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Fiber Reinforced Polymers in Concrete

Construction and Advanced Repair Technologies
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Fiber Reinforced Polymers in Concrete Construction and

Advanced Repair Technologies
N. Banthia1
Department of Civil Engineering
University of British Columbia
2324 Main Mall
Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z4

ABSTRACT
Non-corrosive and lightweight materials like fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) are fast replacing
steel as a material of choice in both new construction and in rehabilitation projects. FRPs are
light, non-magnetic, chemically inert, easy to apply and hence have proven especially suitable
and economical for strengthening, rehabilitation and seismic retrofit of columns, beams,
masonry, joints, and other structures. This paper provides a broad overview of the current use of
Fiber Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) in concrete construction and describes our state-of-the-art.
Two broad areas are covered: new construction where FRP bars, grids and other innovative
shapes are used and repair and strengthening where wraps, jackets and laminates are used. In
the context of repair and strengthening, an entirely novel method of Sprayed Fiber Reinforced
Polymer (SFRP) coatings pioneered at the University of British Columbia is described. Finally,
the paper provides some basic analysis procedures for beams, and discusses some durability
related issues.
KEYWORDS: FRP, rebars, grids, retrofit, rehabilitation, strengthening, composites, durability,
analysis

INTRODUCTION
Reinforced concrete has been a successful construction technique that has provided us with
aesthetically pleasing, cost-effective and easy-to-construct structures for our residential,
transportation and utility facilities. However, reinforced concrete has also had major durability
problems stemming in large part from the corrosion of reinforcing steel in aggressive
environments. Infrastructure aging and deterioration is now a global crisis, and in almost all
countries of the world, existing bridges and other structures need strengthening, rehabilitation or
replacement. In Canada alone, presently there are 30,000 bridges and 5,000 parking garages in
need of replacement or rehabilitation. Globally, the magnitude of the problem is pegged about
$900 billion, and this figure is increasing steadily. Clearly, such a major challenge cannot be
undertaken using old technologynew and improved ways of construction, repair, strengthening
and rehabilitation are urgently sought.
For both new construction and strengthening of older reinforced concrete structures, the
use of fiber reinforced plastics has increased steadily (1-7). Fiber reinforced polymers offer
numerous advantages over steel including excellent corrosion resistance, good fatigue resistance,
low coefficient of thermal expansion, as well as being lightweight. FRPs also possess a high
specific stiffness and an equally high specific strength in the direction of fiber alignment. An
1

Professor and Distinguished University Scholar, Tel: 604-822-9541; Facsimile: 604-822-6901; e-mail:
banthia@civil.ubc.ca

2
additional advantage of FRPs is in the endless ways in which polymers and fibers can be
combined in a material to suit the specific needs of a structure. Use of FRPs provides a high
structural efficiency, and their low density makes physical implementation much easier.
Unfortunately, FRPs are also expensive, but the higher costs of FRP materials are often offset by
savings in reduced periodic maintenance, longer life spans and of reduced labor costs (1).

STRUCTURE OF FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS

A composite is defined as a material system consisting of two chemically dissimilar phases that
are separated by a distinct interface. Concrete is a good example of a composite material.
Concrete, however, carries reinforcement elements (aggregates) that have a low aspect ratio and
hence concrete is often called a particulate reinforced composite (see Figure 1). On the other
hand, if the reinforcement element were given a fiber-like shape characterized by a high aspect
ratio, then the resulting composite is termed a fiber reinforced composite (Figure 1) .
In fiber reinforced polymers, the polymer (or the resin) phase constitutes the binding
phase and strong and stiff fibers constitute the fiber phase. Two types of polymers are currently
in use: thermosetting polymer and the thermoplastic polymers. Thermoplastic polymers (such as
polyethylene, polypropylene, thermoplastic polyester, polybutylene, polymethypentene,
ethylene-vinyl acetate, etc.) are highly ductile materials with high impact strengths.
Unfortunately, these also soften at relatively low temperatures and have high creep and stress
relaxation. These are, therefore, not suitable for primary engineering applications where long
term load carrying capability is a necessity. The thermosetting polymers, on the other hand, are
low molecular weight liquids with very low viscosities. In their case, solidification occurs by
using free radicals to cause cross-linking and curing which provides them with a good chemical
resistance, enhanced thermal and dimensional stabilities and low creep and stress relaxation
characteristics. The thermosetting polymers are ideally suited for FRPs in civil engineering
applications. Properties of three commonly used thermosetting polymers (unsaturated polyester,
epoxy and vinyl ester) and their typical chemical formulation are given in Table 1. Note that
polyester exists both as a thermoplastic polymer as well as a theromosetting polymer, with the
latter variety being an unsaturated polymer with at least two double bonds in its monomer. The
two double bonds in the monomer offer a wide range of final properties (8).
Of the three resins listed in Table 1, polyester is by far the most used. This is due to their
low cost and abundant availability. Vinyl ester is, in fact, a type of polyester resin produced by
reacting a monofunctional unsaturated acid (methacrylic or acrylic acid) with bisphenol di
epoxide. Epoxies are advanced polymeric resins that involve reactions with epichlorohydrin (5),
and are more expensive than the polyester or vinyl ester resins. These are used typically in
aerospace and defense applications and are characterized by a highly cross-linked internal
structure imparting them a much superior resistance to chemicals and solvents. Epoxies also have
low cure shrinkage (Table 1) and no volatile monomers are emitted during their processing.
The three commonly used fibers for producing FRPs for concrete applications are glass,
aramid and carbon/graphite with their properties given in Table 2. These are all strong ceramic
materials with that depict both a stiff and a brittle behavior. Glass is an amorphous silica and
available as

(a)

(b)

