weight
Relative
weight
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
94.4
3.7
34,420
1,344
5
189
0.5
0.4
0.1
0.9
151
21
324
100.00
36,464
36464
Mol. wt.
27.78
1311.40
Bm =
1544
27.78
55.7
co
Va
72.40
4.62
2
2
77.02
77.02
7.42
7.42
7.42
0.
15.56
15.56
15.56
X
X
X
0.018
0.0202
0.0188
=
=
=
Vb
7.42
15.56
X
X
X
0.185
0.807
0.668
Va'
=
=
=
14.25
77.02
5.99
7.42
10.35
15.56
X
X
X
0.0125
0.0147
0.0132
=
=
=
0.965
0.109
0.205
30.59
Crv
,
=
=
1.829
0.0182
0.1496
0.2925
1.8291
100.00
77.02
1.387
+ 30.59 X
+ 0.306 X
YorT = 2000F.;FCP =
10" 5
10- 5
2.441
1.279
T
T
VCV =
1.279
Cv =
0.0128
VCV =
1.891; k
+ 30.59 X
+ 0.306 X
2.441
10~ 5
10~ 5
T
T
1.29
1.891
By the method used for the mixture, the B for the ignited gas is B = 55.7.
Although this value of B is the same as that for the unburned mixture, the
composition is so different that the expressions for specific heats are not the
same.
If mixtures on the compression and expansion are those assumed, the
values of the various quantities are as follows
For compression:
Cpm =
C vm =
For 1000
F.,
Cp =
C, =
0.0180
0.0125
a
+ 0.191 X
+ 0.191 X
10- 5
10~ 5
mean temperature:
0.0199
0.0144
T
T
HEAT ENGINEERING
384
_
*
Bm =
#
v
=
=
0,0199
0.0144
_
~
1,d8
55.7
ft.
12.95
Cpm = 0.0181
C vm = 0.0128
For T = 2000 F.
+ 0.295 X
+ 0.295 X
Cvm = 0.0239
Cvm = 0.0186
= 0.0239
ft
0.0186
Bm =
w
10" 5
lO" 5
T
T
1.283
55.7
12.95
this
this
amount of gas
by an engine cannot
reason the
actually used
jacket
during
the
183.
Theoretic
dicator card.
of in-
385
Ts = Tt
But
|?
(22)
Tz
Ps
Pi
(21)
(f)^
>(y)~^
Hence
The mixture
burned gas
of this
Mo
of
weight
BTb
Although the values of B are not quite the same in these two
may be considered the same in this work.
If this gas enters the cylinder from 5 to 1 the work done by
the entering gas on the piston, pi(Vi Vz), will just equal the
work done by the atmosphere in forcing the air into the cylinder
so that this need not be considered in equating the energy at 5
plus the energy in the air entering to the energy at 1.
formulae they
(M *J +
2
Ph
Pi(Vi
Vs)
"~
0.4
M
=
Jcv Ta
^J
(24)
Pi.
(PiVi
igsTtX
XBT,
BTj
Vi _ Pi (Vi _ Vj\
0ATa "OiVT
TJ
clearance V 2 or V& is given as
JCvla
...
Pi(Vi-
Now
ment
the
of the piston.
V = l[V - V
5
F = ji^
5
Hence
-*l
25
Yl
+ lTa
(26)
6]
F,
(27)
= (ll - )-JlTjl +
\ Ti
HEAT ENGINEERING
386
^
Substituting for
T =
x
its
Q(Ta T 5)
(1
(28)
ITa
4^ y
*J-
T*\
(29)
T,y)
+it.
T,
(30)
-C+V"'
T*
(3D
(32)
2 to 3
is
VH and
called
is
equal to
Hence
T,
(33)
(34)
(29) to
H
^+cd
#
C V T\
(35)
k-i
\-&
a
is
"
+IT
C V T,
g-
Cv'OL
""* Tl
VUl
best
is
made by
trial.
is
After 7\
Thus suppose
1.25\
a =
l025/
= L9
INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
1.25
T,
80
530[?\
ri+
1.9-
1.9
0.013
0.013
k-i
19|
x rj
0.013
'
XT
+(0.25X530)
X1.9J
80
1.9J
=
L
k-i
1.9
+ 0.013 X
387
is
l)Ta
1.25
I
If
627
is
530
Hence try T =
662.
X 530 X 3855
oo^r, ^ ^o
3855 X 0.593
0.593
XTW?i
132
+
1.25
625.
y>2>c>
tried
1.25
~
T2 =
626
T =
1190
Use 626.
1.9
626
1190
80
0.013
7340
7340
T9"~
3860
These are all higher than the values found in practice due to
the fact that the combustion on the line 2-3 is not always
complete at the point 3, that the jacket removes heat from the
cylinder and also because the specific heat varies with the temperature increasing
If
temperature
will
be materially decreased.
ADIABATICS
const.
of the card
have been
(26)
This assumes that the gases are perfect gases and that c p and
c v are constant.
Now the true forms for the specific heat are
cp
and
cv
=
=
a
a'
+ bT
+ bT
(16)
(17)
HEAT ENGINEERING
388
of the adiabatic
c v dt
Apdv =
is
(a
bT)dt
Apdv
%T + Mt=- AB^
(36)
In the above expressions the quantities refer to 1 lb. alwill be seen later it might be simpler to have them
though as
refer to 1 cu.
The
ft.
~+
a' log e
b(
T ~ TO = ~ AB loge
37 )
From
this
T may
be found
log
V*
l0
T2
log ^r
n =
Now
2
log =Vl
(38)
T/
l0 S
Since
Pi
if
!Ti
72
ABlog
p + a'logep + b(r -r
2
^ + b(T
a' loge
must
Of course since
may
be
known
be written
1)
-T,)
to find
T 2 and
Ti this form
closer value of
Equation
may
(37)
a' log e
from
7?
a' log e
p
p
+
+
to T\
+ AB log 7 = const.
7+ A5 log 7 + bT =
log 7+ 6T = const.
a'ya e bT
(40)
a' log e
be written
T + bT
a' loge
const,
_.
^a/ya
^g~
COnst.
(41)
These equations considering the variation of c with temperadown the pressure of compression and its temperature and thus affect the expression for efficiency of the air cycle.
389
EFFICIENCY CHANGE
\ k
may
be com-
AB
^ = i-(r+])-
(42)
\ab
^AB
,..
&;=(r+7)* l0 *(r+7)i?
(43)
dr, 3
(1
C L
7^3
- ,0
Cv
log.
7?
(~^
\1
Z/
-,
in the value of cv
773
effi-
-)
cv J
no heat
is
U = U +H X
2
The
(100
intrinsic
U =
T
c v dt
is
(45)
given by
bT 2
= a'T+ ~y
(46)
Hence
a'T 2
bT
+ -- +
The values
plotted as
of
H(l
a'T 2
shown
loss to jackets)
^T 2 2 and
a\Ts
a'iT s
-+-
b
+~T
H or a portion of H
is
to this,
2
s
(41)
temperature T 2
After addthe curve for the burned mixture
of
HEAT ENGINEERING
390
will give
To
now
If
lute,
1 is
is
used.
assumed to be
at 626 abso-
may
be found by
100
rf80
.9
60
i
J-.
y
20
1
M
Fig. 184.
500 F
lOOO'F
Abs.
Abs.
Plotting
of
2000F
1500F
Abs..
Abs.
383 in equation
p.
3500F
Abs.
3000F
intrinsic
2500F
Abs.
Abs.
Degrees Absolute
4000F
Abs.
heat.
specific
results
X 0.0125 X
12.95
2.3 log
^T +
626
12.95
X 0.191 X
^X
log
6.66
g
10" 5
T =
2
Assume
This
is
2.797
log
T =
T =
0.0417
3.148
1400
3.061
is
correct.
0.080
3.160
Try T 2 = 1150
This
+
+
55.7
0.077
3.148
[T*
0.309
Assume T 2 = 1200
3.080
10
626]
2.3 log 5
3.148
of
n by equation
log
~_
71
626"
(38) is
log 5
the
is
as 1.38.
following computation
find
0.265
+ 0.699 _
- 1 "*
0.699
of 1150
may
'
(4).
38
=1150
626(f)
is
made by equation
is
JW.g)To
~~
log 5
This
391
is
a' m
12.95
77.6
0.0125
0.80
\t<?
1150
=12.95
+H
^^ X
0.0128
T4
12.95
is
found by equation
0.0128
2.3
log
T4
10.04
^^ X
^^ + 12.95 X 0.295 X
[4080
10~ 5 T,
-r ]=^X 55.7
4
3.610
0.408
3.71
5150
too large.
Try T 4 = 3000
3.478
0.306
12.95
X10" 5 TV
8260
4080 F.
=
T =
is
10~ 5 (1150) 2
50,700,000
For log T,
This, of course,
log
0.191
XT +
7Y + 8360r 3 =
T + 4180 =
T =
+ ~T^
a'iTt
0.302
3.780
10
0.301
T2
-5
2.3 log 5
3.717
HEAT ENGINEERING
392
Too
Try 7% = 2500
large.
3.399
Too
0.252
3.651
Try T* = 2750
small.
3.440
Too
0.280
3.720
Try Ti = 2740
large,
which gives
3.438
log
n =
1080
2745
6.275
+ log 5
3.713
0.172
0.699
1.23
0.699
log 5
3.00
12
1
A
13
.32.00
0)
11
3
2
&
14
*M
10
^<^18
1.0
19
20
7
(i
X. 22
^-i__
\23
\24
1.0
2.0
Fig. 185.
shown below.
