Nigerian Basic Science Project

Pupils' Textbook 1
NEW EDITION 2007
::
SCIENCE TEACHERS ASSOCIATION OF NIGERIA
::
Volume 3 of 3 Volumes
Chapter 12-17
Published by
HEBN Publishers Plc
Jericho, Ibadan
Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 1971, 1982, 2005, 2007
New Edition 2007
ISBN 978-978-081-048-1
Contents
Chapter Page

UNIT 2: LIVING AND NON-LIVING

THINGS (cont.)
12: Non-living Things 11912.1 Introduction119
12.2 Examples of non-living Things119
12.3 Characteristics of Metals and Non-metals 119
12.4 Properties of Non-metals120
12.5 Uses of Metals and Non-metals120
UNIT 3: SCIENCE AND
DEVELOPMENT 12113: The Earth in Space12213.1 Introduction122

13.2 Night and Day122

13.3 The Seasons123
13.4 The Atmosphere123
13.5 Winds124
13.6 The Moon125
13.7 Shadows125
13.8 Eclipses126
13.9 Observing the Moon126
13.10 The Stars127
13.11 The Sun127
13.12 The Solar System128
13.13 Asteroids128
13.14 Comets and Meteors129
13.15 Space Shuttle129
13.16 Summary130
Exercise13014: Man In Space13114.1 Introduction131
14.2 Gravitational Pull and Gravity131
14.3 Gravitational Pull and Weight131
14.4 Weightlessness132
14.5 Space Travel133
14.6 The Satellite133
14.7 Summary135
Exercise136
UNIT 4: YOU AND ENERGY137
15: Energy13815.1 What is Energy?138
15.2 Sources of Energy138

15.3 Forms of Energy141

15.4 Transfer of Energy142
15.5 Conduction142
15.6 Convection143
15.7 Radiation144
15.8 Renewable and Non-renewable Energy 144
15.9 Advantages and disadvantages of renewable and Non-renewable Energy 144
15.10 Summary144
Exercise14516: Energy Conversions14616.1 Introduction146
16.2 Changing Potential Energy to Kinetic Energy146
16.3Changing Energy from one Form to another146
16.4 Chemical Energy to Electrical Energy148
16.5 Heat Energy to Electrical Energy148
16.6 Heat Energy to Light Energy149
16.7 Mechanical Energy to Electrical to Heat Energy149
16.8Electrical Energy to Mechanical to Sound Energy150
16.9 Appliances: Application of Energy Conversion150
16.10 Summary152
Exercise15217: Forces15317.1 Introduction153
17.2 Feeling Forces153
17.3 Types of Forces154
17.4 Balanced and unbalanced Forces154
17.5 Friction155
17.6 Friction In Use156
17.7 Gravitational Forces157
17.8 Magnetic Forces158

17.9 Electrical Forces158

17.10 Unit of Force159
17.11 Summary160
Exercise160
Index 165
119
Nigerian Basic Science Project
Pupils' Textbook 1
NEW EDITION 2007
UNIT 2
Living and Non-living Things (cont.)Chapter 12
Non-living Things
12.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 12
In chapter 10, we defined matter as anything that has weight and occupies space. It
is also classified into living and non-living things. In this chapter we are looking at
non-living things and their characteristics.
It is possible to classify non-living things into metals and non-metals. Some of these
metals do not occur freely but found in the earth's crust under the ground. They are
of great economic importance and form the basis of many industries of any country.
12.2 EXAMPLES OF
NON-LIVING THINGS
Metals and non-metals are very useful in our day to day activities. In chapter 11,
you were introduced to plants and animals as living things. Metals are non-living
things.
In this chapter, we will examine the characteristics of metals and non-metals. Many
of these substances around us could be metals or non-metals. Example of some
substances that can be regared as metals include, copper, iron rod, empty cans,
etc. While the non-metals include plastics, paper, cloth, wood, rubber, sulphur,