Figure 1(a) Particulate Reinforced and 1(b) Fiber Reinforced Composite

A-glass, E-glass, ECR-glass, AR-glass and the S-glass. E-glass fiber, with its low cost is one of
the most commonly used, but its poor durability in alkaline cementitious environments has
caused concern and to improve durability, handling and compatibility with the matrix, a sizing or
coupling agent is often placed on the fiber. Carbon fibers are produced from one of the three
precursors: polyacylonitrile (PAN), rayon and mesophase/isotropic pitches. These fibers, or their
allotropic form graphite, have the most desired properties from the civil engineering applications
view point. Graphite has a hexagonal structure, a very strong covalent internal bond and very
high specific modulus and strength. Unfortunately, graphite has poor properties in the transverse
direction and a low shear modulus. Aramid (Kevlar) is the most commonly used organic fiber in
composites. Molecular structure of the para-aramid Kevlar is shown in Figure 2. Stress-strain
responses of some commonly used fibers are shown in Figure 3. Note that all fibers have a
linear elastic response to failure.

Figure 2. Molecular Structure of Kevlar (8)

Figure 3. Stress-Strain Responses of Some Fibers (8)

Compatibility between the fiber and the matrix is an important consideration. Glass fibers
with silane-based sizing are ideally suited for polyester resins as the sizing improves the fibermatrix bond. The high cure shrinkage of polyester, however, restricts its use in applications
where a low performance is needed. Further, polyester resins do not adhere well to both aramid
and carbon fibers and hence these combinations are virtually non-existent (8). Epoxies offer a
better resin for use with aramid and carbon fibers, but epoxies have high water susceptibility and
hence care has to be exercised in this regard. Water absorption also reduces the glass transition
temperature [Tg] of epoxies and may affect their thermal performance.

PROPERTIES OF FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS

Mechanical Properties:
Laws of mixtures are often used to calculate the mechanical properties of continuous fiber
composites in the longitudinal and transverse directions. As can be imagined, the properties of a
continuous fiber reinforced composite are highly anisotropic with the highest strength and
stiffness available in the direction of the fiber and only low strength and stiffness (equal to or
slightly exceeding those of the matrix) available in a direction perpendicular to the fiber. If
subscripts m, f and c refer, respectively, to the matrix, fiber and the composite and Vf represents
the volume fraction of fiber in the composite, then one can show that the composite strength in
the direction of the fiber alignment, c, is (8):

c = (1 V f ) m + V f f

(1)

5
And the composite stiffness in the direction of fiber alignment, Ec , is:
E c = (1 V f )E m + V f E f

(2)

Similarly, the composite strength in the direction perpendicular to fiber alignment, c , is given

by:

c = m = f

(3)

And composite stiffness in the direction perpendicular to fiber alignment, Ec, is given by;
(1 V f ) V f
1
=
+
Ec
Em
Ef

(4)

One can also define a critical fiber volume fraction as the minimum fiber volume fraction at
which the failure is governed by the fiber and not by the matrix. If the strain at fracture in fiber is
given by f*, and the ultimate conditions are described by the subscript, m, then the critical fiber
volume fraction is given by:

(V f ) crit =

mu ( m )
fu ( m )

(5)

f
*
f

Mechanical properties of some commonly used FRPs are given in Table 3.

Table 1 Typical Properties of Resins Used in FRPs (5)
Specific Tensile
Gravity Strength
[MPa]
1.2055.001.30
130.00

Tensile
Modulus
[GPa]
2.754.10

Cure
Shrinkage
[%]
1.00-5.00

Polyester

1.101.40

34.50103.50

2.103.45

5.00-12.00

Vinyl
Ester

1.121.32

73.0081.00

3.003.35

5.40-10.30

Resin
Epoxy

6
Table 2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Fibres (5)
FIBER TYPE

Tensile
Strength
[MPa]

Modulus of
Elasticity
[GPa]

Elongation Coefficient of
Thermal
[%]
Expansion [x106]

Poissons
Ratio

200-240

1.3-1.8

(-1.2) to (-0.1)

-0.2

350-650

0.4-0.8

7 to 12

CARBON
PAN
High
3500
Strength
High
2500Modulus 4000
Pitch
Ordinary 780-1000
High
3000Modulus 3500
ARAMID
Kevlar 29
3620
Kevlar 49
2800

38-40
400-800

2.1-2.5
0.4-1.5

(-1.6) to (-0.9)

N/A

82.7
130

4.4
2.3

0.35

Kevlar 129
Kevlar 149
Twaron
Technora
GLASS
E-Glass
S-Glass
Alkali Resistant
Glass

4210
(est.)
3450
2800

110 (est.)

--

N/A
-2.0
59
N/A

172-179
130

1.9
2.3

N/A
(-2.0), 59

3500

74

4.6

N/A

35003600
4900
18003500

74-75

4.8

5.0

0.2

87
70-76

5.6
2.0-3.0

2.9
N/A

0.22
N/A

Table 3 Properties of Composites and Comparison with Steel (5)

Property
Steel
AFRP
CFRP
GFRP
Tensile strength, MPa 300-450 1720-2540 600-3690 480-1600
Elastic modulus, GPa
Rupture strain, %

200
7-13

.0035
Limiting strain,
Performance factor, .75

41-125
1.9-4.4

120-580
0.5-1.7

35-51
1.2-3.1

.002
.9

0.01
0.8

0.02
0.4

7
Durability of Composites:
Significant issues remain unresolved with respect to the long term durability of composites in
concrete construction. There are two major concerns: one relates to the longevity of the
composite itself in a deleterious environment, and the other relates to the durability of the bond
between the FRP and concrete. A synopsis of our understanding with respect to the durability of
the composites is presented in Tables 4 and 5 (10, 11). A compendium of papers related
specifically to the durability of the bond is given in Table 6. A detailed treatment of bond
durability appears elsewhere (12)
Table 4 Durability of Composites (Part A)
MATERIAS

Water
Absorption
(%/24 hr.)

