THEORY INTO PRACTICE / Autumn 2001

Teaching as Persuasion

Helenrose Fives
Patricia A. Alexander

Persuasion as a Metaphor for Teaching:

A Case in Point

T MIGHT BE ARGUED THAT ONE GOAL of teachers

is to alter the understanding or thinking of their
students in some manner (Alexander, Murphy, &
Woods, 1996). Some teachers seek to mold and
shape their students minds; others do so through
scaffolding or promoting knowledge construction. Still
others labor to transmit their knowledge and skills to
their students. Whichever of these purposes teachers
may espouse, the underlying goal remains relatively
constant. Educators want to influence, change, or enhance the minds or motivations of their students; they
want students to be affected by what occurs in their
classrooms. In effect, teachers want to persuade their
students toward learning.
But, what is learning? One might conceive
of learning as a constructive process of conceptual
growth, often involving reorganization of concepts
in the learners understanding and growth in general cognitive abilities such as problem-solving
strategies and metacognitive processes (Greeno,
Collins, & Resnick, 1996, p. 16). Given this orientation toward learning, the goal of teachers is to
help students reflect on, and potentially reorganize, their current conceptions of the world and of
the topic under study.
Our intention in this article is to identify and
explain how teachers can use the principles of per-

Helenrose Fives is a graduate assistant, and Patricia

A. Alexander is a professor, both in human development at the University of Maryland.

suasion to structure instructional lessons and units

of study to aid students in conceptual reorganization and in their growth of cognitive problem-solving processes. To accomplish this end, we first survey
the literature on persuasion as a change process. Next,
we overview a recent study that explores the viability of persuasion as a metaphor for teaching.
Finally, we discuss the implications of the persuasion metaphor for educational practice.

What is Persuasion?
The term persuasion evokes a myriad of responses from individuals. We often think of persuasion in terms of how advertising agencies
influence us to buy a clients product, how the
media convince women that an emaciated body is
desirable, or how politicians win our vote. Yet,
this view of persuasion as brainwashing or manipulation is not the only conceptualization of this
concept. In fact, a more positive view of persuasion was voiced by Aristotle (Cooper, 1932) and
mirrored by contemporary researchers (Petty &
Cacioppo, 1986).
Specifically, from a psychological perspective, a rather favorable view of persuasion involves
convincing individuals to look differently or more
deeply at some concept or subject (Alexander,
Fives, Buehl, & Mulhern, 2000, p. 2). Within this
perspective, the goal of the persuader is to use reason
and emotion to bring about a change in anothers

THEORY INTO PRACTICE, Volume 40, Number 4, Autumn 2001

242
Copyright
2001 College of Education, The Ohio State University

Fives and Alexander

A Case in Point

behaviors, understandings, or judgments of the topic

or issue under consideration (Murphy, 1998). Additionally, persuasion becomes a process through which
individuals experience change in these levels of
knowledge, interest, or beliefs when presented with
new information or a rival viewpoint (Miller, 1980).
Consequently, this change is not seen as either positive or negative. Rather, individuals presented with
compelling arguments, factual information, or opportunities to question are encouraged to reflect
and draw their own conclusions about the openended, controversial, or unresolved topic at hand.
Conceived in this way, persuasion enables and supports learners in their effort to reorganize and restructure their schemata.
Written persuasion
Persuasive text has been identified as any
message devised to counter the current beliefs of
the reader and to provide him/her with new information (Chambliss & Garner, 1996). Alexander,
Murphy, Sperl, and Buehl (1997) further this focus
on the individual with the assertion that persuasion
occurs only through the interaction of person and
message. Thus, the writer of persuasive text must
not only address readers current beliefs and knowledge, but they must also write in a manner that
optimizes engagement.
Persuasion in written or oral text takes various forms. Persuasion can be constructed as one
sided or two-sided, the latter of which can be refutational or non-refutational (Hynd, 1999). In onesided persuasion, only one perspective of the
argument is presented for the reader to evaluate or
assess (Stiff, 1994). Two-sided persuasion draws
out two or more perspectives on the topic at hand.
Two-sided persuasion is considered non-refutational if the authors remain relatively neutral with regard to their stance on the subject (Stiff, 1994).
However, if the author chooses or supports one
side of the argument more forcefully, the text is
considered to be two-sided refutational text (Hynd,
1999; Jackson & Allen, 1987).
The Pepsi Challenge advertisements provide
an example of two-sided refutational text. Two options are given, but one is reported to be superior,
time and again. The structure of two-sided refutational text often involves a simple sequence. The

