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SteamEngineeringTutorials>SteamEngineeringPrinciples&HeatTransfer
Indirectheatingoffluidsiscoveredinthistutorialincludinglayouts,controlanddrainageofcoilsandjackets,andheattransfercalculations.

HeatingwithCoilsandJackets
Vesselscanbeheatedinanumberofdifferentways.Thismodulewilldealwithindirectheating.
Inthesesystems,theheatistransferredacrossaheattransfersurface.Optionsinclude:
SubmergedsteamcoilsAwidelyusedformofheattransferinvolvestheinstallationinsideatankofasteamcoilimmersedinaprocessfluid.
SteamjacketsSteamcirculatesintheannularspacebetweenajacketandthevesselwalls,andheatistransferredthroughthewallofthevessel.

Submergedsteamcoils
Theuseoftankcoilsisparticularlycommoninmarineapplicationswherecargoesofcrudeoil,edibleoils,tallowandmolassesareheatedindeeptanks.Many
oftheseliquidsaredifficulttohandleatambienttemperaturesduetotheirviscosity.Steamheatedcoilsareusedtoraisethetemperatureoftheseliquids,
loweringtheirviscositysothattheybecomeeasiertopump.
Tankcoilsarealsoextensivelyusedinelectroplatingandmetaltreatment.Electroplatinginvolvespassingarticlesthroughseveralprocesstankssothat
metalliccoatingscanbedepositedontotheirsurfaces.Oneofthefirststagesinthisprocessisknownaspickling,wherematerialssuchassteelandcopper
aretreatedbydippingthemintanksofacidorcausticsolutiontoremoveanyscaleoroxide(e.g.rust)whichmayhaveformed.

Steamcoilsizing
Havingdeterminedtheenergyrequired(previousModule),andwithknowledgeofthesteampressure/temperatureinthecoil,theheattransfersurfacemaybe
determinedusingEquation2.5.3:

Theheattransferareacalculatedisequivalenttothesurfaceareaofthecoil,andwillenableanappropriatesizeandlayouttobespecified.

DeterminingtheUvalue
Tocalculatetheheattransferarea,avaluefortheoverallheattransfercoefficient,U,mustbechosen.Thiswillvaryconsiderablywiththethermalandtransport
propertiesofbothfluidsandarangeofotherconditions.
Ontheproductsideofthecoilathermalboundarylayerwillexistinwhichthereisatemperaturegradientbetweenthesurfaceandthebulkfluid.Ifthis
temperaturedifferenceisrelativelylarge,thenthenaturalconvectivecurrentswillbesignificantandtheheattransfercoefficientwillbehigh.
Assistedcirculation(suchasstirring)thatwillinduceforcedconvection,willalsoresultinhighercoefficients.Asconvectionispartiallydependentonthebulk
motionofthefluid,theviscosity(whichvarieswithtemperature)alsohasanimportantbearingonthethermalboundarylayer.
Additionalvariationscanalsooccuronthesteamsideofthecoil,especiallywithlonglengthsofpipe.Thecoilinletmayhaveahighsteamvelocityandmaybe
relativelyfreefromwater.However,furtheralongthelengthofthecoilthesteamvelocitymaybelower,andthecoilmayberunningpartiallyfullofwater.Invery
longcoils,suchasthosesometimesfoundinseagoingtankersorinlargebulkstoragetanks,asignificantpressuredropoccursalongthelengthofthecoil.To
achievethemeancoiltemperature,anaveragesteampressureofapproximately75%oftheinletpressuremaybeused.Inextremecasestheaveragepressure
usedmaybeaslowas40%oftheinletpressure.
Anothervariableisthecoilmaterialitself.Thethermalconductivityofthecoilmaterialmayvaryconsiderably.However,overallheattransferisgovernedtoa
largeextentbytheheatresistantfilms,andthethermalconductivityofthecoilmaterialisnotassignificantastheircombinedeffect.
Table2.10.1providestypicaloverallheattransfercoefficientsforvariousconditionsofsubmergedsteamcoilapplication.Uvaluesforsteampressures
between2bargand6bargshouldbefoundbyinterpolationofthedatainthetable.