Fiber Phase
Glass
E-Glass
S-2 Glass
AR-Glass
Carbon

Thermal
Expansion
(*10-6 C)

Heat

UV radiation

5.4
1.6
6.5

GR
GR
GR

GR
GR
GR

GR
GR

GR
GR

PAN-type
Pitch-based

Aramid

0.05

Concrete
Steel
Matrix Phase
Polyester resin
Vinylester resin
Epoxy resin

-5.2
10-13
10.5

A
0.15~0.60
0.1~0.2

0.1

GR

(Legend-- GR: Generally Resistant; A: Attacked; SA: Slightly Attacked)

Figure 4. Some FRP Rebar and 2-D Grids Available Commercially

8
Table 5 Durability of Composites (Part B)
MATERIAS

Weak
Acids

Strong
Acids

Weak
Alkalis

Strong
Alkalis

Organic
Solvents

Oxygen/Ozone

Fiber Phase
Glass E-Glass
S-2 Glass
AR-Glass

SA
GR
GR

A
SA
SA

SA
GR

A
A
SA

Carbon PAN
Pitch-based

GR
GR

GR
GR

GR
GR

GR
GR

GR
GR

GR
GR

Aramid

GR

SA

SA

Matrix Phase
Polyester resin

SA

SA

Vinyl ester resin

GR

GR

GR

GR

GR

SA

Epoxy resin

GR

SA

GR

GR

GR

GR

GR
GR
GR

(Legend-- GR: Generally Resistant; A: Attacked; SA: Slightly Attacked)

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER IN NEW CONSTRUCTION:

REBARS, GRIDS AND OTHER SHAPES
Figure 4 shows some FRP rebars and grids available for reinforcement. These products are
produced by pultrusion (Figure 5, Ref. 5), and available in various shapes and configurations. All
three fibers (carbon, glass and aramid) are used in these products along with stabilized
thermosetting matrices. In some products a hybrid combination of fibers (glass and carbon) are
also used. Their bond with concrete remains an issue and hence their surfaces are either
deformed by winding an additional strand in a helical pattern on the surface or by coating them
with sand particles of a specific grain size distribution. The fiber volume fraction in these bars
varies between 30% and 75% and their stress-strain curves are linear elastic to failure (Figure 6,
Ref. 5). Applications of FRP rods and girds are shown in Figures 7-13 (19).

9
Table 6 Summary of Studies Related to Interface Bond
Researcher
System studied
Tighiouart et al GFRP bar(13)
Concrete Bond

Variables
- Type of rebar
- Diameter
Anchored length

Sen et al (14)

CFRP barConcrete Bond

Katz et al (15)

FRP barConcrete Bond

Toutanji et al
(16)

FRP sheetConcrete Bond

- Environmental
Conditions
(Tidal/Thermal
cycles)- Effect of
moisture absorption
- Temperature
- Severe reduction in the bond strength with a
temperature rise was reported.
- The reduction happens at the Tg of the polymer and
it was sharper for the less cross-linked matrix
polymers.
- The surface preparation by water jet produces a
- Type of fiber
better bonding strength.
- Type of surface
treatment (water jet - Specimens with high modulus carbon fiber showed
higher average tensile than those of lower modulus
and sanding)
and those with glass fiber.

Karbhari et al
(17)

FRP plateConcrete Bond

Toutanji et al
(18)

FRP plateConcrete Bond

-Environmental
conditions
- Type of resin
- Type of
composite plate
- Environmental
conditions)
- Type of fiber
- Type of epoxy

Major findings
- For steel bar, the bearing mode controls the bond
strength. However for GFRP, mostly the adhesion
and friction provide the bonding strength.
- For larger diameters, smaller bond strength is
reported.
- Moisture absorption results in swelling of the
CFRP composite and it leads to tensile stresses
around the CFRP rods lead to cracking and bond
degradation.

- Systems with low glass transition temperatures and

severe drop in instantaneous result in significant
deterioration.
- CFRP lead to more durable retrofits.
- Specimens conditioned under wet/dry cycles
produced less improvement.
- Selection of suitable epoxy is very important.

10

Figure 5. Process of Pultrusion

3000

2550

2500

CFRP Leadline tendon

Strength [MPa]

2000

CFRP ISOROD bar

1500

1500
1400
CFRP NEFMAC grid

1300
AFRP NEFMAC grid

1000
770 GFRP C-bar
600
HFRP NEFMAC grid

500

0
0

0.005

0.01

0.015

0.02

0.025

0.03

Strain

Figure 6. Stress-Strain Curves for Some FRP Products

.

Figure 7. FRP Grids as Reinforcement for Tunnel Lining Prior to Shotcreting

11

Figure 8. Marine GFRP Fender Panels

Figure 9. Innovative FRP Bridge Deck

12

Figure 10. Underground Precast Chamber for Utilities

Figure 11. GFRP Dowels Shear Transfer in Slabs on Grade

13

Figure 12. FRP in Bridge Deck Applications

Figure 13 CFRP Stirrups for Bridge Girder

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER IN STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING:

SHEETS, WRAPS AND LAMINATES
Steel plates glued to the structure using epoxies have been used extensively in the past for
strengthening of concrete structures. Steel plates, however, are prone to corrosion which
ultimately leads to bond deterioration and plate debonding. FRPs, with their non-corrosive nature
are significantly more suitable for strengthening and rehabilitation. In fact, strengthening and
rehabilitation applications of FRPs have far surpassed their application in new construction as
bars and grids. For repair and strengthening unidirectional FRP sheets (Figure 14, Ref. 19) are
generally used. All three fibers, carbon, aramid or glass are employed with an appropriate
thermosetting resin (polyester, vinyl ester or epoxy). The sheets can be impregnated in place with

14
the resin, or impregnated and cured outside with the hardened laminate applied to the structure
using adhesives with or without pre-stress (Figure 15). In some other cases, fiber tapes and
strands have also been used for wrapping. Some commercial strengthening products are listed in
Table 7, and applications are shown in Figures 15-17.