nitrogen, air (oxygen), thread etc. All these mentioned are examples of non-living
things.
12.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF METALS
AND NON-METALS
Metals show certain characteristic properties which make them different from nonmetals. The following activities can show some of these characteristics.
Activity 12.1 Physical properties.
(a) Collect samples of the following substances: iron, copper, aluminium, zinc,
carbon black (a piece of charcoal), sulphur, piece of paper and an empty can.
Examine their appearances. On the basis of their physical appearance sort these
substances into two groups: metals and non-metals.
(b) Take a piece of iron, copper or aluminium wire. Hold one end of these and heat
the other end over a bunsen flame. Do you feel anything? Repeat the same with a
piece of charcoal and sulphur. What happens?
(c) Put all these samples in water for a week. Record your observations.
Activity 12.2
Collect a flashlight battery, copper wire, thread and two flashlight bulbs.
(a) Connect the bulb with the wire and battery.
(b) Connect another bulb with the thread and battery. Record your observations.
From your observation on these activities (1) and (2) above, you must have noticed
that iron rod, aluminium wire, copper wire and zinc metal have similar
characteristics and are grouped together as metals. They are shiny, ductile, conduct
electricity and heat. They can be beaten into sheets or drawn into wire. They have
high melting point, boiling point and high
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density. They also undergo rusting. Sulphur, carbon, plastic, piece of wood, piece of
paper are similar to each other and can be grouped together as non-metals. Nonmetals do not conduct electricity and heat but have a low melting point, low boiling
point and low density. They cannot be beaten into wire and cannot undergo rusting.
12.4 PROPERTIES OF
NON-METALS

We can therefore summarise the properties of metals and non-metals in the table
below:
Print column format changed as follows:
S. no. Metals
Non-Metals
1. Metals are hard.Non-metals are generally soft, except diamond.2. Metals can be
beaten or hammered into thin sheets i.e. they are malleable.Non-metals cannot be
hammered i.e. they are very brittle.3. Metals are shiny and can be polished i.e. they
have metallic lustre.Non-metals are not shiny ie. they have no metallic lustre.4.
Metals can be drawn into wires i.e. they are ductile.They cannot be drawn into
wire.5. Metals tend to be heavy in weight i.e. they have high density.Non-metals are
usually light i.e. they have low density.6. Metals are good conductors of heat.Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat.7. Metals are good conductors of electricity.Nonmetals are poor conductors of electricity.8. Metals generally have a high melting
point.Non-metals have a lower melting point.9. Metals can rust.Non-metals do not
rust.
12.5 USES OF METALS
AND NON-METALS
(a) Here are some of the uses of metals. Metals are used:(i) in the manufacture of
motor vehicles and aeroplanes.
(ii) in building houses, bridges and water tanks,
(iii) for constructing ship, roofing sheets and refrigerator.
(iv) copper, iron aluminium, gold, silver and other metals are drawn into wire and
used in the production of cutleries (spoons, knives, fork), matches, hoes, trophies,
ornaments (rings, bracelets).
(v) for making cooking utensils.(b) Here are some of the uses of non-metals. Nonmetals are used for:(i) roofing of houses e.g. asbestos, planks.
(ii) as an insulator for most electrical appliances, i.e. to protect substances from
electricity shock eg. handle of knife, screwdriver, rubber that covers flexible wires.
(iii) decoration of houses and buildings, furnitures (eg. tables, chairs) etc.
12.6 SUMMARY
1. Metals and non-metals are substances found under the earth crust.
2. Metals conduct electricity and heat.

3. Non-metals cannot conduct electricity and heat.

EXERCISE
1. State the physical properties of a metal.
2. Mention 5 differences between the properties of metal and non-metal.
3. You are provided with the following substances: lead pencil, chalk, sulphur, nails,
copper wire and zinc. Classify them into metals and non-metals.
4. You are provided with the following substance: an iron bar, sulphur, silicon and
magnesium. Describe a simple experiment to help you sort out these substances
into metals and non-metals.
5. State one chemical difference between a metal and a non-metal.

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UNIT 3
Science and Development
INTRODUCTION

UNIT 3
In this unit, we shall study the solar system, rotation and revolution of the earth, the
occurrence of eclipse, climate and seasons.
We shall also explain the meanings of gravitation, weightlessness and their effects
on objects as well as satellite (its purpose, benefits and danger).
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to: 1 List the components of the solar
system
2. Discuss the following(a) night and day
(b) seasons of the year
3. Explain what causes eclipse of the sun and the moon.
4. Describe the effects of gravitational pull on stone, feather and book.