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TherangeoffiguresshowninTable2.10.1demonstratesthedifficultyinprovidingdefinitiveUvalues.Customaryfiguresatthehigherendofthescalewill
applytoinstallationsthataresuppliedwithcleandrysteam,smallcoilsandgoodcondensatedrainage.Thelowerendismoreapplicabletopoorqualitysteam,
longcoilsandpoorcondensatedrainage.
Therecommendedoverallheattransfercoefficientswillapplytotypicalconditionsandinstallations.Theserecommendedratesareempiricallyderived,andwill
generallyensurethatageneroussafetymarginappliestothecoilsizing.
Inthecaseoffluidsotherthanwater,theheattransfercoefficientwillvaryevenmorewidelyduetothewayinwhichviscosityvarieswithtemperature.
However,thevaluesshowninTable2.10.2willserveasaguideforsomecommonlyencounteredsubstances,whileTable2.10.3givestypicalsurfaceareasof
pipespermetrelength.

*Certainmaterialssuchastallowandmargarinearesolidatnormaltemperaturesbuthavequitelowviscositiesinthemoltenstate.
**Commercialmolassesfrequentlycontainswaterandtheviscosityismuchlower.

Example2.10.1

ContinuingfromExample2.9.1determine:

Part1.Theaveragesteammassflowrateduringstartup.(Meanheatload=367kW)

Part2.Theheattransferarearequired.

Part3.Arecommendedcoilsurfacearea.

Part4.Themaximumsteammassflowratewiththerecommendedheattransferarea.

Part5.Arecommendationforinstallation,includingcoildiameterandlayout.

Thefollowingadditionalinformationhasbeenprovided:

Steampressureontothecontrolvalve=2.6barg(3.6bara).

Astainlesssteelsteamcoilprovidesheat.

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Heattransfercoefficientfromsteam/coil/liquid,U=650W/mC

Part1Calculatetheaveragesteammassflowrateduringstartup

Steampressureontothecontrolvalve=2.6barg(3.6bara)

Criticalpressuredrop(CPD)willoccuracrossthecontrolvalveduringstartup,thereforetheminimumsteampressureintheheatingcoilshouldbetakenas
58%ofupstreamabsolutepressure.AnexplanationofthisisgiveninBlock5.

Part2Calculatetheheattransferarearequired

Part3Arecommendationforcoilsurfacearea

BecauseofthedifficultiesinprovidingaccurateUvalues,andtoallowforfuturefoulingoftheheatexchangesurface,itisusualtoadd10%tothecalculated
heattransferarea.

Part4Themaximumsteammassflowratewiththerecommendedheattransferarea
Maximumheattransfer(andhencesteamdemand)willoccurwhenthetemperaturedifferencebetweenthesteamandtheprocessfluidisatitsmaximum,and
shouldtakeintoconsiderationtheextrapipeareaallowedforfouling.

(a)Considerthemaximumheatingcapacityofthecoil (coil)

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(b)Steamflowratetodeliver519kW

Part5Arecommendationforinstallation,includingcoildiameterandlayout
(a)Determinecoildiameterandlength

FromTable2.10.3,a100mmpipehasasurfaceareaof0.358m/mrun.Thisapplicationwillrequire:

Itmaybedifficulttoaccommodatethislengthoflargeboreheatingpipetoinstallina3m3mtank.
Onesolutionwouldbetorunabankofparallelpipesbetweensteamandcondensatemanifolds,setatdifferentheightstoencouragecondensatetoruntothe
lower(condensate)manifold.Thedrainlinemustfallfromthebottomofthecondensatemanifolddowntothesteamtrap(orpumptrap).SeeFigure2.10.1fora
suggestedlayout.

