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The formation of rock

The Rock Cycle is a group of changes. Igneous rock can change


into sedimentary rock or into metamorphic rock. Sedimentary rock can
change into metamorphic rock or into igneous rock. Metamorphic rock can
change into igneous or sedimentary rock.
Igneous rock forms when magma cools and makes crystals. Magma is
a hot liquid made of melted minerals. The minerals can form crystals when
they cool. Igneous rock can form underground, where the magma cools
slowly. Or, igneous rock can form above ground, where the magma cools
quickly.

When it pours out on Earth's surface, magma is called lava. Yes, the same
liquid rock matter that you see coming out of volcanoes.
On Earth's surface, wind and water can break rock into pieces. They
can also carry rock pieces to another place. Usually, the rock pieces, called
sediments, drop from the wind or water to make a layer. The layer can be
buried under other layers of sediments. After a long time the sediments can
be cemented together to make sedimentary rock. In this way, igneous rock
can become sedimentary rock.
All rock can be heated. But where does the heat come from? Inside
Earth there is heat from pressure (push your hands together very hard and
feel the heat). There is heat from friction (rub your hands together and feel

the heat). There is also heat from radioactive decay (the process that gives
us nuclear power plants that make electricity).

Baked rock does not melt, but it does change. It forms crystals. If it has
crystals already, it forms larger crystals. Because this rock changes, it is
called metamorphic. Remember that a caterpillar changes to become a
butterfly. That change is called metamorphosis. Metamorphosis can occur
in rock when they are heated to 300 to 700 degrees Celsius.
When Earth's tectonic plates move around, they produce heat. When they
collide, they build mountains and metamorphose (met-ah-MORE-foes) the
rock.
The rock cycle continues. Mountains made of metamorphic rocks can be
broken up and washed away by streams. New sediments from these
mountains can make new sedimentary rock.
The rock cycle never stops.

USES OF ROCKS
Rocks normally consist of several minerals, some essential, some
accessory. A rock may be thought of as a "mineral environment." Each rock
type was formed under certain specific conditions, resulting in the formation
of a fairly predictable group of minerals. Rocks fall into three classes
according to their origin: Igneous - Sedimentary - Metamorphic
COAL: A sedimentary rock, formed from decayed plants, is mainly used in power
plants to make electricity.
LIMESTONE: A sedimentary rock, it is used mainly in the manufacture of Portland
cement, the production of lime, manufacture of paper, petrochemicals, insecticides,
linoleum, fiberglass, glass, carpet backing and as the coating on many types of
chewing gum.
SHALE: A sedimentary rock, well stratified in thin beds. It splits unevenly more or
less parallel to bedding plane and may contain fossils. It can be a component of
bricks and cement.
CONGLOMERATE: A sedimentary rock with a variable hardness, consisted of
rounded or angular rock or mineral fragments cemented by silica, lime, iron oxide,
etc. Usually found in mostly thick, crudely stratified layers. Used in the construction
industry.
SANDSTONE: A sedimentary rock more or less rounded. Generally thick-bedded,
varicolored, rough feel due to uneven surface produced by breaking around the
grains. Used principally for construction, it is easy to work, the red-brown sandstone
of Triassic age, better known as "brownstone," has been used in many eastern cities.
GRANITE: An igneous-plutonic rock, medium to coarse-grained that is high in silica,
potassium, sodium and quartz but low in calcium, iron and magnesium. It is widely
used for architectural construction, ornamental stone and monuments.
PUMICE: An igneous-volcanic rock, it is a porous, brittle variety of rhyolite and is
light enough to float. It is formed when magma of granite composition erupts at the
earths surface or intrudes the crust at shallow depths. It is used as an abrasive
material in hand soaps, emery boards, etc.
GABBRO: An igneous-plutonic rock, generally massive, but may exhibit a layered
structure produced by successive layers of different mineral composition. It is widely
used as crushed stone for concrete aggregate, road metal, railroad ballast, etc.
Smaller quantities are cut and polished for dimension stone (called black granite).

BASALT: An igneous volcanic rock, dark gray to black, it is the volcanic equivalent
of plutonic gabbro and is rich in ferromagnesian minerals. Basalt can be used in
aggregate.
SCHIST: A metamorphic uneven-granular, medium to coarse grained, crystalline with
prominent parallel mineral orientation. Goes from silvery white to all shades of gray
with yellow to brown tones depending on the mineral concentration. Some schists
have graphite and some are used as building stones.
GNEISS: A metamorphic uneven granular medium to coarse grained crystalline with
more or less parallel mineral orientation. Colors are too variable to be of diagnostic
value. Due to physical and chemical similarity between many gneisses and plutonic
igneous rocks some are used as building stones and other structural purposes.
QUARTZITE: A metamorphic or sedimentary rock with crystalline texture, consists of
rounded quartz grains cemented by crystalline quartz, generally white, light gray or
yellow to brown. Same uses as sandstone.
MARBLE: A metamorphic even-granular grain to medium grained and may be
uneven granular and coarse grained in calc-silicate rock. The normal color is white
but accessory minerals act as coloring agents and may produce a variety of colors.
Depending upon its purity, texture, color and marbled pattern it is quarried for use as
dimension stone for statuary, architectural and ornamental purposes. Dolomite rich
marble may be a source for magnesium and is used as an ingredient in the
manufacture of refracting materials.