4.0
3.0
Volume
in
Card prepared
The mean
5.0
6.0
Inches
for
T-S
analysis.
is
constructed
393
A
uring the clearance and calibrating the indicator spring.
then marked and the distances from the axes
series of points is
are
Points
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Now
measured
in
Vol :
These
inches.
are
tabulated
as
shown:
Pressure in
inches
ume
inches
Px
Pi
0.15
0.178
0.224
0.282
0.350
6.00
5.25
4.43
3.75
3.18
1.00
1.18
1.49
1.88
2.33
1.000
0.873
0.737
0.625
0.530
0.000
0.072
0.173
0.274
0.367
-0.000
-0.060
-0.132
-0.204
-0.276
-0.000
-0.084
-0.185
-0.286
-0.385
0.447
0.563
0.669
1.000
1.260
2.68
2.27
2.00
2.01
2.015
2.98
3.76
4.45
6.68
8.40
0.447
0.378
0.332
0.333
0.335
0.474
0.575
0.648
0.825
0.924
-0.350
-0.423
-0.479
-0.478
-0.476
-0.490
-0.592
-0.671
-0.670
-0.668
-0.016
-0.017
-0.023
0.155
0.256
1.335
1.422
1.478
2.260
2.810
1.78
2.51
2.00
1.58
1.24
2.025
2.040
2.470
2.940
3.55
11.86
16.79
13.35
10.50
8.25
0.337
0.339
0.412
0.488
0.590
1.074
1.224
1.125
1.022
0.916
-0.472
-0.470
-0.385
-0.312
-0.229
-0.660
-0.658
-0.539
-0.437
-0.320
0.414
0.566
0.586
0.585
0.596
4.000
5.680
5.490
5.130
4.860
1.13
1.00
0.89
0.795
0.710
3.87
4.23
4.65
5.13
5.64
7.52
6.67
5.93
5.30
4.73
0.643
0.705
0.775
0.855
0.940
0.876
0.824
0.773
0.724
0.674
-0.192
-0.152
-0.111
-0.068
-0.027
-0.268
-0.213
-0.155
-0.095
-0.038
0.608
0.611
0.618
0.629
0.636
4.840
4.770
4.590
4.480
4.450
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
5.70
5.77
5.83
5.89
4.00
3.33
2.67
2.00
0.950
0.960
0.971
0.980
0.602
0.523
0.426
0.301
-0.022
-0.018
-0.012
-0.009
-0.031
-0.025
-0.017
-0.013
0.571
0.498
0.409
0.288
3.800
3.190
2.590
1.960
if
in
Vx
log^
Vi
log
pi
1,
v7
7
1
fclog
V*
Sx -
Tx
Si
0.000
-0.012
-0.012
-0.012
-0.018
Ti
1.000
1.030
1.098
1.175
1.235
perature of this
datum may be
this
figured.
T*
P2V2
Vl Vi
fV*
/v*\ (Yj\
CBi\
7\
T2
(48)
T = T
,
mixture
burned gases
vol. of
vol. of
HEAT ENGINEERING
394
action
If
-t
may
the height to
If
be
made
7p- will
1 in.
the ratio
Of course the
scale
of
known.
if
s2
s2
Si
Si
if
Cp
c8
S\
S%
2.3 c v
The constant
cp
2.3 c,
Si
Now
entropy
+
Vi
*
log e
cv log e
V2
logl
v*
(50)
pi
^+
.
Pi
logl0
(51)
P.
Si
const.
the expression
k logio tT
v
is
dp
p
dv
Now
lo gio ZT
52 )
Pi
Fig. 186
is
and the area of the figure which represents the difference between
the heat added and that taken away is equal to the work done or
the work shown by the indicator card. If the area scale of the
is known in B.t.u. per square inch the area scale of
the T-S diagram will be inversely proportional to the areas of
indicator card
Scale< s
= ^~ X
r
Scale pu
(53)
ts
Scale,
F pv =
Fta =
(54)
The scale fixes the heat and efficiency of the cycle, although the
component scales of temperature and entropy are not known.
As soon, however, as one temperature is determined the scale
395
is
8.00
7.00
l\
6.00
5.00
vt
M
g
l/
4.00
r
/
3.00
L
j
/j
22
10/
/23
9/
2.00
24
>
j
1.00
n\1
a\ \k
-0.10
0.0
d\
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
h\
0.60
\j
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
1.10
1.20
Fig. 186.
nbem.
sion.
abik
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
396
LOGARITHMIC DIAGRAM
is
14
"""**
0.00
Slope of Line =
^1"
=1.25
15
10
..
ii20
^_^
Slope of Line
=n =
1.35
<3""
1.50
4
^1
1.00
Logarithm
Fig. 187.
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
of
Volume
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.8
in Inches
As a closing problem
taken from a report on a
engine reported by Prof.
Franklin Institute, May,
test of a
2 cylinders each
14^
Coal by weight
Moisture
Volatile matter (5.80 per cent.
in.
25
in.
4 20 per cent.
.
CH
4,
6 88 per cent.
80.41 per cent.
8.51 per cent.
2)
Fixed carbon
Ash
100.00
Sulphur
Time
Revolutions
Explosions
Mean
74 per cent.
min.
525
84,425 160.76 r.p.m.
81,673 155.44 ex.p.m.
\ llA& in. = 0.062 lbs. per
14.686 lbs. per
75 5 F.
.
of test
gas pressure
Barometer
Gas temperature
Room temperature
Jacket temperature outlet
Jacket temperature inlet
Exhaust pyrometer
Brake load
81 .3 F.
99 23 F.
.
62 42 F.
752 6 F.
1148.5 lbs.
160
3 073 ft.
.
Brake arm
92.73
B.h.p
I.h.p
Top
cylinder
Bot. cylinder
Coal
64.36
66.80
131.16
1069.6
lbs.
sq. in.
sq. in.
CO
H
CH
N
2
C0
....
Cooling water
Gas
Fig. 188.
The
5.80
X
X
X
61,500
24,000
=
=
=
13,529
Heat
of coal
C =
=
=
H
CH
80.41
0.73
14,544
11,690
449
1,390
13,529
14,470,600 B.t.u.
of gas:
C0 =
CO =
4.02
12
48.24
25.38
12
CH =
1.79
X
X
12
304.56
21.48
374.3
From C0
CO
H
CH
N
25.38
4.51
4.02
0.26
1.79
64.04
100.00
X 44
X 32
X 28
X 2
X 16
X 28
=
=
=
=
=
=
176.5
8.3
710.0
9.0
28.6
1792.0
2724.4
397
398
HEAT ENGINEERING
of mixture
Carbon
374 3
= 070X4 =
in 1 lb. of gas
2724.4
'
-.
27.24
- 1372
From C =
From
Pound
CH =
0.0580
of gas per
pound
Volume
of 1 lb. of gas
Volume
of gas per
pound
0.8041
12
16
of coal
359
07-04
0.8041
0.0435
0.8476
'
79
6.18 lbs.
13.1.
of coal
6.18
13.1
81.00 cu.
ft.
From CO =
From H 2 =
From CH 4 =
0.2538
0.0451
0.0179
in gas per
pound
Efficiency of producer
coal
(neglecting temperature)
X
X
X
337
345
1071
=
=
=
81
9740
.--..
loOZy
X
=
Low
85.5
15.5
13.1
19.2
17.1
foot, B.t.u
High
85.5
=9740
120.2
B.t.u.
0.72
= 72%.
Indicated work
131.16
2546
Delivered work
92.73
525
qq-
2920000
1
4,4,70^00
2,920,000.
20.2
20.2
X^
525
2546
2,070,000.
= 447^/^ =
14.30%.
Heat
in cooling
water
7 o*oo
525
= 664 X ~r
[99.23
62.42]
^-199
19.9%.
3,220,000.
3220000
= TT^jK^nR ~ 22.2%.
22.2
no7\
= 30.9%.
C0
vol.
0.0402
0.0026
0.2538
0.0451
0.0179
0.6404
CO-,
Oo
CO...
Ho
CH
N
399
H2O
Air
0.0451
0.0358
0.0124
0.6080
0.1070
0.1710
0.0809
0.8736
0.0402
0.0098
0.4300
2538
0.0179
0.1443
0.6404
0.3119
2545
C0
Hence
2.
23
j^-gg
if
0.3119
0.0045 cu.
ft.
be
left as
CO
the propor-
C0
CO
N
H
0.3074
0.0045
1.2464
0.0809
2
2
Air Required
~j^ X
of
0.3074
0.044 cu.
8629
cent.
CO2
ft.
044
ft-^r
= noi
0.21
*
cu. .
it. of air in excess.
This gives as the total amount of air per cubic foot 0.21
0.8629 =
The amount of air theoretically required is 0.8629 cu. ft. and
hence the per cent, excess is
1.0739.
0.21
0^8629
The products
C0
CO
N
H
of
Air
Total
24 2 per cent
-
will
then be:
0.3074
0.0045
1
cu.
ft.
cu.
ft.
.2464 cu.
ft.
0.0809
0.2100
cu.
ft.
c u. ft.
1.7492 cu.
These came from 1 cu. ft. of gas and 1.0729 cu. ft. of air.
The gas passes from the wet scrubber to the engine and
ft.
is
therefore
HEAT ENGINEERING
400
Moisture in gas
saturated.
sufficient to saturate
is
and hence
cu.
at 0.436 lb.
ft.
same at
75.5 F.
and
will
for a
would occupy
j^|
0.0296 cu.
ft.
The
air at 81.3 F. is
0.527
0.80
of air
in.
tions
0.422
14686
0.0287 cu.
ft.
Now the air and gas are not under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature and the 1.0739 cu. ft. of air above computed must be reduced
The pressure on
to the same pressure and temperature as the atmosphere.
the gas
and the
is
14.748
0.436
14.312 lbs.
14.686
0.422
14.264 lbs.
air pressure is
The
The amount
1-0739
if
Xi|i|xi|i|
1.09
cu.f,
gas and
1 cu. ft. of
its
Gas
.000 cu.
ft.
Air
.074 cu.
ft.
.030 cu.
ft.
/gas
Rn
2
0.031
\air
molecular
cu. ft.
2.135
Total
The products of combustion per cubic foot of gas and the computation
for the mean molecular weight are given below:
V X
Volume
CO
0.0045
1.2464
..0.2100
0.0809
f
0.0300
( 0.0310
0.3074
Air
C0
-j
Total
Mean
2.67
13.43
57.246
1.9112
molecular weight
mol. wt.