Figure 14. An FRP Wrap for Strengthening and Repair

Ultimate Strain
(%)

1900

Elastic
Modulus
(GPa)
640

0.165

3465

229

1.5

Fibrwrap
SEH51

1.3

552

27.6

2.0

SIKA
CarboDur M

1.4

2000

210

1.1

PRODUCT
Mitsubishi
Type HM
MBrace
CF130

Thickness
per layer
(mm)
0.143

Tensile Strength
(MPa)

Table 7 Some Commercially Available Reinforcing Products (19)

0.3

15

Figure 15. An FRP Laminate Applied for Strengthening of a Timber Bridge Girder

Figure 16(a). Flexural Strengthening with FRP

Figure 16(b). Shear Strengthening with FRP

16

Figure 17. Seismic Strengthening of a Column using FRP

FIBER REINFORCED POLYMER SPRAY FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTHENING

As discussed above, the vast majority of projects using FRP strengthening have involved the use
of laminated plates or wraps bonded to the concrete surface. An entirely new method of repair
using Sprayed Fiber Reinforced Polymer (SFRP) coatings has been developed at the University
of British Columbia (20-23).

Figure 18. The Spray Operation

17
The technique consists of spraying polymer and short, randomly distributed fibers
concurrently on the surface of concrete to be repaired such that a 2-dimensional random
distribution of fibers is obtained on the application surface (Figure 18). There are three basic
ingredients of the final composite, which are handled simultaneously by the pumping and
spraying equipment. The resin and catalyst are fed separately into a spray gun, where they are
mixed and then sprayed as a single compound. The glass fiber is implemented in a roving format.
Two strands of roving are fed into a chopper unit mounted on top of the spray gun, wherein they
pass between a pair of rollers. One of these rollers has a series of blades mounted at equal
intervals around its circumference. The blades break the fiber into short lengths, with that length
dependent entirely upon the spacing of blades on the wheel. This allows production of fibers of
consistent length, adjustable from 8 to 48 mm. As shown in Figure 18, the gun sprays the
resin/catalyst mixture from the lower spray nozzle while, at the same time, spraying the chopped
fibers from the top-mounted chopper unit. These two streams combine and continue on to the
spraying surface together. The result is a two dimensional random distribution of fibers
encapsulated by a fully catalyzed resin. This approach allows the operator to build up the FRP
material to whatever thickness is required. After spraying, a ribbed aluminum roller is used to
force out any entrapped air voids and to work the material into a consistent thickness. In both the
laboratory trials and field application so far, the spray consisted of a polyester resin and chopped,
randomly distributed glass fiber. The polyester resin developed an approximate tensile strength
of 75 MPa and a modulus of 6 GPa when fully hardened. The glass fiber used was manufactured
by Owens Corning under the brand name of Advantex Glass Fiber 360RR Gun Roving. This
fiber has a diameter of 11 microns, a tensile Strength of 3400 MPa, an elastic modulus of 81

Figure 19. Safe Bridge, British Columbia

18
GPa, and an elongation at break of 4.6%. The fiber is manufactured from a collection of
continuous glass filaments gathered into a single bundle. The 360 designation refers to a high
performance, silane-based sizing that is applied to fiber filaments to improve handling and
optimize the fiber-resin bond in the composite. Before applying the spray, the outer surface of
the structure is coated with a layer of a suitable secondary bonding agent (for example, a twocomponent elastomer modified vinyl-ester primer system with a methyl ethyl keytone peroxide
(MEKP) catalyst). After this bonding agent had dried sufficiently, the spray is applied. With a
20% by volume of 48 mm long fiber, a composite with a density of 1400 kg/m3, a secant tensile
modulus of 12 GPa, a tensile strength of 110 MPa and a tensile elongation capacity of 1.25% can
be obtained.
The technique of sprayed composites was applied to the Safe Bridge on the Vancouver
Island (near Duncan, British Columbia) that needed shear strengthening. The 7.2 m long single
span bridge was built in 1955 (Figure 19) and has 11 precast channel beams each 0.35 m wide
(see Figure 20). The girders were cast from 35 MPa structural lightweight concrete and the
average steel strength was of 356 MPa. The reinforcement details are shown in Figure 21. The 9
m wide bridge includes a sidewalk separated from traffic by a concrete curb. The clearance under
the bridge is about 1.2 m at the upstream end and 2.1 m at the downstream end.
Shear stirrups in the girders of Safe Bridge are spaced at varying intervals along the
length of the beam, ranging from a minimum spacing of 125 mm at the ends of the beam to a
maximum spacing of 760 mm at midspan. Thus, like many other bridges in British Columbia and
Alberta, the girders of Safe Bridge are considered shear deficient (24), and the purpose of
applying the Sprayed FRP was to enhance their shear resistance. In order to demonstrate the
effectiveness of sprayed composites at enhancing shear resistance, girders from another bridge
that got replaced in 1999 after 50 years of service were tested in the laboratory. The tested
girders were identical to those in the Safe Bridge in every respect including concrete strength,
properties of reinforcement steel, section and span.
Of the three channel beams salvaged from the old bridge, one was rehabilitated with the
sprayed GFRP technique while a second was retrofitted using a commercially available
continuous fiber wrap system, also composed of E-glass (25). The third specimen was tested in
its original unretrofitted state to serve as a control specimen. The deteriorated sections with
missing cover concrete were repaired, thus creating a continuous flat surface to which the retrofit
materials could be applied. Such surface preparation is particularly important for the continuous
fiber wrap systems, which would dramatically suffer in efficiency should the material not be
applied to a flat surface. The sprayed technique, on the other hand, is much less susceptible to
these regions of missing concrete. Following a 24-hour moist curing period, the grouted surfaces
were sandblasted. For the channel beam retrofitted with the sprayed technique, the GFRP
material was applied to all bottom surfaces of the member (slab and leg) as well as to the insides
of the legs, as depicted in Figure 22. The beam retrofitted with the commercially available
continuous wrap system was also precoated with a primer or coupling agent. After allowing the
primer to cure for a full 24 hours, the wrap was applied in two different orientations, as indicated
in Figure 23. Fiber orientation is specified with respect to the longitudinal axis of the member,
which is designated as 0o. Initially, a single layer of wrap, oriented at 0o, was applied to the lower
surface of the deck portion of the member and to the bottoms of the two vertical legs. Next, the
same wrap was applied to the inside of the vertical legs, though this time the wrap was turned

