Part I

Constituents and Architecture

of Composite Materials

The objective of this part is to emphasize the context in which the

problem of the mechanical analysis of laminate or sandwich structures
is stated. Chapter 1 is an introduction which gives general features on
composite materials. The constituents (matrix and fibres) are analysed
in Chapter 2. The general architecture of laminate and sandwich
materials is next considered in Chapter 3.

CHAPTER 1

Basic Elements
on Composite Materials

1.1 COMPOSITE MATERIALS

1.1.1 Definition
In a general sense, the word composite means constituted of two or more
different parts. In practice, the term composite material or composite is used in a
more restrictive sense, as a material constituted by the assemblage of two or more
materials of different natures with complementary properties leading to a material
which have better properties than the properties of the composite components
considered separately. Examples of composite materials, in this general concept,
are reported in Table 1.1. The concept of composite material is specified hereafter
in this chapter.

1.1.2 General Features

In the most general case, a composite material is constituted of one or more
discontinuous phase distributed in a continuous phase. In the case of several
discontinuous phases of different natures, the composite material is called a
hybrid composite. The discontinuous phase is usually harder with mechanical properties which are much higher than those of the continuous phase. The continuous
phase is called the matrix. The discontinuous phase is called the reinforcing
material or the reinforcement (Figure 1.1). An exception to this composite
description is the case of polymer materials modified by elastomers, for which a
rigid polymer matrix is filled with elastomer particulates. For this type of
composite, the static mechanical properties of the initial polymer, (Youngs
modulus, strength, etc.) are not modified notably, when the impact properties are
improved appreciably.
The properties of composite materials result from:
the properties of constituent materials,
their geometrical distribution,
their interactions, etc.

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

TABLE 1.1. Examples of composite materials, in a general sense.

Composite Type

Constituent Materials

Application Fields

1. Organic Matrix
Composites
Paper, cardboard
Particle panels
Fibre Panels
Coated canvas
Impervious materials
Tires
Laminates
Reinforced plastics
2. Mineral Matrix
Composites
Concrete
Carbon-carbon
composite
Ceramic Composite
3. Metallic Matrix
Composites

Resin/fillers/cellulose fibres
Resin/wood shavings
Resin/wood fibres
Flexible resins/cloths
Elastomers/bitumen/textiles
Rubber/canvas/steel
Resin/fillers/glass fibres,
carbon fibres, etc.
Resins/microspheres

Printing, Packaging, etc.

Woodwork
Building
Sports, building
Roofing, terrace, etc.
Automobiles
Multiple areas

Cement/sand/granulates
Carbon/carbon fibres

Civil engineering
Aviation, space, sports,
biomedecine, etc.
Thermomechanical
applications

Ceramic/ceramic fibres

Aluminium/boron fibres
Aluminium/carbon

Space

4. Sandwiches

Peaux

Ames

Metals, laminates, etc.

Multiple areas

Foams, honeycombs, balsa,

reinforced plastics, etc.

matrix
reinforcement

FIGURE 1.1. Composite Material.

1.2 Classification of Composite Materials

Thus, for the characterisation of a composite material, it will be necessary to

consider:
the nature of the constituent materials and their properties,
the reinforcement geometry, its repartition,
the nature of the interface between the reinforcement and the matrix.
The reinforcement geometry will be described by the reinforcement shape, its
size, the reinforcement concentration, its orientation, etc. If all of these parameters
combine to determine the resultant properties of the composite material, the
decriptive models will consider only some of these parameters because of the
complexity of the mechanical phenomena which are involved. For example, the
shape of the reinforcement will be approximated as either spheres or cylinders.
The concentration of the reinforcement is usually measured by the volume
fraction or the weight fraction. The development of the models considered in this
book will show that the volume fraction of reinforcement is a determining
parameter for the mechanical properties of composite materials.
For a given reinforcement concentration, the reinforcement distribution
through the volume of composite materials is also an important feature. A uniform
distribution will lead to the homogeneity of materials: the mechanical properties of materials will be independent of the measurement point. In the case of
nonuniform distributions of the reinforcements, material fracture will be initiated
in the areas of low reinforcement concentrations, which leads to a decrease in the
fracture properties of composites.
For composite materials in which the reinforcement is constituted of fibres, the
fibre orientation is a determinant factor for the anisotropy of materials. This
aspect constitutes one of the fundamental properties of composite materials: the
ability to tailor the composite structure according to a conception and fabrication
of the structure in such a way to obtain the structure properties wished.