0.126
35.000
6.02
57 246
.
qiio
30.1
Gas
CO
C0
X
X
X
X
X
0.0045
1.2464
0.2100
0.1429
Air
401
0.3074
=
=
=
=
=
0.018
0.018
0.018
0.0188
0.0202
0.000081
0.022500
0.003780
0.002690
0.006280
0.035331
Value of b
Gas
CO
0.2100
0.1429
0.3074
Air
C0
X
X
X
X
X
0.0045
1.2464
0.185
0.185
0.668
0.807
= -Tsrnz
nMnn ,
= 001831
>
-^iT2
=
=
=
=
=
- 3762
0.0083
0.2320
0.0388
0.1950
0.2460
X
X
X
X
X
10" 5
10~ 5
10~ 6
10" 5
10~ 5
0.7201
10-
VfCP dt = V[a(T
Heat =
Heat
10~ 5
10~ 5
10~ 5
10" 5
10" 5
0.035331
From
X
X
X
X
X
0.185
1.9112[0.01831(752.6
=
=
1.9112[12.398
Ti)
+ \{TS -
75.5)
10
"5
above 75.5 F.
(55)
10
~5
(^^
1.052]
H
Weight of H
Volume
of
0.1429 cu.
0.143
1544
535.5
18
Heat
of vaporization
ft.
14.7
1049
1 44
0.0066
0.0066.
6.92 B.t.u.
1.070[81.3
1.518 B.t.u.
120.20
75.5 F.
by
air
=
0.11
75.5] [0.018]
in gas
and
air
Heat supplied
Heat brought in above
Moisture
337
e^ 43
is
TS)}
Q- 3762
25.70
in
2.67
1.15
121.46
)]
HEAT ENGINEERING
402
Heat
in indicated useful
work
(28.
per cent.)
Heat in jacket water (30.9 per cent.)
27.8%
33.8B.t.u.
36
29.8
26.8
'
Heat
in
exhaust gases
Heat
in
CO
I
fi
1.52
18.96
Difference
1.3
14.3
100.0%
of other fuels
gases.
The
solid
and
composed primarily
of
The
an ultimate analysis.
is
called
and on
Analysis on
Dry
Basis
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
Heat
Semi Bituminous
Peat
Wood
88.0
81.0
75.0
65.0
61.0
51.0
H
2.0
4.8
5.0
4.5
6.0
7.6
N
2.0
0.8
4.0
1.5
9.0
1.5
20.0
1.0
28.10 1.9
4.0 37.0
Ash
0.50 6.7
0.75 7.95
1.5 8.00
1.5 8.00
3.0
0.4
Fixed
Vol.
matter
85
73
56
44
7.00
20.00
36.00
48.00
Value
Ash
8.00
7.00
8.00
8.00
13,750
14,700
13,800
10,700
9,000
9,000
basis.
403
formulae
C +
= co
H + HO2 = H 0.
s + o = so
2.
From
2.
may
1 lb. of
quires
% or 8
C,
and S
oxygen and
lbs. of
%2
pound
lb. of
known.
fuel,
This
is
is
If
1 lb. of
given by:
lb. fuel
11.5
34.5
H+
4.35 S.
Lbs. of air
11.5
34.5
(h - ^)
4.35 S.
or approximately
Lbs. of air
The value ^
=
is
12
36
(# - ^)
substracted from
if
is
oxygen
g)
(56)
the
bomb
this
formula
is
calorimeter.
HEAT ENGINEERING
404
cases as there is danger in having some CO when the airnot in excess and the loss due to improper combustion is greater
than that due to the presence of excess air. This latter represents
a loss due to a larger quantity of hot gas sent from a boiler or
many
is
gas engine.
It is
shown that
CO.
The curve
is
of Fig.
189 illustrates the relation between per cent. C0 2 and total air
supply as a per cent, of the theoretical air supply. It is found
that when the per cent. CO2 is between 10 and 15 per cent, the
best results are obtained.
30 %
IS
0.8
2Sf
1
Q>
,20fc
.4
\^
IO56
>^l
^<Oj,
0.2
^ie
5#
0.0
50 %
25/
Deficiency of Air
Fig. 189.
Curve
of relation
between per
Excess
cent.
C0
of
Air
and excess
of air.
PROBLEM
The analysis of the exhaust gases from a
Thus for a coal of the following analysis:
80.0
5.0
10.0
0.5
4.5
Ash
100.0
and
flue gases of
405
C0
CO
12.0
0.5
5.0
82.5
may be worked out. The oxygen and carbon in the exbe found by remembering that from Avogadro's Law, equal
volumes at the same temperature and pressure contain equal numbers of
molecules.
Hence each volume may be considered to contain one molecule.
The weights of carbon and oxygen of the gas are found as follows
The amount
haust gas
of air
may
X
X
12
12
=
=
Total carbon
C0 =
1.44
1.50
CO = =
1.50
Oxygen from
Oxygen from
Oxygen from
C0 =
CO =
X
X
=0.05 X
0.12
0.005
lb.
carbon
50
cent.
96 per
P
4 per
cent.
P
32
16
32
=
=
=
Oxygen per
1.44
0.06
3.84
0.08
1.60
5 52
.
5.52
=
=3.68
1.50
of
fin =
1
Pounds excess
1.067
1.50
100
29 per cent.
552
The gas analysis does not show the oxygen required for the hydrogen and
sulphur and these must be added to that for the carbon and from the same
the oxygen of the coal is subtracted. The oxygen required is given by:
Oxygen
Oxgen
S0
for sulphur to
Oxygen
80
05
0.005
.
X
X
X
3 68
.
1.0
= 2 944
= 400
= 0.005
.
3.349
100
in coal
3 249
.
3.249
=
=
13.95
0.232
bxcess
..
supplied
0.29 X
= -
2.944
3.249
HEAT ENGINEERING
406
Products of Combustion
Carbon dioxide
0.8
0.96
44
=2.810
iz
Carbon monoxide
0.8
0.04
Water vapor
0.05
S0
0.005
Excess
1.067
air
Nitrogen
(13.95
0.80
coal
X
X
3.67) 0.768
=
450
= 0.010
.
3 670
.
= 7.890
= 0.045
= 14 950
Total weight
1 lb. of
= 0.075
iz
Ash
28
lbs. of air.
and O mix
flame the gases burn and give out their heat of combustion.
With an
may
not burn.
If volatile
SURFACE COMBUSTION
To
amount
407
not enter the tube and cause an explosion but the mixture will
quietly burn and heat the refractory material to brightness unless
Fig. 190 illustrates one
the heat is removed by some method.
form
of burner.
is
which are
The heat
is
of
and by conduction
is
is
Fig.
190.
The porous
not only
causes the gas to move at a higher velocity relative to the tube
but these heated objects maintain combustion and thoroughly
filling
air
preventing stratification.
TOPICS
Topic
and
1.
Diesel.
Tt
-T
Td
~ =
(ft)1
Give reasons for the impossibility of reducing the expressions for efficiency
by this method. What is meant by air standard?
Topic 3. Explain the action of a four-cycle gas engine and a two-cycle oil
engine.
Draw cards from each. Explain how these engines are governed.
Explain the methods of ignition.
HEAT ENGINEERING
408
B-
1544
mol. wt.
Z mol. wt.
Mol. wt.
vol.
vol.~~
explosion.
Topic
Explain the construction the T-s diagram for the gas engine
deriving the expressions
the construction
the
Topic
Explain the construction the logarithmic diagram the
Topic 8. Derive the formulse for finding the temperatures at the corner
Otto cycle assuming the value of c v to be a constant.
Topic 9. Derive the equation for the adiabatic of a gas when c v = a' +
Derive the equation for n on this line in terms of the temperatures.
bT.
Topic 10. Explain the method of finding temperature at the ends of
compression and expansion.
Topic 11. Explain by formulse the method of finding the temperature
of the
after
12.
of
for
of
figure.
this card?
of
of
13.
gas-engine card.
PROBLEMS
Problem
The
initial
1.
The clearance
temperature
is
409
80
CH 2
6.0
0.5
2
Ash
10.0
Moisture 3.5
.
per
per
per
per
per
cent.
C0
Co 2
CO
H
CH
N
CO
N
cent.
cent.
cent.
cent.
100.0
Time
Exhaust Gas
Producer Gas
Coal
100.0
1,200 min.
of test
Revolutions
Explosions
240,000
110,000
Gas pressure
Barometer
Gas temperature.
Relative humidity
100.0
Exhaust temperature.
Jacket temperature
Jacket temperature..
Coal
.
in.
29.9
in.
water
80 F.
70 F.
60 per cent.
Gas
I.h.p
B.h.p
Cooling water
800 F.
70
120
4,000 lbs.
320,000 cu.
ft.
200
160
178,000
lbs.
Compute the various losses and efficiencies and make a heat balance.
Problem 8. The heating value of 1 lb. of coal as fired is 14,680 B.t.u.
HEAT ENGINEERING
410
Find the
at 212 F. per
pound
of coal
is
11.10
Problem 9. In Problem 8 the following was found: The flue gas analysis
by volume gave 0.18 per cent. CO, 6.49 per cent. C0 13.09 per cent.
and the coal analysis by weight was as follows
2
Moisture
Ash
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Carbon
83
Sulphur
Nitrogen
0.8
1.3
100.0
Find the amount of air per pound of coal. Find the excess air. Find the
heat value by Dulong's formula and check with value by calorimeter given
Problem 8.
Problem 10. In Problem 9 find the composition of the exhaust gases per
pound of coal assuming that the air at a temperature of 75 F. has a wet
in
bulb temperature of 67 F.
Problem 11. With the results of Problem 10 find the heat carried away in
the flue gases due to a temperature of 427 F. and the heat available from the
CO present. Express these as percentages of 14,680 B.t.u.
Problem 12. With coal at $4.40 per ton what is the cost of producing
1000 lbs. of equivalent evaporation, using data of Problem 8. Equivalent
evaporation from and at 212 F. is equal to the actual evaporation multiplied
by the factor of evaporation. Factor of evaporation is the amount of steam
evaporated from and at 212 F. by the same amount of heat as will evaporate
1 lb. of water at the given feed temperature into steam at the given
condition for the boiler. This is given
q'i -h-xiri
r 2 i2
g'
ii
q'o
r 2i 2
In this problem find the factor of evaporation for a gauge steam pressure
barometer of 29 in. if the feed temperature is 105 F. and the
quality of the steam is 65 F. superheat.