Examples of rock

Limestone [sedimentary rock]

Granite [igneous rock]

Marble [metamorphic rock]

Where are fossils found??


Fossils are typically found in sedimentary rock, almost all
of which were originally deposited as sediments by
moving water. Subsequent processes hardened them into
sedimentary rock, as overlying pressure squeezed the
water out and the grains were cemented together. Often
plants and animals were trapped, being buried in the
sediments. As the sediments hardened into sedimentary
rock, the dead things hardened into fossils.

Determining age of fossil and rocks

THE AGE of fossils intrigues almost everyone. Students not only want to know
how old a fossil is, but they want to know how that age was determined. Some
very straightforward principles are used to determine the age of fossils. Students
should be able to understand the principles and have that as a background so that
age determinations by paleontologists and geologists don't seem like black magic.
There are two types of age determinations. Geologists in the late 18th and early
19th century studied rock layers and the fossils in them to determine relative age.
William Smith was one of the most important scientists from this time who helped
to develop knowledge of the succession of different fossils by studying their
distribution through the sequence of sedimentary rocks in southern England. It
wasn't until well into the 20th century that enough information had accumulated
about the rate of radioactive decay that the age of rocks and fossils in number of
years could be determined through radiometric age dating.
This activity on determining age of rocks and fossils is intended for 8th or 9th
grade students. It is estimated to require four hours of class time, including

approximately one hour total of occasional instruction and explanation from the
teacher and two hours of group (team) and individual activities by the students,
plus one hour of discussion among students within the working groups.

Estimating the age of earth by fossil

As geologists continued to reconstruct the Earth's geologic history in the


1700s and early 1800s, they quickly recognized that the distribution of
fossils within this history was not random -- fossils occurred in a consistent
order. This was true at a regional, and even a global scale. Furthermore,
fossil organisms were more unique than rock types, and much more varied,
offering the potential for a much more precise subdivision of the
stratigraphy and events within it.
The recognition of the utility of fossils for more precise "relative dating" is
often attributed to William Smith, a canal engineer who observed the fossil
succession while digging through the rocks of southern England. But
scientists like Albert Oppel hit upon the same principles at about about the
same time or earlier. In Smith's case, by using empirical observations of the
fossil succession, he was able to propose a fine subdivision of the rocks
and map out the formations of southern England in one of the earliest
geological maps (1815). Other workers in the rest of Europe, and
eventually the rest of the world, were able to compare directly to the same
fossil succession in their areas, even when the rock types themselves
varied at finer scale. For example, everywhere in the world, trilobites were
found lower in the stratigraphy than marine reptiles. Dinosaurs were found
after the first occurrence of land plants, insects, and amphibians. Sporebearing land plants like ferns were always found before the occurrence of
flowering plants. And so on.
The observation that fossils occur in a consistent succession is known as
the "principle of faunal (and floral) succession". The study of the succession
of fossils and its application to relative dating is known as "biostratigraphy".
Each increment of time in the stratigraphy could be characterized by a
particular assemblage of fossil organisms, formally termed a
biostratigraphic "zone" by the German paleontologists Friedrich Quenstedt
and Albert Oppel. These zones could then be traced over large regions,
and eventually globally. Groups of zones were used to establish larger
intervals of stratigraphy, known as geologic "stages" and geologic
"systems". The time corresponding to most of these intervals of rock
became known as geologic "ages" and "periods", respectively. By the end
of the 1830s, most of the presently-used geologic periods had been
established based on their fossil content and their observed relative
position in the stratigraphy (e.g., Cambrian (1835), Ordovician (1879),

Silurian (1835), Devonian (1839), Carboniferous (1822), Permian (1841),


Triassic (1834), Jurassic (1829), Cretaceous (1823), Tertiary (1759), and
Pleistocene (1839)). These terms were preceded by decades by other
terms for various geologic subdivisions, and although there was
subsequent debate over their exact boundaries (e.g., between the
Cambrian and Silurian Periods, which was resolved by proposal of the
Ordovician Period between them), the historical descriptions and fossil
succession would be easily recognizable today.
By the 1830s, fossil succession had been studied to an increasing degree,
such that the broad history of life on Earth was well understood, regardless
of the debate over the names applied to portions of it, and where exactly to
make the divisions. All paleontologists recognized unmistakable trends in
morphology through time in the succession of fossil organisms. This
observation led to attempts to explain the fossil succession by various
mechanisms. Perhaps the best known example is Darwin's theory of
evolution by natural selection. Note that chronologically, fossil succession
was well and independently established long before Darwin's evolutionary
theory was proposed in 1859. Fossil succession and the geologic time
scale are constrained by the observed order of the stratigraphy -- basically
geometry -- not by evolutionary theory.
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