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite materials can be classified according to the form of constituent
materials or according to the nature of constituent materials.

1.2.1 Classification according to the Form of

Constituents
As a function of the form of the constituents, composite materials are classified
into two general classes: composite materials with fibres and composite materials
with particles.

1.2.1.1 Fibre Composites

A composite material is a fibre composite when the reinforcement is in the
form of fibres. The fibre reinforcement can be either continuous or discontinuous
in form, as cloth reinforcement, chopped fibres, short fibres, etc. The

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

arrangement of fibres and their orientations allow us to modify the mechanical

properties of composite materials, in such a way to obtain materials ranging from
strongly anisotropic materials to transverse isotropic materials. Designers thus
have in composite material a material the properties of which can be modified by
adjusting:
the nature of the constituents,
the proportion of the constituents,
the orientation of the reinforcement,
according to the performances required.
Fibre composite materials lead to high mechanical properties and justify to
develop an extensive study of their mechanical behaviours. So, this type of
composite materials will be considered essentially in the present textbook.

1.2.1.2 Particle Composites

A composite material is a particle composite when the reinforcement is in the
form of particles. In contrast to fibre reinforcement, particles do not have a privileged dimension.
Particles are generally introduced to improve particular properties of materials
or matrices, such as rigidity, thermal behaviour, resistance to abrasion, decrease of
shrinkage, etc. In numerous cases, particles are simply used as fillers to reduce the
cost of the initial materials without degrading the initial properties.
The choice of the particle-matrix association depends on the properties wanted.
For example, lead particles in copper alloys make them easier to machine. Particles of brittle metals such as tungsten, chromium and molybdenum, incorporated
in ductile materials, improve the material properties at high temperatures while
preserving their ductility at room temperatures.
Cermets are also examples of particular composites constituted of ceramic
particles incorporated in a metal matrix. These composites are adapted to high
temperature applications. For example, oxide-based cermets are used for highspeed cutting tools and for the protectors at high temperatures.
Also, elastomer particles can be incorporated in brittle polymer matrices in
such a way to improve their fracture and shock properties by decreasing the
sensibility to cracking initiation and development.
Particle composites cover an extensive domain that is constantly expending. In
view of the diversity of these materials, particle composites will not be studied in
the present textbook.

1.2.2 Classification according to the Nature of

Constituents
According to the nature of the matrix, composite materials are classified as
organic, metallic or mineral matrix composites. Various reinforcements can be
associated with these matrices. Only some associations have an actual industrial
interest. Other materials are subjects of developments in research laboratories.

1.3 Why Composite Materials?

Among these various composites, we can cite:

1. Composites with organic matrix (resin, fillers), with:
mineral fibres: glass, carbon, etc.
organic fibres: Kevlar, polyamides, etc.
metallic fibres: boron, aluminium, etc.
2. Composites with metallic matrix (light and ultra-light alloys of aluminium,
magnesium, titanium), with :
mineral fibres: carbon, silicon carbide (SiC),
metallic fibres: boron,
metallo-mineral fibres: boron fibres coated with silicon carbide
(BorSiC).
3. Composites with mineral matrix (ceramic), with:
metallic fibres: boron,
metallic particles: cermets,
mineral particles: carbides, nitrides, etc.
Composite materials with an organic matrix can be used only for temperatures
which do not exceed 200 to 300 C. For higher temperatures, composite materials
with a metallic matrix are used up to 600 C and composites with a metallic
matrix up to 1,000 C.