Find the cost of producing 1000 lbs.
of actual steam.
of 121.3 with the
CHAPTER X
REFRIGERATION
AIR MACHINES
refrigerating machine operates by placing a substance
such a condition that its temperature is above the temperature of a water supply, and after the removal of heat from the
substance by this supply the condition of the substance
will abstract heat from a body of
is so changed that it
The
in
Fig. 191.
411
HEAT ENGINEERING
412
pipe system
is
cooled
taken to
then allowed to expand in the cylinder D to the original pressure, doing work at expense of its intrinsic energy, and hence its
temperature falls so much that on entering the coil E in the tank
or room F, this air will remove heat from the brine in the tank or
from the air, if placed in a room. This air is taken back to the
compressor after removing heat from the room F. The cycle is
air is
is
shown
in Fig. 192.
At times the
air is
Compressor
line
4-1
if
clearance
is
neglected.
The temperature T 2
is
given by
Combined Cord
Fig
192. Cycle
of
machine.
the air
the cooler
fixed
to a temperature
by the temperature
of the
REFRIGERATION
413
'.-r.^
Th
yr
or
(2)
T2
Te=T
\*)
(4)
is fixed by the temperature of the refrigroom temperature in the case of an open system
or 10 to 15 F. less for a closed system; while T 5 is fixed by the
temperature of the cooling water, T 2 and T 6 are fixed by the pressure ratios after 7\ and T 5 are found.
The work done on the compressor is 4123 while that done by
the air in the motor is 3564. The difference or 1256 shown by
combining the cards is the net work required. This work is
also the difference between the heat on the top and bottom lines
It is
since there
is
AW
It is seen that
- T -[T!- T
{[T 2
cp
lines.
b]
(5)
e ]}
volume from 2 to 5
to change the
is
moved by
that taken
from the
Qref.
and
Q cooler
=
=
is
Hence
refrigerator.
- ffi]
- T
c p [T 1
c p [T 2
(6)
(7)
6]
rj-
U
[Ti-
T - T
Tt- 6
T -T
- T
2
But
since
and
"
6
T
T,
T
T2
T,
2
Tt
T6
T
'
T6
Ts]}
(8)
HEAT ENGINEERING
414
Hence
or
Ti
Ti
Or
/T7
()
v-L^J
fj,
when
melts
1 lb. of ice
is
r^
Cp[l
The amount
of cooling
by the
Q =
c
for this
M
is
q'
q'i
=
=
=
=^y
1
a c p [T 2
- T
(12)
6]
given by
(11)
6J
air cooler is
Mw
t
t{ .
hrs. is
h.p.
a cp [T 2
ft
x
X
Vr
= W- "
The volume
of the
pansion cylinder
is
Vi
G.
-T
33^
(14)
(16)
T*)]
778
33000
778
<2J
33000
T
=
V
778
- (TV-
MgBTs
LPe
..
Vi
cl.
XwM BT
a
or
Pe
cl.
(17)
factor
j
factor
18 )
REFRIGERATION
The above equations
415
computed
are
cylinders
for
without
These three things affect the results of computabut because their effects are seen by comparison with
perfect conditions the equations for perfect conditions are given
although not used in practice.
PROBLEM
Assume that a 3-ton machine was desired to operate between 14.7 lbs.
and 58.8 lbs. abs. and that the temperatures of the cooling water were
60 F. to 65 F. and that for the cool room was 25 F. It will be assumed
further that the air from the expansion cylinder is discharged into the room
abs.
to be refrigerated.
=
T =
Tx
From
25 F. = 485 abs.
50
15 = 65 F.
is
true:
525 abs.
T2 =
Tt
,/r
/58 8\
485 Ij^f) 1A
485
354 abs.
485
720 - 485
2.063
H.p.
also
XT
H.p.
=
=
=
O 24r485
19.08
(892
600
3541
= -
720 abs.
260 F.
106 F.
0.24[720
525]
= 892
778
= 6.86
600)
33QQQ
778
6.85
is
892
00
1.486
2^3 X 33^
Mw
= 600
Qcooier
485
525 X.720
Q = 200 X
^ =
10
19.08
Vcomp-
_
XJ"
53.35
14 7
19.08
485
144
X 53. 3 5X35 4 =
X 144
14 7
in the
QQQ cu
per
'
,+
CU
'
per
mm
mm
If
now
it
would be possible
HEAT ENGINEERING
416
is
above problem
is
If
computed the
results will
be the same
It is equal to
clearance.
^--^i^.fi-^]
jlpiV!
n
If
(19)
- p V = jj^j MBIT, - T
2
2]
k this becomes
= MJc v [T - T 2
comp
(20)
2'
XX-..
6' 6
Fig. 193.
If
Effect of
is /,
(l+/)or
1'2'34
= work
of
compression
(1
n
+ /) ^^MBIT, - T
2]
(21)
REFRIGERA TION
clearance
if
417
= work
of expansion
work =
or
(1
- f)p V ^b[[l6
- f')MJcp [T - T 6
(1
(-)"**
(22)
The value
to
expansion
(1.4)
T,T,
is
not true.
T 2 and T 6 must
T2 =
= T T
2
each be found.
T^f^
(23)
k-1
The
to consider.
sion
is
">
The
T~
(24)
at a temperature
T2
air
air used.
27
HEAT ENGINEERING
418
If
of expansion
being
less-
than
or
Ve
Pe'
and as a
result the
temperature at
Vi
TV
effect.
The
carried
down
to the
back pressure.
The
action
then equiva-
is
The moisture
refrigerating machines.
some
an
effect
on the
The compression
efficiency of air
of moist air
may
cause
and warming
the air while a further condensation and even freezing in the ex-
the refrigerating
Suppose that
air of relative
humidity
p,
temperature 7\ and
The weight
to
of the air is
t\.
Mm
mi = weight
This
may
= pwiFi
(26)
of 1 cu.
also be
Mm = fp
Dmm
1544
__
(Ma +
of air
(27)
1544
18
g5 g
and moisture
Mm)Bmx T=pV
(28)
REFRIGERATION
419
and
F.-FxfgT
(29)
T = !ri(^)~*~
(30)
-W5 = weight
Now
hence,
of moisture in 1 cu.
ft.
(31)
if
ra 2
weight of
P2
1 cu. ft. of
saturated steam
Mrn
p2
is
relative
(32)
The work
and vapor
is
is
of compression of the
If adiabatic this
superheated.
cm
Cm
=
=
-
Mm m](T
c
- T
x)
(33)
778
If this air is
the moisture
To
air
becomes:
= j lMa ca +
ca
mixture of
1544
a3
0.48.
may
lg
O _X
or
may
amount,
it
Vs
- V2
If
Mm
<
/or\
(35)
P3
M
~
n
(36)
m V = amount
f
is
5,
(34)
Mrn
Vs
and
air.
condensed.
HEAT ENGINEERING
420
M
M
in place of
The volume
The value
Qc
of
[T 2
a cp
7' 8
of this is
+mV
+ Mm
(37)
(38)
MaBaT
is
- T + MmCpm [T - T + [Mm - m
2
3]
3]
V' 3 ]r 3
(39)
practi-
is
cally all
C =
This
a
a
by
- T 32 +
V' 3 [c p (T 2
C.
r 32
144]
(40)
is
The volume
7" 3 = MaB * T *
The
air
and
now expand
C from
(41)
giving:
M
M
a cva dt
a c va
(m 3 V
+m
^ C
1
a c va
+m
V' 3
Ci
log,
^+
,
^
,
__
i_33 _
[Ma cva
+m
V' 3 Ci
3 )c i dt
Apdv =
dV
dC
V' 3 Cj dt
dC =
assume
^1
log,
dt
^ = - B{Ts _ T j
3
log e yr
M AB] log ^
= M AB log Pi
a
Cva
^3
/P4\ _?
/P*\
+ jr^TY +
NOW
(42)
dC
+ AB
(43)
Cp
Hence
(M a cp + m
This
is
T T
3
V' 3Ci
Ts
T)
log e
Y = M AB
&f
T*- T
*&^
44 )
solved for
is
lo
If
(45)
REFRIGERATION
The value
Q =
r
The moisture
a c p (T 4
421
7\)
(46)
following:
psVs
pdv
-{
|
PiVt
(47)
V3
From
(42)
Ti
M^+mV'rt+r^TJ
,
j (M a cva + m
p3
M B [T
B +J=A
V 3
MaCp
p.V,
and
w% =
+y
V' 3 ci
_
3
mzYzCi
- T
+ f)W.
- T
A]
(49)
4]
(50)
+ T - t) [t " T
[T 3
dt
curve
'
(1
<]
(51)
is
- f)W.
(52)
- T
(53)
effect is
Q =
r
a cp
(T 1
A)
To apply the above formulae assume that the air enters the compression
cylinder at 25 F., with a relative humidity of 80 per cent, and is compressed
to 4 atmospheres.
The water in the cooler is sufficient to cool this to 65
F.
Assume that Vi = 1 cu. ft.
p 25 = 0.065
Pp
Ma =
0.065
[14.7
Mw
0.8
V*
X 0.8 = 0.052
- 0.052] X 144 X
53.34 X 485
0.00023
This
.
nQ _
= 0082
lbs
is
a check.
T =
2
04)^4=
485
(4)1-4
0.372
= 720
0.000 2
0.372
p>
= 0085" = a0 63
'
abs.
260 F.
HEAT ENGINEERING
422
The
Vz
0.372
H*
Hence none
as
some
amount
now
cooled
is
some condensation.
0.272
0.000753
0.000979
0.000979
of the moisture
720
0.0002
0.272
air is
coil.
If pz
were
Vz would be necessary
removed from the mixture leaving the air
of condensation a recalculation of
saturated.
of 7%:
k-l
0A
(0
T,
= Tz(-)
C =
V..
0.082
0.0002[(65
0.082
0.5
log
T4 =
144
0.2462
log e
TO
082
=
^
log, 4
3600
ft.-lbs.
log 1.45
361 abs.
778[0.02119][65
14,7
0.161
144]
0.082,
"778 l0ge4
1.45
Wc = 51 X
106 F.
0.2715
2462
Tz
= -
354 abs.
^Y, =
lo
+ ^p^)
0.02119,
"5^34"
1071.7
[l^ffy
X 0.24 + 0.0002 X
We =
y2
32)
1A
X (H)
525
= -
99)]
Tl
99 F.
2695
ft.-lbs.