5. State where a person is likely to experience weightlessness.

6. Explain space travel.
7. State two purposes of space travel.
8. Mention the benefits and two dangers of space travel.
9. Describe a satellite.
10. Mention three uses of satellites.

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Chapter 13
The Earth in Space
13.1INTRODUCTION

Chapter 13
Imagine that you are in a very large aeroplane flying in the air. If the weather is
good, you can hardly notice that you are in a moving object. Such a situation is
similar to being on the planet earth.
The planet Earth, on which we live, is moving through space all the time. It is going
round and round the Sun. In doing this it carries us all through space. Man can
therefore be regarded as a space traveller, and his spaceship is the planet Earth.
How is it that we do not feel this? It seems to us, as we stand on the ground, that it
is quite still. Yet we are rushing through space at a great speed. We do not realise
this because the air round the Earth is carried along with it. If it were not there
would be such an enormous gale that no-one could live on the Earth. How do we
know, then, that we are moving through space? Simply by looking at very common
happenings, such as the seasons, and trying to explain them. They just cannot be
explained by supposing that the Earth is standing still.
13.2NIGHT AND DAY
There are many things we should like to ask about the planet on which we live. One
is, "Why is there day and night?" We all know that when the sun is shining it is light;
when it is not shining it is dark. So day and night have something to do with the
Sun. How is it that it is light for about half the day, and dark for the rest of the time?

We can explain this if we suppose that the Earth is turning round and round. Let us
see how.
Activity 13.1 Day and night
Shine a torch on a globe, as in Fig. 13.1. The torch represents the Sun, and the
globe represents the Earth. Shine the torch on Nigeria, slowly turn the globe round
keeping the torch where it is. Which part of the Earth is lit up now? As you turn the
globe, Nigeria will again come into the light. Can you see now how day and night
happen?
Explain it in your Workbook.
Fig. 13.1 Demonstrating Day and night

We can imagine a line being drawn right through the Earth, passing from the North
Pole through the centre of the Earth and coming out at the South Pole. This is called
the axis of the Earth. The Earth rotates about this axis. As the Earth rotates different
parts of its surface come into the light from the Sun. The area that is receiving light
from the Sun has day and that which is away from the Sun has night.
Fig. 13.2 Earth revolution round the sun: Sun; Earth positions A, B, C, D.
Ask for help
In this explanation we have supposed that the Earth is spherical, like a ball. Suppose
the Earth were flat. Is
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it possible to explain day and night then? Try it and see.
13.3 THE SEASONS
Another thing we would like to be able to explain is why there are seasons? We can
do this by supposing that besides rotating about its own axis, the Earth also
revolves round the Sun. The time it takes to go once round the sun is one year. The
time it takes to rotate round its own axis is one day. There are 365 days in a year.
To explain why there are seasons we must suppose that the Earth's axis is not
vertical but is inclined at an angle as shown in Fig. 13.2. As the Earth revolves, the
axis is always pointing in the same direction in space. As a result, for part of the
year the Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun, and the Southern
Hemisphere away from the Sun. For the rest of the year the Northern Hemisphere is
tilted away from the Sun, and the Southern Hemisphere towards it.