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Notethesteamsupplyissituatedatoneendofitsmanifold,whilstthetrapsetisattheotherend.Thiswillhelpsteamtoflowandpushcondensatethroughthe
coils.
Intheapplication,thesteamandcondensateheaderswouldeachbe2.8mlong.Asthecondensatemanifoldisholdingcondensate,theheatfromitwillbe
smallcomparedtothesteammanifoldandthiscanbeignoredinthecalculation.
Thesteammanifoldshouldbe100mmdiameterasdeterminedbythepreviousvelocitycalculation.Thiswillprovideaheatingareaof:
2.8mx0.358m/m=1.0m
Consequently7m1m=6mofheattransferareaisstillrequired,andmustbeprovidedbytheconnectingpipes.
Arbitrarilyselecting32mmpipeasagoodcompromisebetweenrobustnessandworkability:

CHECK
Itisnecessarytoconfirmthesteamvelocitythroughtheconnectingtubes:
Onthebasisofproportionalityofheattransferarea,thesteamheaderwillcondense:

Othersteamcoillayouts
Thedesignandlayoutofthesteamcoilwilldependontheprocessfluidbeingheated.Whentheprocessfluidtobeheatedisacorrosivesolution,itisnormally
recommendedthatthecoilinletandoutletconnectionsaretakenoverthelipofthetank,asitisnotnormallyadvisabletodrillthroughthecorrosionresistant
liningsofthetankside.Thiswillensurethattherearenoweakpointsinthetanklining,wherethereisariskofleakageofcorrosiveliquids.Inthesecasesthe
coilitselfmayalsobemadeofcorrosionresistantmaterialsuchasleadcoveredsteelorcopper,oralloyssuchastitanium.
However,wherethereisnodangerofcorrosion,liftsoverthetankstructureshouldbeavoided,andthesteaminletandoutletconnectionsmaybetakenthrough
thetankside.Thepresenceofanyliftwillresultinwaterloggingofaproportionofthecoillength,andpossiblywaterhammer,noiseandleakingpipework.

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Steamheatingcoilsshouldgenerallyhaveagradualfallfromtheinlettotheoutlettoensurethatcondensaterunstowardtheoutletanddoesnotcollectinthe
bottomofthecoil.
Wherealiftisunavoidable,itshouldbedesignedtoincludeasealarrangementatthebottomoftheliftandasmallboredippipe,asshowninFigure2.10.2.

Thesealarrangementallowsasmallamountofcondensatetocollecttoactasawaterseal,andpreventstheoccurrenceofsteamlocking.Withoutthisseal,
steamcanpassoveranycondensatecollectinginthebottomofthepipe,andclosethesteamtrapatthetopoftheriser.
Thecondensatelevelwouldthenriseandformatemporarywaterseal,lockingthesteambetweenthebottomoftheriserandthesteamtrap.Thesteamtrap
remainscloseduntilthelockedsteamcondenses,duringwhichtimethecoilcontinuestowaterlog.
Whenthelockedsteamcondensesandthesteamtrapopens,aslugofwaterisdischargeduptheriser.Assoonasthewatersealisbroken,steamwillenter
therisingpipeandclosethetrap,whilethebrokencolumnofwaterfallsbacktolieatthebottomoftheheatingcoil.
Thesmallboredippipewillonlyallowaverysmallvolumeofsteamtobecomelockedintheriser.Itenablesthewatercolumntobeeasilymaintainedwithout
steambubblingthroughit,ensuringthereisasteadyandcontinuouscondensateflowtotheoutlet.
Whenthesealisultimatelybroken,asmallervolumeofwaterwillreturntotheheatingcoilthanwithanunrestrictedlargeboreriser,butasthewaterseal
arrangementrequiresasmallervolumeofcondensatetoformawaterseal,itwillimmediatelyreform.
Iftheprocessinvolvesarticlesbeingdippedintotheliquid,itmaynotbeconvenienttoinstallthecoilatthebottomofthetankitmaybedamagedbythe
objectsbeingimmersedinthesolution.Also,duringcertainprocesses,heavydepositswillsettleatthebottomofthetankandcanquicklycovertheheating
surface,inhibitingheattransfer.
Forthesereasonssidehungcoilsareoftenusedintheelectroplatingindustry.Insuchcasesserpentineorplatetypecoilsarearrangeddownthesideofatank,
asshowninFigure2.10.3.Thesecoilsshouldalsohaveafalltothebottomwithawatersealandasmallboredippipe.Thisarrangementhastheadvantage
thatitisofteneasiertoinstall,andalsoeasiertoremoveforperiodiccleaningifrequired.