QA
14
1
(4)
= -
= 3600 - 2695 =
Q =
Qr =
c
[0.082
[0.082
X
X
0.24
0.24][25
1.10
0.0002
905 ft.-lbs.
2695 X 0.9 = 1534
0.39][260
99)]
=
=
65]
2.10.
ft.-lbs.
3.86
24
144
2.44
2.44
qT^t
778"
Coefficient of performance with friction
2.44
Trofi
1-24.
778
2.44
ft. -lb.
0.00159
of
33,000
60
3120.
3120
Tons
Assuming 3
lbs. of coal
= onOO X
^-26.
REFRIGERATION
Tons
Tons
..
o qg
..
.*
oooo
7=r
1 i
(Air
0.745.
If this is
0.00361.
0.0000085.
0.0305.
n 0000085
364
X5V
4o0
94
2.44
ft.
ft.
3 86
water temperature
Ta
423
removed by freezing
^590.
compression cylinder
in short time)
results
are found:
4
" 7\
'^X ^
=
485 abs.
082
25 F.
0A
T =
T =
485(4)
65
T*
= 3600
525
1A
= 720 abs. =
460 = 525 abs.
485
= 354 abs
^20
260 F.
= ~
106
354
=
Q =
Qc
Coefficient of
0.082
performance =
2 58
ttqo
1.26.
778"
B.t.u. per ft.-lb. of
work =
2 58
Tons
Assume
0.00162.
^93=
0.00162
33,000
3180
9000
60
24
1 44
04
3180.
0-264.
Tons
Tons
clearance
2 58
000009
144 x 2 000
Gallons of cooling water per cu.
3 84
in water temperature = 1 r
o~oc
ft.
S =1 = 0.732.
. 00368.
ft.
0.0306.
= n^ooOOOQ = 34 0()'
cylinder and
compression cylinder
HEAT ENGINEERING
424
The
use of
air,
of the
machines,
as the
and 3 per
cent, of
C0
2.
composed
fluid
certain
of 97 per cent, of
SO
of
,-
liquid.
-
,,,,,;-,-, ,-,-,-,-^
1
;,-,-,-,-i-,-,
of
The underlying
these machines
is
principle
to
bring
is
slightly
by means
194.
Arrangement of the
vapor refrigerating machinery.
Fig.
of this
REFRIGERATION
The apparatus used
194.
In the compressor
425
the
PV diagram
ammonia
is
shown
or other vapor
This
in Fig.
com-
superheat the ammonia vapor if dry vapor is taken into the cylinder, while if there
is considerable liquid mixed with the vapor the compression will
reduce the amount of this liquid. The first is called dry com1
to 2.
will
These two
lines are
of the cycle.
is
seen more
compression takes
when the compressed vapor is delivered
from the compressor into the
condensing coil or condenser,
B, this water may abstract
heat and condense the vapor.
This occurs from 2 to 3 in Fig.
196 while in Fig. 195 the line
the
as
place so that
represents the
volume
of the liquid.
to a lower temperature
coldest water.
If
now
on an adiabatic
obtained.
U =
u" =
or
tV
(54)
&V"
iY
and
^Y"
> U
> ii"
but the elimination of the expansion cylinder has made the appaThe exact loss due to this may be found later.
ratus simpler.
HEAT ENGINEERING
426
is
is
Q =
r
heat on 4-1
But
is
.'.Q r
Now
i\ is
lw and
tities
i\
i 2 is
may
ii
or
ix
(57)
^Y
is
or
ii
iz "
(58)
2w
or 2d.
It
or
q'
q'
+r+
xr
JTsup.
Cpdt
Tsat.
The
from a to
b is
ib
as
is
given under
The equation
Q and Q
r
(59)
ia
c.
constant
+ -jjr
I
II
we ^
if
dry.
pv
or
constant
may
if
s2
also.
This
is
The work
required
is
tables for
the algebraic
sum
of the heats
really the
REFRIGERATION
With
friction
AW
AW
AW
427
= Q - Qc = - [Qc - Qr]
= [i 2 - iA - Hi - U'\
= i 2 - ii
= (1 + /)(i 2 r
(60)
(61)
The amounts above are all for 1 lb. of ammonia and to find the
amount of liquid, per minute, hour or day, the amount of refrigeration in that time is divided by the refrigeration per pound.
Thus for T tons of refrigeration per day the weight of volatile
liquid per
minute
is
M=
20077
^l
(62)
J
v
iv
is
M(l+f)(i2-ii)
h.p.
The weight
(63)
42.42
of cooling
is
Mm = M(i
- qt
q
2
where
=
=
q'
q\
tV)
(64)
of the
compressor
Dv =
is
given by
Mv
Mv'
or
clearance factor
clearance factor
(65)
The
case of air
lines
com-
expansion
of
197.
Actual card from
a compressor.
Fig.
known
D =
i+i-i(m
The
refrigerative effect
N
In
many
cases where
is
(66)
given by
ft
- **
(67)
HEAT ENGINEERING
428
or air is not sent through coils in the room but heat is removed
from the rooms by circulating cold brine through pipes. The
brine is cooled by the air or ammonia which passes through a
coil in a tank through which the brine is pumped.
The brine
is usually a solution of calcium chloride or sodium chloride.
The advantage of the brine system over the direct expansion
system is the fact that the break of a pipe would not discharge
the ammonia into the room and spoil the contents and also the
fact that the compressor may be shut down for some time and
the cold brine stored in the brine tank may be used to keep the
room
cool.
TA =
Ammonia:
Case
I.
T 2d =
Tv =
T
25
15
65
+
+
15
50
15
+
+
+
460
460
460
=
=
=
Wet compression.
Px
38.02
lbs.
p 2 = 153.90
X2
Xl
=
=
lbs.
0.1025
~Ti
+0.9328
Y
x
+ 0.0483
1.2017
i%
ix
iz>
0.902
564.4
485.0
= 6^4 = - 151
=
0.151 [564.4 - 36.5] = 78.6 B.t.u.
Q
Q = 0.151[485 - 36.5] = 67.8 B.t.u.
AW = 78.6 - 67.8 = 10.8 B.t.u.
= 0.151[564.4 - 485] = 10.8 B.t.u.
c
or
= 557
= - 23.2
= 36.5
470 abs.
540 abs.
525 abs.
REFRIGERATION
AW with friction
10.8
1.20
12.96
Tons
per u
h.p.
(Assume 3
Tons
144
lbs. of coal
of
X 2000
5.22
- 00673
04
or
0.628
n 0009*3 5
p2
s2
(This
..
'o
=
=
=
628
in for 15
= 2670
1.1534.
may
be checked by
Deg. superheat
i2
628.4 B.t.u.
^~
ii =
iz =
Qc =
Qr =
AW =
/153 9\
0.25
=664 aba
=470( 3-f!)
664
540
124 F.)
0.136
541.2
36.5
0.136 [541.2
36.5]
11.9
0.136 [628.4
80.5
AW with friction
68.6
11.9
36.5]
1.20
=
=
work =
t
Tons
t
oft refrigeration
per
Tons
of
volume taken
153.90 lbs.
si
/r> 2 \ 0.25
x2l
in
38.02 lbs.
r.-T.g)
1.02
volume taken
Dry compression.
pi
is s 2
78 6
cooling water
This
13,200
0-0153
of compressor
Case II.
60
per h.p.-hr.)
of compressor
ft.
ft.
rise in
33,000
0.000235
13200 X 24
OOOO y 144
Tons
yo~qa
6.23
i 2 96 x 778
per h.p.-hr. = 0.00673
of refrigeration
*+of* refrigeration
YFTo
67 8
work =
67 8
429
80.5
68.6
14.3
yTq =
r^
5.76
4.80
= 0.00617
x 77g
h.p.-hr. = 0.00617 X 33,000 X
1220 X 24
u
= no
=
h.p.
ug
60
12,200
2000
144
0.0142
HEAT ENGINEERING
430
Tons
of
of compressor
ft.
volume taken
in
0.000238
144 X 2000
Gallons of cooling water per cu. ft. of compressor volume taken in for
80 5
= 0.644
15 rise in cooling water = ,.
o ok
0.644
A qqqo38
= ^700
Carbon Dioxide.
(Wet compression).
Tt = T 1 = 470 abs. = 10 F.
T u = 540 abs. = 80 F.
T = 525 abs. = 65 F.
Pi = 362.8 lbs.
p = 936 lbs.
i 2 = 80
s = 0.1511
- 0.0226 + xi 0.2164
Si = 0.1511 =
xi = 0.80
= - 11.23 + 0.80 X 110.12
i
= 76.86
iz = 21.8
vi = 0.247 X 0.80 = 0.198
M = 5.05
Qc = 5.05[80 - 21.8] = 294
Q r = 5.05[76.9 - 21.8] = 278.4
AW = 5.05[80 - 76.9] = 15.6
with friction = 15.6 X 1.50 = 23.4
3
AW
made
necessary by the
excessive pressure.)
-.
278.4
~o \
278 4
'
17.8
=11.9
278 4
= ' 0131
2 3 4 x 778
B.t.u. of refrigeration per h.p.-hr. = 0.0131 X 33,000
B.t.u. per ft.-lb.
rp
Tons
work =
,.
(Assume 3
Tons
Tons
lbs. coal
per cu.
278.4
0.000965
144 X 2000
Gallons of cooling water per cu.
rise in
cooling water
294
,.
26000 X 24
2 Q00 x 144
5 _
ft.
of
04
26,000
0-0301
volume taken
in
=2.35
= n
of compressor
ft.
60
per h.p.-hr.)
2.17
2 35
000Qfi5
~ ^^^0
REFRIGERATION
Sulphur Dioxide.
T,
431
(Wet compression).
Tx = 470 abs. = 10 F.
T 2d = 540 abs. = 80 F.