Look at Fig. 13.2 again. Four positions of the earth during its revolution round the
Sun are shown. In which position is the Southern Hemisphere tilted towards the
Sun?
In position A, for what fraction of a rotation has the North Pole light and for what
fraction has it darkness? For what fraction of a rotation has the South Pole light, and
for what fraction has it darkness? Answer the same questions for positions B, C and
D.
We have seasons because different parts of the surface of the Earth have the Sun
shining on them for different lengths of time (so the day is longer or shorter) at
different times of the year. Winter is the season when the Northern Hemisphere is
tilted away from the Sun (position A). In this season the northern part of the Earth is
very cold and the North Pole is dark all day. Summer is the season when the
Northern Hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun (position C). In this season the
northern part of the Earth is very warm and the North Pole has daylight all the time.
Can you say why we do not get seasons like this in Nigeria?
13.4 THE ATMOSPHERE
It is very easy to forget about the big ocean of air which surrounds the Earth and
which we call the atmosphere, because it cannot be easily seen. Yet for the reasons
we gave in Chapter 10, we know that it is there.
It is difficult to say how far the atmosphere extends above the Earth's surface
because it does not suddenly come to an end, but just gets thinner and thinner.
With very sensitive instruments it is possible to detect the atmosphere 800
kilometres up. There is not enough air for us to breathe comfortably when we go
more than two or three kilometres up above the Earth. The cabins of aircraft which
fly at more than 3300 metres up have air blown into them so that the passengers
can breathe as comfortably as they would on the ground. We say the cabins are
"pressurised". Perhaps you have also read of mountain climbers, such as those who
climbed Mount Everest, who have to take cylinders of oxygen with them to allow
them to breathe. How high is Mount Everest?
Fig 13.3 Tenzing at the summit of Mount Everest using breathing apparatus
The layer of atmosphere nearest the Earth and extending upwards for about 16
kilometres is called the troposphere. It contains more than half the air in the
atmosphere.
This part of the atmosphere is very important for us because it is the air we breathe;
it contains the clouds and controls our weather.
If you were to take up a thermometer in a balloon you would notice a drop of
temperature. The higher you go the cooler it becomes. Perhaps you have seen

pictures of aviators who flew open planes in the early days of flying. They were
dressed up in very warm clothing as if they were going to the North Pole.
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In eastern Equatorial Africa one often feels very hot at ground level, but it is very
cold on the top of the mountains. The high mountains, like Kenya, Kilimanjaro, and
Ruwenzori are always ice-capped. At the top of the troposphere the average
temperature is about 22C.
Fig. 13.4 The Earth's atmosphere: Earth;
troposphere; stratosphere; ionosphere
13.5 WINDS
In Chapter 8 we dealt with the way in which winds were produced. What happens if
you inflate a football bladder and without tying the mouth, release it? When the
bladder is inflated, the pressure of the air inside is greater than the pressure of the
air outside, because you have forced more air particles into it. So air rushes out of
the bladder until the pressure of the air in the bladder is the same as the pressure
of the air outside. On a large scale the movement of air caused by differences of
pressure in the atmosphere is called wind. What produces this pressure difference
which causes the air to move? One factor is temperature. The heating and cooling
of the Earth results in a change of atmospheric pressure. Another factor is the
change in the moisture content of the air. Warm, moist air is less dense than cold
dry air.
Look at a weather map, like those published by the Meteorological Department. The
lines that join places which have the same air pressure are called isobars. When the
lines are close together what can you say about the pressure difference between
the places in the area? Will there be a strong wind of light breeze in the area?
Winds are of great importance. Make a list of the things winds do and say which are
helpful and which are not.
Air can only hold certain amount of water vapour and that this depends on the
temperature of the air. The colder the air, the less water it can hold. When it rises,
the warm moist air cools, and some of the moisture carried will condense to form
tiny droplets. A large number of these droplets collect together some hundred
metres above us as clouds.
The weather is the condition of the atmosphere at a particular time and place. This
condition depends on the temperature of the air, the air masses and their
movements, the clouds, and the moisture content of the air. Meteorologists are