Ifarticlesaretobedippedintothetank,itmaynotbepossibletouseanysortofagitatortoinduceforcedconvectionandpreventtemperaturegradients
occurringthroughoutthetank.Whetherbottomorsidecoilsareused,itisessentialthattheyarearrangedwithadequatecoveragesothattheheatisdistributed
evenlythroughoutthebulkoftheliquid.
Thediameterofthecoilshouldprovidesufficientlengthofcoilforgooddistribution.Ashortlengthofcoilwithalargediametermaynotprovideadequate
temperaturedistribution.Howeveraverylongcontinuouslengthofcoilmayexperienceatemperaturegradientduetothepressuredropfromendtoend,
resultinginunevenheatingoftheliquid.
Whilstthenexttwoheadings,SizingthecontrolvalveandThecondensateremovaldeviceareincludedinthisModule,thenewreadershouldrefer
tolaterBlocksandModulesinTheLearningCentreforfullandcomprehensiveinformation,beforeattemptingsizingandselectionofequipment.

Controlvalvearrangement
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Thecontrolvalvesetmaybeeitheroneortwovalvesinparallel.Asinglecontrolvalve,largeenoughtocopewiththemaximumflowrateencounteredatstart
up,maybeunabletocontrolflowaccuratelyattheminimumexpectedflowrate.Thiscouldcauseerratictemperaturecontrol.Analternativeistofittwo
temperaturecontrolvalvesinparallel:
Onevalve(runningvalve)sizedtocontrolatthelowerflowrate.
Asecondvalve(startingvalve)topassthedifferencebetweenthecapacityofthefirstvalve,andthemaximumflowrate.
Thestartingvalvewouldhaveasetpointslightlylowerthantherunningvalve,soitwouldclosefirst,leavingtherunningvalvetocontrolatlowloads.

Sizingthecontrolvalve
Thecontrolvalveset(eitheronevalveortwovalvesinparallel).
Thecoilhasbeensizedonmeanheattransfervalues.However,itmaybebettertosizethecontrolvalvetosupplythemaximum(startup)load.Withlarge
coilsintanks,thiswillhelptomaintainadegreeofsteampressurethroughoutthelengthofthecoilwhenthesteamisturnedon,helpingtopushcondensate
throughthecoiltothesteamtrappingdevice.Ifthecontrolvalveweresizedonmeanvalues,steampressureinthecoilatstartupwilltendtobelowerandthe
coilmayflood.

Usingonevalve
ContinuingwithExample2.10.1themaximumsteamloadis850kg/handthecoilisdesignedtodeliverthisatapressureof1.1barg.Asteamvalvesizing
chartwouldshowthataKvofabout20isrequiredtopass850kg/hofsteamwithapressureof2.6bargattheinletofthecontrolvalve,andCriticalPressure
Drop(CPD)acrossthevalve.(Module6.4willshowhowthevalvesizecanbedeterminedbycalculation).
ADN40controlvalvewithalargerKvsof25wouldthereforeneedtobeselectedfortheapplication.
Ifonevalveistobeused,thisvalvemustensurethemaximumheatloadiscateredfor,whilemaintainingtherequiredsteampressureinthecoiltoassistthe
drainageofcondensatefromitatstartup.However,forreasonspreviouslyexplained,twovalvesmaybebetter.
Therunningloadis52kWandwiththecoilrunningat1.1barg,therunningsteamload:

ThesteamvalvesizingchartshowsaKvof2isrequiredtopass85kg/hwith3.6barupstream,operatingatcriticalpressuredrop.
ADN15KEtypevalve(Kvs=4)andaDN25pistonactuatedvalve(Kvs=18.6)operatingtogetherwillcaterforthestartupload.Whenapproachingthecontrol
temperature,thelargervalvewouldbesettoshutdown,allowingthesmallervalvetogivegoodcontrol.