T = 525 abs. = 65 F.
pi = 13.5 lbs.
p 2 = 59.65 lbs.
i 2 = 162.1
s = 0.302
- 0.1746 + x 0.3625
Si = 0.302 =
xi = 0.88
- 6.89 + 0.88 X 169.78 = 142.6
ii =
U = 10.96
vi = 0.88 X 5.96 = 5.25
3
= 5X5 = 19
Q c = 0.19[162.1 Qr = 0.19[142.6 AW = 0.19[162.1 -
AW with friction
3.71
10.96]
10.96]
142.6]
1.20
28.8
25.0
3.71
4.46
=
=
=
=
25
^-=r
25
j-t?;
6.75
5.61
25
work =
= 0.00725
4 46 x 778
B.t.u. per h.p.-hr. = 0.00725 X 33,000 X 60 = 14,350
24
14350
*
*
v
tIons ofe refrigeration
= onnn yX 144 = 1-195
per h.p.
B.t.u. per ft.-lb.
(Assume 3
Tons
Tons
lbs. coal
refrigeration
per cu.
ft.
per h.p.-hr.)
1.195
'
0.0167
volume taken
of compressor
in
0.000087
144 X 2000
Gallons of cooling water per cu.
28 8
15 rise in cooling water =
.
.,
10
ft.
0.00
of compressor
'
volume taken
in for
0.23
0.23
^Vino^ = 2640
ABSORPTION APPARATUS
To
moving parts
of a refriger-
ating apparatus and to utilize waste heat from other machines the
NH
NH
in
HEAT ENGINEERING
432
pressure
Condenser
Strong
j Liquor
Fig. 198.
Absorption machine
would use
absorbs
ammonia
some
when
it
is
This rectifier
absorbed by cold water or by the strong liquor which is pumped
from the absorber through tubes in the rectifier on its way to
the generator. This substance is at a lower temperature than
the vapors, and although low enough to condense most of the
water it is not low enough to condense the ammonia. The
condensed water is caught in a separator E and as it absorbs
ammonia, the aqua liquor thus formed is sent back to the generator.
From the rectifier the dry vapor is sent into the condenser F where the ammonia vapor is condensed by a cold water
content.
is
supply.
The
liquid
is
now
REFRIGERATION
G and
433
in which
evaporated by the abstraction of heat from the
surrounding brine. If the direct-expansion system is used this
heat is drawn from the room. The vapor is drawn into the
absorber / by the weak liquor which has been allowed to flow
the liquid
is
and the
the ammonia.
The
machine
The vapor
is
is
its
action of
now be
of this
as
aqua ammonia)
machine.
The amount
28
ammonia
by a pound
HEAT ENGINEERING
434
NH
is
lbs.
absorption.
sat.
0.00466z
Tsol.
0.656
(67)
Tsa =
T80 =
x =
t.
pressure.
i.
per cent, of
NH
in
solution
boils.
centration.
lbs. of
NH
in 1 lb. of solution.
Above
but this
is
used.
REFRIGERATION
He assumes
of molecules present.
the vapor
if
is
is
435
is
ammonia
Hence
100
if
18
_
P 100 - x
18
is
100
of
or the
Thus
amount
the number of
x_
~ V
1700 -17 s
1700 + x
17
(68)
plied
by the weight
of
The heat
uct, 142.5.
of complete dilution
142.5
Q "
100
becomes
142.5s
100
(69)
Some
later results
NH
in 1 lb. of mixture.
by Thomsen pertaining
to
much
greater
HEAT ENGINEERING
436
may
parts.
If
now 893
142. 5x
tt^t x
100
is
B.t.u.
^93
The heat of
of ammonia
142.5a;
'_
inr>
%
Yq^
1 lb.
is
it
to
x.
ammonia
lbs. of
(70)
when
in solution
a concentration of
If
is
100
r-^rx lbs.
by
are absorbed
of water
Q = 893j^ If
100(100
(71)
x)
from x to
X 100-a/
100
may
This
1 lb.
UZ;
of
is
x'
100
of
x'
ammonia
__*>__
100
x'
100 x
r^
in
"
_^1
100
100
100
xr
loo^L 893
x'
100
x r
893
of
ammonia
142.5*' I
100
m x loo-^L
is
- x
- x'
amount
of this
water
is
Q =
100
100
lbs. of
142.5*'
-i
loo-^J "
of
is
{7i)
x'l
ammonia
to change
therefore
x r
893
Tool
142.5* 1
100
x\
(74)
REFRIGERA TION
The weight
of
ammonia added
r x'
If
per
the heat
pound
is
100
LlOO
100
437
is
- an _
- x'\
jc_
100
or
893
"
142
-4loo^ + lafcJ
(75)
x'
is
the heat
necessary to evaporate
it is
amounts
be found in a problem
The
later.
The
were
- ^>[x -
^ + -^]
(76)
it
The
specific
When
heat of aqua
ammonia
by giving
off 1 lb. of
solution, y, required
ammonia
is
the
will
x' is
number
of
pounds
of strong
given by
1_JL
_
be assumed to be unity.
changed to strength x
100
ri
ioo
100
i
x
(77)
"Too
solved.
apparatus a problem
will
be
HEAT ENGINEERING
438
PROBLEM
Find the amount of refrigeration per pound of ammonia driven
per minute from 25 per cent, solution in the generator if the
room temperature is to be held at 25 F. and the cooling water
How much steam at 20 lbs. gauge
varies from 50 to 65 F.
pressure and x 0.9 would be required per minute per ton of
capacity? Find the heat transfer of the various parts of the
apparatus together with the amount of water used and a heat
off
balance.
is
25
15
Temperature
10 F.
steam
of
in generator
34.7 lbs.
(at
abs.)
259 F.
Pressure in condenser
Ammonia
Steam pressure
of saturation of
Temperature
0.5
38.02
lbs.
1b.
lbs.
lbs.
0.5 (assumed)]
ammonia =
0.5]
37.52
lbs.
9.5 F.
154.9 lbs.
= 80.4
= 155.4 lbs.
0.5] = 155.9 lbs.
Temperature
153 9
=154. 4
Total pressure
Temperature
=
=
F.
0.5]
-f-
+ 460
Tsol-
T80l =
.
j^| =
0.00466
700 abs.
25
+ 0.656
240 F.
This is the lowest temperature possible to drive off the ammonia with 25 per cent, concentration. As the evaporation is
To boil the liquor
carried on the concentration becomes less.
to a smaller concentration requires a temperature higher than
240 F.
The heat
REFRIGERATION
439
assumption used in
this
work.
limiting
4
254 'Ln
460
orrf
102
77777
0.00466z
4.oo
0.656
274
+460
- 00466x
' 656
This
will
The temperature
9.5
is
given by
25
+ 0.656
+ 460
0.00466
607 abs.
Tsol.
469.5
SOL.
Q 773
147 F.
rectifier are
ammonia.
may be taken at 90 F.
concentration at 90 F. and pressure 154.9 lbs. is
*i+S!
x
0.00466*
70 per cent.
The
possible
0.656
of
moisture
440
HEAT ENGINEERING
may
it is
from the
rectifier.
give
of
1 lb.
tion to
is
100
_
~
x'
-x
-x
true for absorption and gives 11.00 lbs. for y for the conditions
above.
100- 17.5
11ft
n
00
^5^5 =
some steam
off
is
must be known.
155 9 lbs.
240 F.
.
(1700 _ 17 y ok\
)
1700 4- 25
ammonia
Saturation temperature ammonia
Partial pressure of
of y
16 F.
1162
22
.
1 lb.
y
is
Q7
|^
0.
1395
be found
0.175 [y
1
This
NH
may now
0.252/
658
3 07
224 F.
Superheat
Heat content steam
Specific volume steam
The value
'
volume ammonia
Saturation temperature steam
steam with
18 51bs
.
Specific
of
137 4 lbs.
73 5 F.
166. 5F.
Superheat
Heat content ammonia
Weight
25 per cent.
.1995
(1
0.075
0.1395)]
in ^
10
65K
-
the generator.
The weight
of
weak
(10.65
liquor leaving
1.1395)
is
9.5105
lbs.
REFRIGERATION
The amount
of
ammonia absorbed by
is
given by
~-
0.175)
441
9.5105]
10.461
=
9.5105
0.9505
This
is
further
found.
Conditions at discharge of
rectifier:
Total pressure
154 9 lbs.
90 F.
.
Temperature
Concentration of liquor leaving
Partial steam pressure
ammonia
Partial
0.696
70 per cent.
17004770
1700
17
701
= 9.20
pressure
Temperature saturation
of
ammonia
80.3 F.
Superheat ammonia
Heat content ammonia
9 7 F.
volume ammonia
Temperature saturation of steam
Superheat steam
Heat content
Specific volume
1 99 cu.
53 F.
564.4 B.t.u.
Specific
From
monia
this the
amount
ft.
37 F.
1100 B.t.u.
1640
pound
of
am-
is
1
99
1640 =
The amount
if
lbs.
154. 7 lbs.
of
0012
ammonia absorbed by
this
amount
|f
75
of water,
is
0.0004
is
HEAT ENGINEERING
442
|g- 0.9509
and the weight
of strong liquor
9.5105
0.9505
lb.
is
0.9509
0.0016
10.4625
Q =
9.5105 [240
150]
is
equal to
856 B.t.u.
is
0.80X 856
-T04625-
iitg
145
21 - 5
by the
3^.
The
of liquor
to
much
by the
less
cooling effect
The
155 4 lbs.
207 F.
Pressure
Temperature assumed
Concentration
conditions
rectifier are
R^yf
^=
T
Partial pressure
13.3
ammonia
0.00466*
+ 0.6561
1700
17 X 33
1 700 4- 33 9
x
2~\
=33.2
=
^ '^ 2
146.7
^s
'
lbs.
1 93
REFRIGERATION
443
77 2 F.
129 8 F.
638
2.71
187 F.
20 F.
Superheat ammonia
Heat content ammonia
volume ammonia
Temperature saturation steam
Superheat steam
Heat content steam
Specific volume steam
Specific
1149
45
of
2.71
j^-y
ammonia =
0.06.
Since the water vapor leaving the rectifier per pound of ammonia is 0.0012, the amount of water removed from the rectifier
per pound of ammonia leaving the rectifier is
0.06
0.0012
0.0588
the
zer
Hence
70 per cent.
is
[0.0588
0.06
0.00957
0.0096
and
0.065
The amount
of liquor passing
0.1517
is
of
ammonia
entering
is
0.0588
This
^ = M[l - I]
0.0588
M]
0.065.
0.1517
from
0.065
0.0684
rectifier is
0.2167
then
lb.
at a temperature of 90 F.