1.3 WHY COMPOSITE MATERIALS ?

We have reported the ability of composite materials to be tailored as a function
of the applications. Other reasons justify their development. We give some
elements in this section.

1.3.1 Specific Mechanical Characteristics

We consider a beam loaded with a tensile load F (Figure 1.2). The relation
between the load and the elongation l of the beam is given by:

F=

ES
l ,
l

(1.1)

where E is the Youngs modulus of the beam material, S the cross-sectional area
of the beam and l the length of the beam.
The beam stiffness K = ES l caracterizes the mechanical performances of the
beam in the elastic domain. In the case of two materials 1 and 2, the ratio of the

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

FIGURE 1.2. Tensile loading of a beam.

beam stiffnesses is:

K1 E1S1 l2
=
,
K 2 E2 S2 l1

(1.2)

and the ratio of the weights of the beams is:

m1 S1l1 1
=
,
m2 S2l2 2

(1.3)

introducing the specific weights (weights per unit of volume) of the beams. The
combination of Relations (1.2) and (1.3) leads to :
2

K1 E1 1 m1 l2
=
.
K 2 E2 2 m2 l1

(1.4)

For a structure, the dimensions of the elements are given, and the comparison of
the beam stiffnesses must be considered for identical lengths. Therefore, for
l1 = l2 :
K1 E1 1 m1
=
.
(1.5)
K 2 E2 2 m2
Lastly, the use of materials in the space and aviation areas, and further in the areas
of sports, building, etc., has led to compare the mechanical properties of structures
with equal weights. For m1 = m2 , the stiffness ratio is:
K1 E1 1
=
.
K 2 E2 2

(1.6)

Thus, it appears that the best material is that which has the highest value of E ,
leading to the highest value of the stiffness of the beam. The term E is called
the specific Youngs modulus of the material.
A similar investigation can be implemented in the case of a three-point bending
beam where the beam is subjected to a load F (Figure 1.3). The relation between

1.3 Why Composite Materials?

the load and the transverse deflection at the beam centre is given by :
F = 48

EI

(1.7)
f = Kf ,
l3
where f is the deflection at the beam centre, I the inertia moment of the cross
section and l the span length distance between the supports. The coefficient K is
the bending stiffness of the beam. In the case of a cylindrical beam section of
radius r,

r4,

the moment is given by

I=

and the weight is

m = r 2l.

It follows that in the case of two materials 1 and 2, the bending stiffness ratio is
given by:
2

K1 E1 12 m1 l2
=

.
K 2 E2 22 m2 l1

(1.8)

So, for bending beam, it results that the best material is that which has the highest
value of E 2 .
Similar developments can be considered in different shapes of the structures:
plates, shells, complex structures. The conclusion is always of the same nature:
for identical weights and dimensions, the most rigid structures are obtained by
using materials that have the smallest specific weight. Similarly, the comparison
of the structure strengths lead to similar conclusions for the fracture stresses of
materials. Thus, it has become usual to compare the mechanical properties of
materials by considering the specific values (with respect to the weight per unit of
volume) of the moduli and fracture stresses of materials.

1.3.2 Mechanical Characteristics of Materials

From the previous considerations, we now look for the most efficient materials: high modulus and fracture stress, low density. It is also obvious that the
elaboration of these materials must not result in a high cost, which itself depends
on their area of use. For example, in space and aviation applications, high
properties are sought and the cost of materials and their elaboration has a low
impact. In contrast, in the automotive industry, the improvement of the
F

l
FIGURE 1.3. Three-point bending beam.