Thecondensateremovaldevice
Theselectionandsizingofthecondensateremovaldevicewillbeverymuchinfluencedbythecondensatebackpressure.Forthepurposeofthisexample,itis
assumedthebackpressureisatmosphericpressure.Thedeviceshouldbesizedsoitisabletosatisfybothofthefollowingconditions:
1.Pass850kg/hofcondensatewith1.1barginthecoil,i.e.thefullloadcondition.
2.Passthecondensateloadwhensteampressureinthecoilequalsthecondensatebackpressure,i.e.thestallloadcondition.
Ifthesteamtrapisonlysizedonthefirstcondition,itispossiblethatitmaynotpassthestallload(theconditionwheretheproductapproachesitsrequired
temperatureandthecontrolvalvemodulatestoreducesteampressure).Thestallloadmaybeconsiderable.Withrespecttononflowtypeapplicationssuchas
tanks,thismaynotbetooseriousfromathermalviewpointbecausethecontentsofthetankwillalmostbeattherequiredtemperature,andhaveahuge
reservoirofheat.
Anyreductioninheattransferatthispartoftheheatingprocessmaythereforehavelittleimmediateeffectonthetankcontents.
However,condensatewillbackupintothecoilandwaterhammerwilloccur,alongwithitsassociatedsymptomsandmechanicalstresses.Tankcoilsinlarge
circulartankstendtobeofrobustconstruction,andareoftenabletowithstandsuchstresses.Problemscanhoweveroccurinrectangulartanks(whichtendto
besmaller),wherevibrationinthecoilwillhavemoreofaneffectonthetankstructure.Here,theenergydissipatedbythewaterhammercausesvibration,which
canbedetrimentaltothelifeofthecoil,thetank,andthesteamtrap,aswellascreatingunpleasantnoise.
Withrespecttoflowtypeapplicationssuchasplateheatexchangers,afailuretoconsiderthestallconditionwillusuallyhaveseriousimplications.Thisis
mainlyduetothesmallvolumeintheheatexchanger.
Forheatexchangers,anyunwantedreductionintheheatingsurfacearea,suchasthatcausedbycondensatebackingupintothesteamspace,canaffectthe
flowofheatthroughtheheatingsurface.Thiscancausethecontrolsystemtobecomeerraticandunstable,andprocessesrequiringstableoraccuratecontrol
cansufferwithpoorperformance.
Ifheatexchangersareoversized,sufficientheatingsurfacemayremainwhencondensatebacksupintothesteamspace,andreductionofthermalperformance
maynotalwaysoccur.However,withheatexchangersnotdesignedtocopewiththeeffectsofwaterlogging,thiscanleadtocorrosionoftheheatingsurface,
inevitablyreducingtheservicelifeoftheexchanger.Waterloggingcan,insomeapplications,becostly.Considerawaterloggingairheaterfrostcoil.Coldairat
4Cflowingat3m/scansoonfreezecondensatelockedinthecoils,resultinginprematureandunwarrantedfailure.Properdrainageofcondensateisessential
tomaintaintheservicelifeofanyheatexchangerandairheater.
Steamtrapsaredeviceswhichmodulatetoallowvaryingamountsofcondensatetodrainfromapplicationsundervaryingconditions.Floattrapsaresteamtraps
designedtomodulateandreleasecondensateclosetosteamtemperature,offeringmaximumplantperformance,maximumplantlife,andmaximumreturnon
plantinvestment.
Whenstallconditionsoccur,andasteamtrapcannotbeused,anautomaticpumptraporpumpandtrapincombinationwillensurecorrectcondensatedrainage
atalltimes,thusmaximisingthethermalcapabilityandlifetimecostsoftheplant.

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