19

90 so that the fibers ran vertically. This application was lapped over the 0 wrap at both the
top and bottom of the channel legs. At the top, it was lapped over the underlying layer by two
inches while at the bottom it was continued across the entire width of the stem soffit. The fiber
mass applied per m2 in the wrap was comparable to that present in a 10 mm thickness of spray
utilizing a 20% fiber volume. These two systems therefore could be compared directly.
All three of the beams were tested under third-point loading using four large hydraulic
jacks as load actuators, Figure 24. LVDTs were used to record the deflection of the beam while
the hydraulic pressures in the jacks were monitored to provide load information. Results are
shown in Figure 25 and also presented in Table 8.

Retrofit
Type

Table 8. Results of Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders

Ultimate Moment
Absorbed Energy
Capacity
Initial Stiffness
Peak Load
To Peak Load
(kNm)
(kN/mm)
(Nm)

None

6.69

214

237

11559

Wrap

7.67

284

323

31644

Spray

9.00

419

470

34095

Results indicate that both retrofit techniques have the ability to increase member stiffness. The
peak load results followed a similar trend, with the continuous fiber wrap producing a 33%
increase in ultimate load carrying ability while the improvement due to the sprayed GFRP
technique was nearly triple that at 96%. The very large difference between the two techniques is
indicative that the sprayed technique is indeed capable of producing superior results. Both
retrofitting approaches produced very large improvements in the energy absorption
characteristics of the channel beams; the wrap increased energy absorption to peak load by 174%
while the sprayed GFRP technique increased it by 195%. All three of the beams displayed the
characteristic bilinear behavior typical of the reinforced concrete beams. However, in the plastic
range, the specimen with the Sprayed GFRP retrofit depicted the greatest ability to strain-harden.
Results indicated a clear potential of Sprayed GFRP as an effective material for retrofit.
Before the application of GFRP Spray to the Safe Bridge, the bridge was fully
instrumented. Strain gauges were placed on all eleven girders at midspan and these were then
sealed for long term monitoring. The bridge was then tested and calibrated for its response prior
to placement of GFRP Spray retrofit by loading it at various locations using a fully loaded 28
Ton dump truck (Figures 26(a) and 26(b). Once the instrumentation had been placed and tested,
and the benchmark response of the bridge recorded, girders that showed severe spalling were
repaired using a hybrid fiber reinforced cementitious mortar employing 0.1% each of
polypropylene and carbon fiber (Table 9). The use of hybrid fiber reinforcement in the
cementitious mortar was made in order to enhance resistance against plastic shrinkage cracking,
increase strain capacity, and improve bond with the substrate.

20
Table 9. Properties of Fibers Used in Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Mortar for Patching
Girders
Average Length Tensile Youngs Volume
Fibers
Type
Diameter (mm) Strength Modulus Fraction
in the
(GPa)
(MPa)
(mm)
Patching
Mortar
Pitch-Based
Carbon

9 to 11
Microns

12.5

Surface
Coated
Polypropylene

2 Denier*

12.5

2111.1

232
0.1%

Carbon

375

3.5
0.1%

Polypropylene
Weight of a 9000 meters long fiber in grams

Finally, the fiber reinforced polymer spray was applied using the spray equipment mounted on a
truck (Figures 27 and 28) using the scheme in Figure 22. The mass of the discharged fiber was
continuously monitored in order to control the in-situ fiber volume fraction to 20%. The
placement rate was about 4m2/hour. All eleven girders were sprayed in less than a week.
After the application of the spray, the bridge was load tested again by loading it at
various locations using a 28 Ton dump truck (Figures 26a and 26b). The benefits of the spray are
indicated in Table 10 in terms of maximum recorded strain in the rebar and deflection in the
girders. Results are given from both static and roll tests. Notice the overall effectiveness of the
spray.

21
Table 10. Results of Load Test on Safe Bridge

Roll Tests

Static Tests

Test
Max. Rebar Strain
(micro strain)
Girder # 6
Max. Deflection
(mm)

Before Application After Application of Percent

of Spray
Spray
Reduction
101.76
65.55
36%

1.55

1.08

30%

8.0

5.2

36%

72.12

54.94

24%

Girder # 6
Max. Deflection
(mm)

1.34

0.89

34%

Girder # 6
Max. % of Yield
Capacity Reached

5.8

4.4

24%

Girder # 6
Max. % of Yield
Capacity Reached
Max. Rebar Strain
(micro strain)

DESIGNING WITH FIBER REINFORCED POLYMERS

Significant efforts are currently underway to develop design guidelines to design concrete
elements with FRP both in new construction and in strengthening. ISIS guidelines (Ref. 5,6) are
prominent among these efforts and these are presented in Appendices I, II and III.