10

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

performances can not be achieved to the detriment of the cost of the finished
product. In this area, the impact of the cost of the material and its elaboration is
very high.
Table 1.2 gives the specific mechanical characteristics of usual materials
elaborated in bulk form. The traditional materials such as steel, aluminium alloys,
wood and glass have comparable specific moduli. In contrast, it is observed that
the specific fracture stress of glass is clearly higher than that of steel and of aluminium alloys. Furthermore, it is an established fact that the fracture stresses measured for the materials are notably smaller that the theoretical values. This
difference is attributed to the presence of defects, as microcracks, in the materials.
To increase the values of the fracture stresses, it is then necessary to seek for
processes of material elaboration which lead to a decrease of the defects inside the
materials. This objective is achieved by elaborating the materials in the form of
fibres of very small diameters of some tens of microns. It is clear that it is necessary to proceed from materials which already have high specific properties in the
bulk form. The mechanical properties of materials elaborated in the form of fibres
are reported in Table 1.3. The values reported clearly show the interest in elaborating materials in fibre form to achieve higher values of the fracture stresses.
Owing to their low cost, glass fibres are used most where the low cost of the
products is a determinant factor. However, glass fibres have a limited value of the
modulus. Other fibres, as carbon fibres, Kevlar fibres and boron fibres have a high
specific modulus, hence the interest of these fibres in space and aviation areas.

1.3.3 Composite Materials

Because of their low cross sections (diameters of 10 to 20 m), fibres cannot,
however, be used directly in mechanical applications. Whence the idea of incorporating them in a polymer matrix in order to make a fibre composite material.
The matrix then has various functions: to link the fibres together, to transfer the
mechanical loads to the fibres, to protect the fibres from the external environment,
etc. Thus, a new material is born that is adjustable and that has high specific
mechanical characteristics. The components and the general structure of composite materials will be studied in more detail in Chapter 2.

1.4 VOLUME AND WEIGHT FRACTIONS

1.4.1 Introduction
One of the most important factors which determine the mechanical properties
of a composite material is the relative proportions of reinforcement and matrix.
The constituent proportions can be evaluated either by the volume fractions or by
the weight fractions. The weight fractions are easier to determine when the

1.4 Volume and Weight Fraction

11

TABLE 1.2. Specific properties of usual materials in bulk form.

Modulus

Fracture
Stress

Density

E
(GPa)

(MPa)

(kg/m3)

Steel

210

3402,100

Aluminium
alloys

70

Wood

Specific
Modulus
E /
(MN m/kg)

(kN m/kg)

7,800

26.9

43270

140620

2,700

25.9

52230

30

390

33.3

Glass

70

700-2,100

2,500

28

280840

Tungsten

350

1,1004,100

19,300

18.1

57210

Beryllium

300

700

1,830

164

380

Material

Specific
Stress

TABLE 1.3. Specific mechanical properties of materials, elaborated in the form of fibres.
Fracture
Stress

Density

(MPa)

(kg/m3)

Specific
Modulus
E /
(MN m/kg)

E
(GPa)

(kN m/kg)

E-Glass

72.4

3,500

2,540

28.5

1,380

S-Glass

85.5

4,600

2,480

34.5

1,850

Carbon with
high modulus
high stress

390

2,100

1,900

205

1,100

240

3,500

1,850

130

1,890

Kevlar (aramid)

130

2,800

1,500

87

1,870

Boron

385

2,800

2,630

146

1,100

Modulus
Fibres

Specific
Stress

composite materials are elaborated. Moreover, the analysis of the mechanical properties which will be developed in this book will show that the volume fractions
are the factors which it is necessary to introduce in the theoretical models for
describing the mechanical properties of composites. It is therefore necessary to
derive the relations which relate one fraction to the other. These relations will be
established for a two-phase material and then extended to a material with multiple
phases.

1.4.2 Volume Fractions

Let us consider a volume vc of composite material, constituted of a volume vf
of fibres and a volume vm of matrix. Indices c, f and m will be used as the

12

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

respective indices for the composite material, the fibres and the matrix. The
volume fraction of fibres is:
v
Vf = f .
(1.9)
vc
The volume fraction of the matrix is:

vm
,
vc

(1.10)

Vm = 1 Vf ,

(1.11)

vc = vf + v m .