topic under question is introduced, arguments including facts and evidence for one understanding
of the topic are presented, then similar information
for an alternative view are revealed, and, finally,
the author provides a conclusion restating the
strengths and weaknesses of each side (Chambliss
& Garner, 1996).
Characteristics of persuasion
The research on persuasive text acknowledges
that the change process results from a co-influence
of reader attributes and message characteristics.
That is, central to the persuasive process are the
characteristics of the reader and the message, which
together create the persuasive exchange (Alexander
et al., 1997). Reader attributes linked to persuasion
include personal experiences (Chinn & Brewer,
1993), the ability to identify critical elements of
the message (Alexander & Jetton, 1996), and motivation for reading (Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle,
1993). The readers levels of knowledge, interest,
and beliefs have also been associated with individuals willingness to change in the face of persuasive materials (Murphy, 1998). Certain features of
the message have also been linked to persuasion.
For instance, highly persuasive texts must be well
written, provide sufficient evidence to support
claims and raise or refute arguments, be supported
by credible sources, and draw an emotional response
from the reader (Chambliss & Garner, 1996).

Teaching as Persuasion: A Viable

Metaphor?
Persuasion as a metaphor for teaching involves taking the argumentation structure and features of persuasive text and adapting them to the
style and structure of classroom discourse. Thus,
in teaching as persuasion, the lesson becomes the
persuasive text, with the goal of the lesson being
change in students knowledge, interest, and beliefs with regard to the topic under study. The literature on persuasive texts has clearly demonstrated
the power of this medium for changing learners
knowledge and beliefs (Murphy, 1998). Moreover,
the classroom has long been a forum for such
changes. That is, educators want students not only
to know information but also to hold this knowledge as significant or meaningful.

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Teaching as Persuasion

Generally, teaching as persuasion has at its

core three guiding principles. First, characteristics
of the learner and message are integral to the persuasive process (Murphy, 1998). Second, any learning environment has multiple sources of knowledge
and information. Finally, learners must be educated about the persuasive process so they are able to
recognize the underlying argumentation and evaluate the evidence presented.

A Persuasive Example
Recently, we (Alexander et al., 2000) conducted a study to investigate the potential of using
persuasion as a metaphor to frame a classroom
learning experience. We devised a persuasive lesson focusing on the discoveries of Galileo and the
repercussions he experienced when those findings
were publicized and found to dispute Church dogma. Having taught middle-school science for 6
years, the first author recognized the richness that
could be brought forth through the teaching of
Galileo via a persuasive model.
This content, while covered in most science
classes, is usually approached and learned through
didactic instruction and becomes another litany of
facts for students to memorize. Galileos fight to
have his research accepted is seldom broached in
todays science classrooms. Rather than taking this
as an opportunity to engage the learner in the richness of scientific history and the plight of those
individuals who have altered our understanding of
the world, most teachers faced with a standard curriculum limit their scope of this topic. Thus, many
students learn of Galileos discoveries without ever
gaining an insight as to the context for how these
findings were made.
Therefore, the topic of Galileo was selected
for our lesson on persuasion. We asked two primary questions. The first asked whether sixth- and
seventh-grade students taught by a persuasive lesson would manifest greater changes in their knowledge, interests, and beliefs than their peers in
comparison classrooms. We also wanted to know
whether it mattered if these persuasive lessons were
student-led or teacher-led. In the teacher-led group,
the first author led the class in activities designed
to take the students through the arguments for and
against the public acceptance of Galileos theo-