CONCLUDING REMARKS
In this paper, the properties and applications of fiber reinforced polymers (FRPs) are described in
the context of both new concrete construction and repair and strengthening of older deteriorated
structures. FRPs offer numerous advantages over steel in that they are: non-corrosive,
lightweight, non-magnetic and easy to apply. A broad overview of the properties of some
commonly used FRPs is presented and issues surrounding the choice of resin system and fibers,
long term durability in aggressive environments, etc. are discussed. An entirely original method
of SFRP coatings pioneered at the University of British Columbia is described in the repair and
strengthening context. Finally, the paper provides some basic beam analysis procedures.

22

Figure 20. Channel Beam Section and Dimensions

Figure 21. Channel Beam Reinforcement Details (Imperial Sizes)

Figure 22. Spraying Scheme

Figure 23. FRP Wrapping Scheme

23

Figure 24. Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders

Figure 25. Results of Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders

24

Figure26(a). Tests on Bridge with Fully Loaded Truck Prior to Strengthening

25

Figure 26(b). Various Positions of the Loaded Truck on the Bridge

26

Figure 27. Spray Equipment Mounted on a Truck

Figure 28. FRP Spray Being Applied to the Bridge

27

REFERENCES
1. Meier, U., Carbon Fiber-Reinforced Polymers: Modern Materials in Bridge Engineering.
Structural Engineering International, Vol. 1, No. 12, 1992, pp 7-12.
2. Ehsani, M.R., Rehabilitation of the Infrastructure with Advanced Composite Materials.
Repair and Rehabilitation of the Infrastructure of the Americas, Proceedings. NSF,
Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, 1994, pp 193-205.
3. Nanni, A., M.S. Norris and N.M. Bradford, Lateral Confinement of Concrete Using FRP
Reinforcement. Fiber-Reinforced-Plastic Reinforcement for Concrete Structures,
International Symposium. ACI SP-138, 1993, pp 193-209.
4. Neale, K. W. and Labossiere, P. State-of-the-art Report on Retrofitting and Strengthening by
Continuous Fiber in Canada, Japan Concrete Institute, 1, 1997, pp. 25-39.
5. ISIS Canada, Reinforcing Concrete Structures with Fiber Reinforced Polymers, Manual #3,
ISIS Canada Corporation, Winnipeg, Canada, 2001.
6. ISIS Canada, Strengthening Reinforced Concrete Structures with Externally Bonded Fiber
Reinforced Polymers, Manual #4, ISIS Canada Corporation, Winnipeg, Canada, 2001.
7. ACI Committee 440, State of the Art Report on Fiber Reinforced Plastic Reinforcement for
Concrete Structures, ACI 440R-96, American Concrete Institute, 1999.
8. Mangonon, P.L., The Principles of Materials Selection for Engineering Design, Prentice
Hall, 1999.
9. Engineering Materials Handbook, Vol 1., Composites, AM International, 1987.
10. Banthia, N., and Macdonald, R. Durability of Fiber Reinforced Polymer Composites, Report
to CHBDC Committee 16, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, 1996.
11. Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, CAN/CSA-S6-00, Chapter 16, Canadian Standards
Association, 2000.
12. Banthia, N. and Khalighi, Y., FRP-Concrete Bond: Issues and Challenges, Indian Concrete
Institute Journal, Special Issue on FRP, 3(4), January 2003, pp. 35-41.
13. Tighiouart B., Benmokrane B. and Gao D. Investigation of bond in concrete member with
fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) bars. Construction and Building Materials, Vol. 12, 1998, pp
453-462.
14. Sen R., Shahawy M., Sukumar S and Rosas J. Durability of Carbon Fiber Reinforced
Polymer (CFRP) Pretensioned Elements under Tidal/Thermal Cycles, ACI Structural
Journal, Vol. 96 No. 3, May-June 1999, pp 450-459.
15. Katz A. and Berman N. Modeling the effect of high temperature on the bond of FRP
reinforcing bars to concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 22, 2000, pp 433-443.
16. Toutanji H. and Qritz G. The effect of surface preparation on the bond interface between
FRP sheets and concrete members. Vol. 53, 2001,
17. Karbhari V. M. and Engineer M. Effect of Environment Exposure on the External
Strengthening of Concrete with Composites-Short Term Bond Durability, Journal of
Reinforced Plastics and Composites, Vol. 15, December 1996, pp 1194-1216.
18. Toutanji H. A. and Gomez W. Durability Characteristics of Concrete Beams Externally
Bonded with FRP Composite Sheets, Cement and Concrete Composites, Vol. 19, 1997, pp
351-358.
19. ISIS Seminar Series Material, ISIS Corporation, Winnipeg, 2001.

28
20. Banthia, N., C. Yan and N. Nandakumar, Sprayed Fibre Reinforced Plastics (FRPs) for
Repair of Concrete Structures, Advanced Composite Materials in Bridges and Structures,
2nd International Conference, CSCE, Montreal, QC, Canada, 1996, pp 537-545.
21. Banthia, N. and A.J. Boyd, Sprayed Fiber Reinforced Plastics for Repairs, Canadian Journal
of Civil Engineering, Vol. 27, No. 5, 2000, October, pp 907-915.
22. Boyd, A.J. and Banthia. N, Shear Strengthening of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Sprayed
GFRP. Proceedings, Structural Faults & Repair, 8th International Conference. London,
England, July 1999.
23. Boyd, A.J. Rehabilitation of Reinforced Concrete Beams with Sprayed Glass Fiber
Reinforced Polymers. Ph.D. Thesis The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada,
2000.
24. CAN/CSA-S6-00, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, National Standard of Canada,
Dec. 2000, Published by CSA International, Canada.
25. MASTER BUILDER TECHNOLOGIES, MBraceTM Fiber Reinforcement Systems for the
MBraceTM composite strengthening system (Product Information). TM Trademark of MBT
Holding A.G., Master Builders, Inc. Cleveland, Ohio, 1998.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Authors thankfully acknowledge the support of Intelligent Sensing of Innovative Structures
(ISIS), Canada, a Network of Centers of Excellence Program of the Natural Sciences and
Engineering Research Council of Canada. Help of Yashar Khalighi, Doctoral Student at the
University of British Columbia is appreciated. The permission of ISIS to use project photographs
is also thankfully acknowledged.