On
_ ~10.4625X210.5 + 0.2167X90 =
T
1
"
~
10.6792
The concentration
of this mixture
is
now
_
nc -
n 5_
208
found.
HEAT ENGINEERING
444
Ammonia from
Ammonia from
Total
rectifier liquor
The temperature
is
10.4625
0.25
= 2 61572
=0.15170
.
ammonia
2 76742
.
Concentration
155.4 lbs.
=
=
strong liquor
2.76742
'
fi7Q o
of
given by:
+ 460 =
80.6
1
Q 00466
25 Q1
Q 656
sol-
TsoL =
697 abs.
237 F.
is
below
heat of solution
when the
diluted in
To change
10.4652
lbs. of liquor
10.4625 [0.2591
0.25]
ammonia
0.0955
by the
lost
0.25913]
rectifier liquor
0.0955.
The mixture
of a strong solution in a weaker solution deThis may be considered as the difference between
the heat developed when the weak solution is made strong and
velops heat.
Heat =
o.
M55 [-
/25913
42 .(SH|
25\
+i)
-|
25913^
,, rtr /70
_ 893+14
, 5( | +
)]
,
r70_25]
51^-^11
130
75 J
=
=
0.0955
142.5[2.33
0.33]
27.22
part
27.22 B.t.u.
is
2722
10.6792
This gives
208.05
2.55
-2
*'
~ *' 55F
=
210.55 F.
39
4
REFRIGERATION
445
This
If this
155 4 lbs.
210.25 F.
Pressure
Temperature
Concentration
32
9 39 lbs.
146.01 lbs.
76.9 F.
Superheat ammonia
Heat content ammonia
640
Specific
volume ammonia
Temperature saturation steam
2 73
190 F.
Superheat steam
Heat content steam
Specific volume steam
Water vapor per lb. of ammonia
20.25 F.
1151
42
0.0644
ammonia
pressure
133 3 F.
.
lb. of
0.0644
ammonia
0.0012
0.0644 [0.0632
0.01117
Ammonia absorbed =
0.0707
70
X^
0.0632
70
M]
0.0744 per
lb.
0.165
0.165
0.0707 = 0.2357
10.4625 X 210.5
0.2357 X 90
Temperature of mixture =
1 o 6QS2
2 7807
= 25.99 per cent.
Concentration of mixture =
finco
Liquor from
t,
rectifier
,
"
1fl
= 20 ?.84
HEAT ENGINEERING
446
Ammonia
29.55
r> aqq o
Temperature
rise
Temperature
of discharge
This
is
0.25]
0.1036
Heat
236 F.
below 236
0.1037
251
142.5
39-75
29.55
2.76 F.
207.84
2.76
hence there
F.,
0.2599]
T70
is
210.6 F.
no further change
of con-
may
210.25
change data.
The ammonia
entering rectifier
0.9509
The vapor
entering
is
0.165
therefore
1.1159
is
Mean
The
value
0.073
liquor at temperature
210.25 F. drops
through
the
analyzer and receives heat from the hot vapors. As this heat
is not sufficient to heat the liquor to 240 F., it will be assumed
that a steam coil
will
The
is
be computed.
The
p. 440.
it is known that the discharge from the generator is 1 lb.
ammonia and 0.1395 lb. of steam, at each point of the apparatus the amount of substance is known.
Since
of
Generator:
Entering.
Leaving.
concentration at 240 F.
10.65 liquor 25 per
ammonia vapor at 240 F.
lbs.
of
cent,
1 lb.
0.139
Analyzer:
Entering.
1 lb.
0.139
ammonia vapor
lb. of
at 240 F.
REFRIGERATION
Leaving.
10.65
lbs. liquor of
1.116 lbs. of
0.074
Rectifier
ammonia vapor
at 210.6 F.
Entering. 1.116
Leaving.
lb. of
447
lbs. of
ammonia
at 210.25 F.
lb. of
Condenser:
0.9509
0.0011
Leaving. 0.9505
Entering.
0.0015
ammonia vapor
lb.
lb. of
at 90 F.
water vapor at 90 F.
ammonia liquid at 80 F.
liquor of strength 25 per cent, at 80 F.
lb. of
lb.
Expansion Coil:
0.9505
0.0015
Leaving. 0.9505
Entering.
0.0015
ammonia
liquid at 80 F.
liquor of strength 25 per cent, at 80 F.
lb. ammonia at 10 F.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Absorber:
Entering.
Leaving.
9.501
lbs.
0.9505
0.0015
10.463
lb.
lb.
lbs.
water vapor at 10 F.
liquor of 25 per cent, concentration at 145 F.
Heat
10.65[240
Heat
32]
= 2218
of solution of liquor
-0.25
X 1065 T893-
142.5
||1 =
2255
-~37
Leaving.
Heat of
Heat
Heat
1 lb.
ammonia =
of 0.1395 lb.
steam
658.1 =
0.1395 X 1162
162.0
9.501 [240
Heat
658.1
32]
1975.0
of solution of liquor
-0.175
X 9.501 [893 -
142.5
X ^|] =
1435.0
1360.1
(- 37)= 1397.1
HEAT ENGINEERING
448
Analyzer:
Heat
Entering.
Heat
Heat
Heat
of 0.1395 lb.
steam
of liquid of liquor
= -
of solution
1 X 658.1 =
= 0.1395 X 1162 =
= 10.67 [210.25 - 32] =
ammonia =
of 1 lb.
0.2599
10.7 ^893
142.5
658.1
162.0
1910.0
|^1
= -2340.0
390.1
Leaving. Heat
Heat
Heat
Heat
of solution
= -
steam
10.65 [240
10.65 1893
ammonia =
of 1.116 lbs.
of 0.074 lb.
0.25
X 640.9
1151 =
X |gl = -
142.5
1.116
0.074
= 2218
32]
2255
716.0
85.2
764.2
390.1
374.1
is
120 [1397.1
Pounds
by
of
Mst =
Rectifier
Entering.
374.1]
steam required at 30
0.9
2125 B.t.u.
lbs.
gauge and x
2 55 lbs
-
927.9
0.9
is
given
'
Heat of 1.116
Heat
Leaving. Heat
Heat
Heat
ammonia =
lbs.
of 0.074 lb.
steam
716.0
85.2
of 0.9509 lb.
ammonia =
of 0.0011 lb.
steam
0.9509
0.0011
Heat of solution
1100
0.236 [90
= - 0.7 X 0.236^893 -
801.2
536.0
564.4
142.5
32]
1.2
13.7
X ^1 = -
92.5
458.4
458.4
342.8 B.t.u.
Condenser:
Entering. Heat
Heat
of 0.9509 lb.
ammonia =
of 0.0011 lb.
steam
536.0
1.2
537.2
B.t.u.
Expansion Coil:
Entering.
Heat
of
ammonia =
Heat
of
water
51.0
0.0
51T0
REFRIGERATION
Leaving.
Heat
of
Heat
of
Heat of solution =
X
-
0.004 ^893
893
449
541.2
32]
142.5
=
s=
||]
514.0
0.0
3.4
510.6
Tons
pound
of refrigeration per
459 6
Absorber
of
O 3
Q *tons
2
-
1120.0
1435.0
514.0
3.4
195.6
Leaving. Heat
Heat
of liquid of liquor
= -
of solution
0.25
=
=
1180
-2215
- (-
Interchanger
Entering. Heat
Heat
1035)
1035
1230.6
Heat equivalent
of
weak
liquor
=~
155.4
work =
1180.0
1975.0
144 X 10.463
X 62.5X0.913 _
37.5
b5
3157.6
[Density
Leaving. Heat
Heat
of liquid of
of liquid of
^(m - m + wm
4 3
25 2
strong liquor
weak
liquor
35 3
10.463 [210.5
9.501 [150
32]
0.913]
32]
1865
1120
2985
Heat
radiated
3157.6
2 65
29
2985
172.6 B.t.u.
1 lb. of
ammonia
HEAT ENGINEERING
450
Heat Balance:
Taken
Given out
in
1397.1]
374.1
354. 0)
Generator
Analyzer
..
354.0
342.8
486.2
Rectifier
Condenser.
Expansion coil.
Absorber
.
459.6
1230.6
Pump
2.65
Exchanger.
172.6
2587.4
Total
The
2586.2
is
raised to
65 F.
1 lb.
ammonia
liberated
'
..
342 8
*
32.2
34.3
22.4
Wt.
ammonia
liberated
Wt.
ammonia
liberated
--
actually needed
is
34.3 lbs.
'
is found by
Chapter III.
The other data computed for the other refrigerating machines
will be computed for comparison.
methods
of
Tons
Tons
(Assuming 8
Tons
The
lbs. of
brine
pump would
459
2
__
steam per
0.125
144
^-005
lb.)
steam = ^
require
6X8
o'ooo
120
-^r
0.0006
0.25 lb.
of
0.00159
258 *
ii
11
REFRIGERATION
451
CM
CM CM
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t^ l^
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00 00 CM co b^
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CO CO CO ii CO
CO
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oo 00 05 OS
ajnssajd q3iH
Pn*
*o
co
o
Q
Eh
<
w
(=1
(jq-dq
jad sqi 08) urea^s
qj jad uoii'BJa
-Sujaj jo suojl
^TO'Bd'BO
Stncqaui aot
uo^ jad
-[OOO
ja^-B.w.
jo
Sui
o
o
o
d
o
oc
CN
O
o
o
d
o
o
CM
SUOJfBQ
JO
at
uwBjp
-no jad
asu cx joj ja'j'BAv
Suqooo jo sno^r)
'jj'
o
iO
00 00 0? CO CO
iQ IO iO IO CO
1 t-I C5
CO r^ CO CM iO
CO co o t^
rH CO
c
o
05 IO
iO o
r-i
o
CO CO
O
C o
o
88 o
6 o* o o d
o o o o o
oo
b- O CO
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HEAT ENGINEERING
452
From
the above
it is
seen that
much
C0
gives a
much
larger capacity
shown by tons
The air machines
have small capacities per cubic foot and are very inefficient. The
absorption machine for the conditions shown is not as efficient
is
of refrigeration per
pound
CO2 machine
is
The high
if
waste steam
may
be
pressure necessary on
TOPICS
ammonia
Topic
9.