244

ries. In the student-led classrooms, all readings and

discussions took place in small groups, and these
groups shared with the whole class.
In this study, we addressed the aforementioned principles of learner and message characteristics, multiple sources of knowledge, and
education on the persuasive process. Specifically,
we assessed students knowledge, beliefs, and interests regarding the topic of Galilieos discoveries and the debate over whether those discoveries
should have been made public. Further, the messages received by students, in terms of classroom
activities and reading materials, were accurate, informative, and interesting.
Throughout the lesson, we used multiple
sources of information. Those sources included
written materials, students own experiences and
knowledge, as well as the teachers input and shared
information. In this way, students recognized that
information comes from multiple sources and that
its credibility and utility are of paramount importance. To educate students as to the nature of the
persuasive process, we prompted students to assess
the stated arguments, question the author, and evaluate the information presented for its usefulness.
Participants
This teaching as persuasion study was conducted with 115 sixth- and 44 seventh-grade students from a large suburban district in the
mid-Atlantic region. The middle school served an
ethnically and socioeconomically diverse student
body. Participants were enrolled in 10 science classes taught by one of three teachers, all of whom
volunteered to participate in this research. We assigned the teachers classes to the student-led,
teacher-led, and comparison groups. Thus, we had
3 teacher-led (n = 57), 4 student-led (n = 73), and 3
comparison (n = 53) classes. The first author conducted all lessons.
Measures
We assessed students knowledge, interests,
and beliefs the day prior to and the day after the
persuasive lessons were delivered. These measures
were identical at pre- and posttest with the exception of a lesson reaction measure given only at
posttest. Student knowledge was assessed in two

Fives and Alexander

A Case in Point

forms, demonstrated knowledge and perceived

knowledge. Demonstrated knowledge was measured
with both multiple-choice items and open-ended
questions. For the open-ended items, we asked students to write down anything they knew about Galileo, the solar system, church history, and
astronomy.
We measured perceived knowledge by means
of a 10-point scale illustrated below. Students responded to the direction, For each of the topics
listed below, indicate how much you think you
know by placing an X on the appropriate point on
the line.
The order and make up of the solar system
Relatively
nothing

A great
deal

Levels of interest and belief also were measured using a similar 10-point scale format. The
interest measure asked students to indicate their
level of interest in this topic from Not Very Interested to Very Interested. Items were titled, Galileo Galilei, church history, astronomy, science, and
discovery of new information. The belief measure
asked students to indicate their position on each
statement from Strongly Disagree to Strongly
Agree. Students responded to items such as, Scientists risk personal freedom in pursuit of scientific knowledge, and It is best to speak the truth as
you know it, regardless of consequences.
The lesson reaction measure asked students
to indicate the degree to which they agreed or disagreed with several statements related to the lesson, such as, The lesson presented a balanced
perspective on the topic, and I found the information believable.
Materials
For the lessons, two texts, a handout, and
several Pro/Con charts to track discussions were
used. Starry Messenger: Galileo Galilei (Ss, 1996)
is a beautifully illustrated, award-winning text. This
book, a one-sided text, supports Galileos efforts
and portrays him as a wronged hero. As a counterpoint to the Ss book, we gave students a copy of
an edited version of Chapter 1, Galileo versus the
Pope, from Hellmans (1998) Great Feuds in Sci-