29

APPENDIX I
Analysis of Beams with FRPs using ISIS Guidelines:
FRP Rebar as Tension Reinforcement
Assumptions:
- Maximum strain at the concrete compression fiber is 3500 x 10-6 .
- Perfect bond between the concrete and the FRP
- Tensile strength of concrete is ignored5
- The stress-strain relationship for FRP is linear up to failure
- The strain in concrete and FRP is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
- A plane cross section before deformation remains plane after deformation.
Modes of Failure:
- Balanced failure (simultaneous rupture of FRP and crushing of concrete
- Compression failure in concrete
- Tension Failure of FRP
1.1. BALANCED FAILURE REINFORCEMENT RATIO
The balanced failure strain conditions occurs when the concrete strain reaches its ultimate
value cu , while the outer layer of FRP reaches its ultimate strain frpu . From the strain
compatibility in the cross section (Fig 1) and the force equilibrium in the cross section (Cn=Tn)
we will have:

frpb = 1 1 fc /ffrpu (cu / cu + frpu )

(A-1)

1: ration of average concrete strength in rectangular compression block to the specified concrete
strength:
1= 0.85 0.0015 fc 0.67

(A-2)

1: ratio of depth of rectangular compression block to the depth of the neutral axis:
1= 0.97 0.0025 fc 0.67
fc : compressive strength of concrete, MPa
ffrpu : ultimate tensile strength of FRP, MPa

(A-3)

30

Fig 1: Failure at balanced condition

1.2. FAILURE DUE TO CRUSHING OF CONCRETE:
When flexural failure is induced by the crushing of concrete without rupture of the
reinforcement, the section is said to be over-reinforced. The strain with the top fiber strain equal
to the ultimate compressive strain of concrete in compression is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig 2: Strain/Stress Distribution at ultimate failure due to crushing of concrete

The ultimate moment resistance for this section can be calculated as follows:
C= 1 frp fc 1 cb

(A-4)

T= Afrp frp ffrp

(A-5)

An iteration process may be used and the assumed value of depth of neutral axis should be
changed till it satisfies the equilibrium condition: T=C.
When the equilibrium is satisfied, the moment of resistance of the section is given by:
Mr= C(d - 1c/2)

(A-6)

31
1.3. TENSION FAILURE
In this type of failure, the steel yields before the failure and the curvature increases rapidly until
the strain in concrete reached the ultimate value. The strain in the reinforcement will be:
frpu = ffrpu / Efrp .

(A-7)

The corresponding strain c at the last compressive fiber will be less than cu and the traditional
rectangular block can not idealize the distribution of the compressive stress in the concrete zone
and and will be derived for c varying up to 3500 x 10-6. The resultant of the compressive
stress in concrete, C, is then calculated as:
C= c fc 1 cb
in which and can be obtained from Fig 4 and 5.

Fig 3: Strain/Stress Distribution at ultimate failure due to rupture of FRP.

Fig 4: Equivalent stress-block parameter for concrete strength of 20 to 60 MPa.

(A-8)

32

Fig 5: Equivalent stress-block parameter for concrete strength of 20 to 60 MPa.

The tensile force in reinforcement is calculated as:

T=Afrpfrp frpu Efrp

(A-9)

Equilibrium in a cross section is found by equating the equations for tensile and compressive
forces:
1 frp fc 1 cb = Afrp frp frpu Efrp

(A-10)

Several iterations with different values of the depth of neutral axis should be made until two
forces are in equilibrium.
The moment of resistance of the member can be calculated from:
Mr= C(d - c/2)

(A-11)

33

APPENDIX II
Analysis of Beams with FRPs using ISIS Guidelines:
FRP Plates for Flexural Strengthening
RESISTANCE FACTORS
Resistance factors are required to compute the flexural strength of reinforced concrete and are
show in Table 1.
Table 1: Resistance Factors for Concrete, Steel and FRP reinforcement
Structure
Bridge
Concrete
0.6
0.75
Steel
0.85
0.9
FRP
Different value are suggested between 0.7 to 0.78
FLEXURAL FAILURE MODES
1234-

Concrete crushing
Steel yielding followed by concrete crushing
Steel yielding followed by FRP rupture
Debonding of the FRP reinforcement near or at the concrete/FRP interface.

It may be difficult to determine the failure mode so one must assume a particular failure mode
and then verify if it will occur or not.