(1.12)

Vm =
with
since

1.4.3 Weight Fractions

The weight fractions are defined in a similar way introducing the respective
weights pc, pf, pm of the composite material, the fibres, the matrix. The weight
fractions of fibres and matrix are given respectively by:
Pf =

pf
,
pc

(1.13)

Pm =

pm
,
pc

(1.14)

Pm = 1 Pf .

(1.15)

with

1.4.4 Relations between Volume and Weight fractions

The relations between the volume fractions and weight fractions introduce the
respective specific weights c, f, m of composite, fibres, matrix. The weights
and volumes are related by expressions:
pc = cvc ,

pf = f vf ,

pm = mv m .

(1.16)

The total weight of composite material is:

pc = pf + pm ,

(1.17)

cvc = f vf + mv m .

(1.18)

or
The specific weight of the composite material is thus written as a function of the
volume fractions as:

1.4 Volume and Weight Fraction

13

c = f Vf + m (1 Vf ) .

(1.19)

Similarly, considering the total volume of the composite:

vc = vf + v m ,

(1.20)

we obtain:
pc

pf

pm

(1.21)

Whence the expression for the specific weight of the composite:

c =

1
Pf

Pm

(1.22)

The relations between the weight fractions and volume fractions can now be
established considering the relations:
Pf =

pf f vf f
=
=
Vf ,
pc cvc c

(1.23)

m
Vm ,
c

(1.24)

and
Pm =

where the specific weight of composite material is deduced from Relation (1.19).
The inverse relations are obtained in a similar way. We have:
Vf =

c
Pf ,
f

(1.25)

Vm =

c
Pm ,
m

(1.26)

where the specific weight of composite material is deduced from Relation (1.22).
Equations (1.19) to (1.26) can be extended to the case of an arbitrary number
of constituents. The genaral expressions for n constituents are:
Pi =

i
Vi ,
c

(1.27)

with

c =

iVi ,

(1.28)

c
Pi ,
i

(1.29)

i =1

and
Vi =

with

14

Chapter 1 Basic Elements on Composite Materials

c =

Pi

i =1 i
n

(1.30)

1.4.5 Presence of Porosity

In practice, the specific weight (density) measured experimentally does not
coincide exactly with the values derived from Expression (1.22) when the
constituent weights are introduced. In the case where the difference exceeds the
experimental errors, this difference can be attributed to the presence of porosity in
the composite material. The difference between the density ct deduced from
xpression (1.22) and the density ce measured experimentally allows us to
evaluate the volume fraction Vp of the porosities by the Expression:
ce
Vp = ct
.
(1.31)

ct

The presence of porosities in a composite may involve a significant decrease of

the mechanical properties of the composite. Porosity also increases the sensitivity
of the composite material to the external environment: increase of the humidity
absorption, decrease of the resistance to chemical products, etc. So, it is important
to have an evaluation of the porosity proportion as a means to estimate the quality
of a composite. A high-quality composite material will contain less than 1 % by
volume of porosities, when a mediocre-quality composite could be reached as
much as 5 %.

EXERCISES
1.1 Express the volume fraction Vf of fibres in a composite as a function of the
weight fraction, introducing the ratio f /m of the specific weights and the ratio
(1 Pf) / Pf of the weight fractions of matrix and fibres.
1.2 Plot the curve for the volume fraction of fibres as a function of the weight
fraction of fibres in the case of glass fibre (f = 2500 kg/m3) composites, of
carbon fibres (f = 1900 kg/m3), of Kevlar fibres (f = 1500 kg/m3), for the same
matrix m = 1200 kg/m3.
1.3 A composite structure is designed as made of a composite containing a
volume fraction Vf of fibres. The volume of the structure is vc. Calculate the fibre
and matrix weights which are necessary.
Application : Vf = 50%, vc = 0,01 m3. Calculate the weights in the case of the
composite materials considered in Exercise 1.2.