ence: Ten of the Liveliest Disputes Ever. This text

offers a more detailed account of the story of Galileos discoveries and the subsequent arguments and
reactions of the Catholic church. Written as a news
report of the events that unfolded over 300 years
ago, this is a two-sided non-refutational text.
We also gave students a thinking log handout on which to record their initial responses to the
motivating questions. Additionally, both lessons made
use of two Pro/Con charts on which students or the
teacher recorded arguments, evidence, and claims
made by members of the class. The first chart was
labeled Yes/No, and the second was labeled, Yes,
the Churchs actions were appropriate, or No, the
Churchs actions were not appropriate.
Lessons
The lessons were designed to emulate a persuasive text with the voices of the students acting
as the proponents of the arguments. Both teacherled and student-led formats opened with the students receiving nametags with pictures of and facts
regarding the key historical figures who would be
discussed in the lessonnamely Galileo, Ptolemy,
Copernicus, Pope Urban VIII, and Cardinal Bellamine. Students were asked to take on the role of
the individual on their nametag and introduce themselves and their points of importance during class
discussion.
Next, students responded on the thinking
log to the guiding question of whether scientific
evidence should be kept from the public if it could
cause confusion and unrest. This initial activity
served to bring students current beliefs to the forefront and to stimulate their interest in the lesson.
Students then discussed their responses to this question and recorded their responses on a Yes/No chart,
which listed their support of and disagreement with
the guiding question. Again, the student-led classes conducted these conversations in small groups
while the teacher-led classes held a whole class
discussion.
Using the guiding question as a launching
point, both groups engaged in a discussion of Galileo. This discussion was structured around the
idea that Galileo and the people in power were
faced with precisely the same question to which
the students just responded. Starry Messenger:
Galileo Galilei (Ss, 1996) was read, either by the
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Teaching as Persuasion

teacher or by students in groups. After the book

was read, students as a whole or in groups discussed whether they believed the Churchs actions,
as outlined in the text, were appropriate. Student
comments and points of discussion were recorded
on the second chart, specifically labeled to address
this question. Again, the student-led format structured this discussion for small groups, whereas the
teacher-led format held a whole class discussion.
Next, we presented Hellmans article to the
students as a counterpoint to Sss staunch support
of Galileo. Using this new text and the information provided in it, students added additional arguments for and against the Churchs actions on their
Pro/Con charts. As before, we encouraged students
to provide evidence specific for their claims, and
to explain the reasoning behind their pro or con
statements. Both the teacher-led and student-led
classes ended with a return to the original guiding
question. By returning to the original question, we
brought students back to the present and provided
the opportunity for them to apply the lessons
learned by Galileo to our current dilemmas in scientific research. Also, students were reminded of
their previous responses and asked to supply more
arguments in light of the study of Galileo.
Findings
To answer our primary questions, we analyzed the data in four ways. First, we examined
the changes in students knowledge and interest
over time. This analysis revealed that the teacherled and student-led groups showed significant increases in demonstrated knowledge, perceived
knowledge, and interest from before to after the
lesson. Second, we compared the sixth and seventh graders with respect to changes in knowledge,
interests, and beliefs. From this comparison, we
found that sixth graders demonstrated a higher increase in their reported perceived knowledge as
compared to seventh graders. Conversely, seventh
graders reported stronger beliefs with regard to the
content than the sixth graders.
Third, we compared the teacher-led, studentled, and comparison classes with respect to the
students reported knowledge, interests, and beliefs.
These comparisons showed that both teacher-led
and student-led classes reported significantly higher
levels of demonstrated knowledge than the com246

parison classes. Further, the teacher-led classes

evidenced significantly higher demonstrated knowledge than the student-led classes. The students in
the teacher-led and student-led classes also had significantly higher levels of perceived knowledge and
interest than students in the comparison classes.
Interestingly, only the students in the student-led
classes revealed significant differences in their stated beliefs compared to students in the comparison
classes.
The fourth portion of our analysis examined
the relationship between students reactions to the
lesson and their responses to the other measures.
These analyses found a strong connection between
lesson reactions and changes in interest. That is,
student-reported change in interest in the topic of
Galileo and his discoveries was related to how the
students perceived the lesson. Additionally, the
overall lesson reaction measure and whether students found the lesson to be believable and interesting were significantly related to changes in
demonstrated knowledge.