What
is
Partial absorption?
ammonia?
What
REFRIGERATION
Topic 10.
453
machine.
this fix?
PROBLEMS
pression,
Problem
Problem
Problem
(b)
4.
5.
6.
is
aqua ammonia.
of
ammonia
of original solution?
What is the density of each solution?
developed by this addition of ammonia?
Problem 7. A 25 per cent, solution is to be boiled at 170 lbs. gauge
pressure.
At what temperature will it boil? At what temperature must
this be heated if it is to be reduced to a 10 per cent, solution.
What are the
partial pressures above the 10 per cent, solution in this case?
Problem 8. Find the amount of heat per pound of vapor in the vapors
coming from a 10 per cent, solution of aqua ammonia boiling at 170 lbs.
gauge pressure.
What heat
is
INDEX
Authors, Authorities, Inventors and Investigators
Adams, 210
American Rad.
Andrew, 360
Co., 101
Atkinson, 363
Avogadro, 27
Ball,
233
Barnett, 359
Dent, 156
Diesel, 364
Duchesne, 209
Dulong, 73, 403
Dupre Hertz, 39
Duhring, 356
Barr, 209
Barrus, 178
Fliegner, 60
Barsanti, 359
Foran, 335
Giffard, 275
Berthelot, 435
Gilles, 360
Goodenough,
Bertrand, 39
Bisschop, 360
Boltzmann, 73
Boulvin, 189
Box, 348
Boyle, 26
Brille, 80
Brown, 359
Buckingham, 314
Buffalo Forge Co., 101
Callendar, 198, 204, 208
Carcanagues, 80
Carnot, 9, 11, 12, 13, 62, 170
Carrier, 343
Charles, 26
Clark, 233
Clausius, 167, 170
Clayton, 210, 214
47,
215
Hagemann, 99
Hall, 205
Halliday, 80
Harn, 183
Hausbrand, 99, 100, 356
Hautefeuille, 359
Heck, 199, 223
Heinrich, 209
Hilliwell, 360
Huygens, 359
Ingersoll
Rand
Jelinek, 99
Jordan, 80, 92
Clerk, 360
Josse, 261
Coker, 369
Corliss, 167
Cotterill, 198
Curtis, 302
Klebe, 44
Dalby, 77, 80
Dalton, 28
Kelvin,
455
8, 36,
37
INDEX
456
Langen, 44, 360
Le Chatelier, 44
Lenoir, 359
Linde, 44
Lucke, 73, 464
Mallard, 44
Sangster, 119
Savery, 167
Scoble, 369
Ser,
80
Stanton, 80, 91
Stefan, 73
Napier, 60
Stone, 215
Newcomen, 167
Newton,
73,
359
359
Stumpf, 167, 226, 231
Street,
Sultzer, 167
Nusselt, 75, 94
Thomsen, 435
Orrok, 97, 334, 335
Otto, 360
Thurston, 198
Tyndall, 73
Watt, 167
Webb, 232
Werner, 80
Weymouth, 370
73
Porter, 167
Petit,
Worcester, 167
Wright, 359
Zeuner, 215
INDEX
Subjects
Calorimeters, 178
Absorber, 433
Capacities, thermal, 21
Accumulators,. 348
Adiabatic,
2, 5, 16, 31,
Carbon
54
Air, excess,
dioxide, 430
Adiabatic action, 2
Afterburning, 368
Aftercooler, 120
computation
404
Charles' law, 26
pump,
Charts, I-S, 47
dry, 334
T-S, 47
152
Ammonia, 428
effect eliminated,
ratio,
proximate, 402
T-S, 183
Analyzer, 432
concentration, 434
density, 437
14,
conditions for,
437
free basis,
62
14
Avogadro's law, 27
Axial thrust, 300
Back
Blades,
125
space, 125
ultimate, 402
Availability,
418
factor, 125
aqua, 434
Aqua ammonia,
243
Characteristic equations, 19
motor, 151
loss,
for,
construction, 243
402
Compounding
for
turbines,
297
velocity, 297
Compression, best point, 230
curve, 127
dry, 425
method, 128
temperature, 127
wet, 425
Compressors, 118
air, 118
Condensation, initial, 196
maximum, 207
Condenser, ammonia, 98
barometric, 337
contraflo, 337
sures,
457
pres-
INDEX
458
Condenser design, 338
dry tube, 337
jet, 333
steam, 97
surface, 333
uniflux, 337
Conduction, 15, 72, 74
coefficients,
of,
Dry compression,
basis,
182
425, 429
402
187
Dulong's formula, 408
Duty, 67
test,
95
Efficiency, 12
factors, 74
Conductivity, 207
Conservation of energy, 2
Constant steam weight curve, 217
actual, 63
air standard,
362
Convection, 72, 75
kinetic,
maximums,
mechanical, 63
universal gas, 27
293
293
overall, 63
towers, 341
347
size, 347
Counter flow, 82
practical, 63
type, 63
cost,
temperature, 49
Cross products, 37
Curve, construction, 218
expansion, 215
pressure in nozzle, 269
steam consumption, 222
Curtis turbine, 302, 311
volumetric, 126
Effects,
single,
double,
quadruple,
350
End thrust, 306
Energy, conservation, 2
high grade, 1
internal, 2
41
displacement, 146
intrinsic,
Dalton's law, 28
Engine,
power, 146
work on, 138
and turbine, combined, 329
compared, 309
binary, 261
bleeding, 255
heat, 62
exact, 3
207
Dilution, 368
Discharge, 59
Displacement of
air,
Diffusivity,
receiver,
242
regenerative, 256
similar to turbine, 309
air
compressor, 135
size of,
229
INDEX
Engine steam, 167
steam cycle, 170
straight flow, 170
Stumpf, 226
tests, 67, 68,
178
uniflow, 226
Woolf, 242
work, 246
Entropy, 16, 37, 43, 47, 51
around
459
peat, 402
engine,
cycle, 18
diagram, 19
Equality of temperature scales, 36
Equation, Bernouilli, 279
characteristic, 19
29
fundamental, 21
Equivalent evaporation, 410
Evaporation, equivalent, 410
factor, 410
Evaporators, 98, 349, 350, 353
Exact differential, 3
Expansion, complete, 138
curves, construction of, 218
free, 172, 175
incomplete, 138, 172, 175, 418
line, 140, 215
loss, 140
ratio, 220
Exploring tube, 269
Explosion temperature, 389
Exponent value, 214
External work, 2, 31, 41
differential,
Generator, 432
graphical representation, 6
internal, 41
of liquid,
40
of vaporization, 40
on line, 6, 7, 35
on path, 20, 42, 52
transmission, 72, 75, 99, 103, 104
efficiency,
103
compressor, 122
of safety, 100
blowers, 118
power, 149
Ignition,
410
Feedwater heaters, 98
First law of thermodynamics, 2
Flow, counter and parallel, 82
of fluids, 56
Free
396
of evaporation,
Fan
entropy-
producer, 371-373
Humphrey
Factor diagram, 221
402
air,
123
Impact
368
coefficient,
284
Injector,
196
275
capacity, 284
details, 281
double jet, 284
experiments, 277
heat equation, 280
lifting, 284
coal,
crude
402
oil,
gasoline,
374
374
INDEX
460
Injector number, 282
Low-grade energy,
temperature, 285
Isodynamic,
6,
31,
54
Isothermal,
Mean
7, 10, 31,
Mouth
55
Jet,
Motors,
action, 2
418
151
air,
268
Mouthpiece, 272
Multistaging, 130
reasons for, 135
of nozzle,
N-value
of,
214
converging, 273
spray, 348
steam, 281
velocity,
278
Joule's equivalent, 2
Orifices, 271,
Lagging, 254
Latent heat, 21
Parallel flow, 82
Law, 14
Avogadro's, 27
Boyle's, 26
Charles', 26
Dalton's, 28
First
Law
of
Paths, 20
Perfect gases, 19, 26
Thermodynamics,
Second
Polytropic, 32
Law
of
Thermody-
namics, 14
Stefan-Boltzmann, 73
Leakage, effect of, 134
factor, 125
in pipes, 143
of valves, 208
Potentials, thermodynamics, 24
Power
of motor, 126
Preheater, 152
change, effect
critical,
267
of,
176, 177
INDEX
intermediate, 130
mean
effective,
219
334
partial, 28,
and volume
of steam,
225
Pumping
74
Radiators, 100
Steam, 20, 39
consumption, 173, 210
curves, 222
turbines, 287
velocity, 278
weight curve, 217
working, 185
Stefan-Boltzmann law, 73
Still, Hodges, 353
Superheat allowances, 328
effect of, 176, 177, 234
Superheated vapor, 44
Sulphur dioxide, 431
Taylor hydraulic compressor, 122
Temperature, after compression, 127
after explosion, 389
boiling, 356
critical, 49
entropy analysis, 188
diagram, 392
gas-engine card, 364, 384
gradient, 76
intermediate, 133
Kelvin's absolute scale, 8
mean
difference, 81
scale, 7
equality, 36
engines, 178
324
Relations, differential, 23
trigonometric, 291
Reversible action, 10
Rieman steam
Reheaters, 253
Reheat
461
shock, 272
relations of, 22
Thermodynamic
lines,
33
Thermodymanics, fundamental, 1
Thermometers, constant immersion,
181
INDEX
462
Throttling action, 58, 123, 425
loss from, 144
Tons
of refrigeration,
Vacuum
Valves,
allowance, 328
air,
136
leakage, 208
Vapor, 39
414
Total heat, 41
Transmission constants, 105
heat, 72
to boiling water, 99
Variables, independent, 20
Velocity, actual, 289
blade, 289
292
278
relative, 289
whirl, 290, 292
Vento heaters, 101
Viscous liquids, 99
factors,
injector,
Volume
and
pressure
Walls, effect
of,
204, 369
Water
velocity,
278
Weights, molecular, 29
Wet compression, 425, 428
Woolf engine, 242
Work, 31
compression, 123
multiple expansion, 246
Working steam,
Ultimate analysis, 402
Underexpansion, 268
Universal gas constant, 27
of
225
Volumes, partial, 28
Volumetric efficiency, 126
Y, value
of,
266
170, 185
steam,