Fig 6: Stress and strain Distribution (Tension Steel Reinforcement Only)

2.1 Steel reinforcement in tension

Based on Figure 6, the following relation can be established:
c /c = s / (d c) = frp + bi / (h c)

(A-12)

34
The internal forces acting on the section are as follows:
C= 1 frp fc 1 cb
Ts= sfsAs ; for s < y
Ts= sfyAs ; for s y

(A-13)
(A-14)
(A-15)

Where fs is the stress in the steel, As is the area of tension steel reinforcement, and fy and y are
the yield stress of the steel and the yield strain of the steel respectively. For the FRP,
Tfrp = frp Efrp frp Afrp ; for frp frpu
Tfrp = 0; for frp frpu

(A-16)
(A-17)

The equilibrium of internal forces gives:

Cs=Ts + Tfrp and the resisting moment, Mr , is given by: Mr= Ts(d-a/2) + Tfrp (h-a/2) (A-18)
2.2. Compression failure of concrete:
In this case, the flexural failure mode is initiated by concrete crashing (c = cu = 0.0035 for
structures and 0.003 for bridges), the actual FRP and Steel strain can be determined as follows:
s = cu ( d c / c)
frp = cu ( h c / c) bi

(A-19)
(A-20)

The distance c from the top compression face to the neutral axis, , is obtained from equilibrium:
Assuming that the tension steel has not yielded:
1 c fc 1 c2 b + (sEsAscu + frpEfrpAfrp (cu + bi))c (sEsAsd + frpEfrpAfrph)cu = 0
The factored resisting moment can ba calculated as:
Mr = sfsAs (d a/2) + frp Efrp frp Afrp (h a/2)

(A-21)
(A-22)

Assuming yielding of the tension steel:

1 c fc 1 c2 b + (frpEfrpAfrp (cu + bi ) sfyAs )c frpEfrpAfrp cu h = 0
Mr = sfyAs (d a/2) + frp Efrp frp Afrp (h a/2)

(A-23)
(A-24)

2.3. Tension failure of FRP

When the FRP tension occurs first, the strain in steel will be greater than the yield strain. And the
strain in concrete and steel will be calculated as the following:
s = (frpu + bi) ( d c / h - c)
c = (frpu + bi) ( c / h - c)

(A-25)
(A-26)

The distance c from the neutral axis to the top compression face is given by:
c = ( sfyAs + frp Efrp frp Afrp )/ 1 c fc 1 b

(A-27)

and the factored moment:

Mr = sfyAs (d a/2) + frp Efrp frp Afrp (h a/2)

(A-28)

35

APPENDIX III
Analysis of Beams with FRPs using ISIS Guidelines:
FRP Plates for Shear Strengthening

Fig 7: Effective length of reinforcements:

The factored shear resistance, Vr is given by:

Vr =Vc + Vs + Vfrp in which Vc=0.2 fc bwd

(A-29)

The steel contribution is:

Vs= sfyAvd / s

(A-30)

And the contribution of FRP is:

Vfrp = frpEfrpfrp Afrp dfrp (sin + cos ) / sfrp

(A-31)

Where Afrp = 2 tfrpwfrp ; Here the sfrp, wfrp and are the spacing, width and angle of the FRP shear
reinforcement to the longitudinal axis of the member, respectively. The effective strain frpe is
obtained from:
frpe = Rfrpu where R is given by: R= 1 (fc2/3 / frp Efrp)2

(A-32)

frpb = 2 tfrp wfrp / bw sfrp

(A-33)

and

36
1 and 2 are 1.35 and 0.3 for CFRP rupture and 1.23 and 0.47 for AFRP rupture.
The effective FRP strain should also be less than frp k1 k2 Le /9225 to avoid debonding in
which:
k1= (fc / 27.65)2/3 and k2= (dfrp neLe) / dfrp

(A-34)

= 0.8 and ne is the number of free ends of the FRP stirrups on one side of the beam.
The effective anchorage length, Le , can be found using the following equation:
Le= 25350 / (tfrp Efrp )0.58

(A-35)

STRENGTHENING LIMITS
When shear strengthening is required, the maximum band spacing should be limited to:
sfrp wfrp + d/4

(A-36)

Also the factored shear resistance is limited to:

Vr =Vc + Vs + Vfrp Vc + 0.8 cfc bwd

(A-37)

37
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 1 Typical Properties of Resins Used in FRPs
Table 2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Fibres
Table 3 Properties of Composites and Comparison with Steel
Table 4 Durability of Composites (Part A)
Table 5 Durability of Composites (Part B)
Table 6 Summary of Studies Related to Interface Bond
Table 7 Some Commercially Available Reinforcing Products
Table 8 Results of Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders Using Sprayed
Composites
Table 9 Results of Load Test on Safe Bridge
Figure 1(a)
Figure 1(b)
Figure 2.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Figure 6.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
Figure 9.
Figure 10.
Figure 11.
Figure 12.
Figure 13
Figure 14.
Figure 15.
Figure 16(a).
Figure 16(b).
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26(a).
Figure 26(b).
Figure 27.
Figure 28.

Particulate Reinforced and

Fiber Reinforced Composite
Molecular Structure of Kevlar
Stress-Strain Responses of Some Fibers
Some FRP Rebar and Grids Available Commercially.
Process of Pultrusion
Stress-Strain Curves for Some FRP Products
FRP Grids as Reinforcement for Shotcreted Tunnel Lining
Marine GFRP Fender Panels
Innovative FRP Deck
Underground Precast Chamber
GFRP Dowels for Slabs in Grade
FRP in Bridge Deck Applications
CFRP Stirrups for Girder
An FRP Wrap for Strengthening and Repair
An FRP Laminate For Flexural Reinforcement of Timber Bridge Girder
Flexural Strengthening with FRP
Shear Strengthening with FRP
Seismic Strengthening of a Column using FRP
The Spray Operation
Safe Bridge, British Columbia
Channel Beam Section and Dimensions
Channel Beam Reinforcement Details (Imperial Sizes)
Spraying Scheme
FRP Wrapping Scheme
Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders
Results of Laboratory Tests on Full-Scale Bridge Girders
Tests on Bridge with Fully Loaded Truck Prior to Strengthening
Various Positions of the Loaded Truck on the Bridge
Spray Equipment Mounted on a Truck
FRP Spray Being Applied to the Bridge