Lessons Learned
Based on what we have learned from the literature and the study presented, we can set forth several implications for educational practice. Teaching as
persuasion is a new metaphor that arises out of the
research on persuasion and conceptual change and is
focused on changing the conceptual understanding,
motivation, and beliefs that learners bring to the learning environment. As such, this metaphor offers teachers a wealth of possibilities.
Role of teacher
The role of teacher within this metaphor is to
find the compelling, controversial, or unresolved
concepts in content too often treated as stilted, unwavering, and unquestioned. To be persuasive, the
teacher must pose stimulating questions, guide students through open discussion, and seek confirming evidence from students for their ideas.
Persuasion in the classroom
Persuasion can be used effectively in the classroom. Our study resulted in significant changes in
students knowledge, interests, and beliefs as a result
of the reflection, analysis, and discussion sparked by
thought-provoking questions and compelling texts.

Fives and Alexander

A Case in Point

These changes occurred whether the teacher or the

students led the discussions. Thus, educators preparing lessons for their students can begin to consider this structure as a method of tailoring
instruction for the students in their classes.
Multiple sources of persuasion
Another implication of this work is that there
are multiple sources of knowledge and persuasion in
the classroom. These sources include, but are not
limited to, the teacher, the written texts, and the students themselves. As demonstrated in the study described, it was the student-led condition that evidenced
significant changes in students beliefs over time (Alexander et al., 2000). In this condition, the students
had the opportunity to debate and use their persuasive skills on one another. Thus, teacher awareness
of this interchange and the impact of each source of
persuasion and knowledge in the classroom is a vital
component to the development of an effective learning environment.
Interrelationship of knowledge,
interests, and beliefs
Teaching as persuasion recognizes that students come to any learning environment with certain levels and types of knowledge, interests, and
beliefs that are central to their learning. Further, in
persuasion, these existing characteristics become a
springboard that colors students learning and perspectives for future learning and conceptual change.
Teaching as persuasion does not accept that all
knowledge is of equal value or importance, rather
this methodology seeks to enable students to come
to a deeper, well-supported understanding of the
topic (Alexander et al., 2000). Thus, by recognizing and capitalizing on students existing levels of
interest and beliefs, educators can begin to help
students achieve these richer understandings and
more meaningful conceptualizations.

When to Use Persuasion

An additional implication of this work is in
regard to topic selection. That is, will this metaphor work all the time for all topics of study? We
would contend that this metaphor could be used to
achieve two educational goals: to lead to conceptual change and to provide a broad base of knowledge on a little-known topic. Perhaps the strongest

or most beneficial aspect of the persuasion metaphor is its ability to create conceptual change. The
research on persuasive texts has identified the power
of persuasion to affect levels of knowledge, interest,
and beliefs of individuals with less experience or
knowledge of a given topic (Murphy, 1998). Consequently, as teachers, we are in a unique and powerful position that can allow us to use the principles
of persuasion to guide our less-experienced students toward richer and deeper understanding.
Moreover, we are also in a position to use persuasion to instigate and aid students toward conceptual change before invalid concepts become rooted
in their knowledge bases.
A second educational goal that can be addressed
through the persuasion metaphor is to provide a broad
base of knowledge. The structure of a persuasive,
two-sided refutational lesson, as described in the study
by Alexander and colleagues (2000), provides students with a broad base of knowledge. Students are
exposed to multiple arguments, which can inform,
strengthen, or change their beliefs. Additionally, students are taught throughout the persuasive lesson the
importance of critical thinking and analysis of information provided, while gathering declarative and procedural knowledge.

Conclusions
Whenever one steps before a room full of
potential learners, that individual has the potential
to initiate change in the minds of those learners.
The challenge for most classroom teachers is to
not only initiate but to guide that change process.
In this article, we offer another method by which
this change can be started. Persuasion, as a means
of teaching, of enabling students to enter into dialogue with one another, the text, and the instructor, provides vast possibilities for the learning
experience.
Further, as we move forth in our information society, where any question is merely a click
away via the internet, teachers must emphasize for
their students the role of persuasion in our world
and instruct those students on the means of recognizing and critiquing the information to which they
have such ease of access. Using persuasion as a
metaphor for teaching may, in fact, be the key to
opening students eyes to the murky truths that
may or may not be found out in cyberspace.
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