scientists who specialize in the study of the weather and who use their knowledge
to forecast the weather.
Fig. 13.5 Making rain clouds. Typical cloud just before seeding
Fig. 13.6 This photograph shows the scene in Fig. 13.5 thirty-seven minutes after
the cloud had been seeded
Can we control weather? How do "rain doctors" prevent rainfall or cause rainfall?
Scientists have now begun to find out how to control the weather. One method of
producing rain is to drop dry ice (solid
125
carbon dioxide) into a cloud from an aeroplane. The rapid cooling caused by the dry
ice may produce rain. Another method is to drop crystals of silver iodide into a
cloud.
The general climate of a place is the atmospheric condition of the place over a
period of time. We say that the Sahara has a dry climate because it is dry there for
very long periods. The climate of Nigeria changes throughout the year. It has a dry
season and a wet season.
Exercise
In Fig. 13.7 there is sea in the region A; a highland separates region A from region B.
Fig. 13.7 (a) wind flows off sea over hill from A to B. (b) wind flows over hill from B to
A and the sea.
1 If the wind blows from A to B what sort of climate are we likely to find at A?
2 If the wind blows from B to A what is the weather likely to be at A?
13.6 THE MOON
Of all the bodies in the sky the one closest to us is the Moon. It is so close that we
can see it clearly and photograph small details of its surface. It is the first heavenly
body on which scientists have successfully landed rockets and men. There seems to
be something romantic about the Moon, for poets everywhere have written about it.
The Moon is much smaller than the Earth, having a diameter of about 3,200
kilometres, compared with the Earth's diameter of 12,800 kilometres. It is about
348,300 kilometres away from us. It is called a satellite of the Earth because it
revolves round the Earth and travels with the Earth round the Sun. It takes the Moon
about twenty-nine days to complete a revolution round the Earth, that is, almost a
month. In fact the word month comes from the word "moon". The Moon does not

shine with its own light. Moonlight is actually sunlight reflected from the surface of
the Moon.
In a dark room flash a torch across the room on to a football suspended from the
ceiling by a piece of string, and look at the football from different positions. Make a
diagram of what the shining part of the ball looks like when viewed from the
different positions.

If you watch the Moon regularly you will notice that the shape of the sunlit part
which you can see at night appears to change. Figure 13.8 shows what you will see
of the sunlit part of the Moon at different times. These changes are known as the
phases of the Moon.
Fig. 13.8 The phases of the Moon. new moon; quarter; half; three quarters; full
moon

At the crescent stage of a new Moon you only see light reflected from part of the
surface of the Moon. At the time of the full Moon you see light reflected from the full
face of the Moon.
13.7 SHADOWS
Activity 13.2 Making shadows
Arrange a light bulb in a closed box with a small opening on one side so that light
can get through it. Hang a small ball in the beam of light that comes from the hole.
Set up a sheet of white cardboard on the other side of the ball. Look at the shadow
of the ball on the sheet. Is it sharp? Now make the hole in the side of the box a little
larger. Does the shadow remain sharp? Take the lamp out of the box altogether. Is
there any shadow at all now? Look at the diagrams which show the path of rays of
light from the lamp. Explain in words why there is a difference in the sharpness of
the shadows.
126

A large source of light causes the formation of a partial shadow - called the
penumbra - in addition to the area of total shadow - called the umbra.
Fig. 13.9 box with lamp in; retort stand; small ball; white screen
Fig. 13.10 light bulb; small ball; screen; penumbra; umbra
13.8 ECLIPSES

The Sun is a large luminous body from which light shines on to the Earth and the
Moon. Because of the movements of the Earth and the Moon it is possible for one to
shield (or eclipse) the other from the Sun. The Earth may come between the Sun
and the Moon, so the Moon is in the shadow of the Earth. We then have an eclipse
of the Moon. If the Moon moves into the region of partial shadow we have a partial
eclipse of the Moon. When the Moon passes between the Earth and the Sun, the
shadow of the Moon falls on part of the Earth. Because the Earth is much bigger
than the Moon, regions of total shadow and partial shadow may fall on the Earth.
These give us total eclipse and partial eclipse of the Sun respectively. At times the
Moon is so far away from the Earth that no region of total shadow falls on the Earth.
The Moon is then observed against the circular Sun. This is called an annular
eclipse.
Fig. 13.11 An eclipse of the Sun: Sun; Moon; Earth
13.9 OBSERVING THE MOON
Many young people would be very interested to look at the Moon through a
telescope but unfortunately most people will not have a telescope that they can
use. If you do not have a telescope find pictures of the Moon in a book instead. If
you do have a telescope and would like to do this you will have to choose a place in
your home from which you can see the Moon clearly. Find out the position of north,
south, east, and west at your viewing place. It is a good idea to mark them on a
piece of cardboard and have a particular place where you can put your card each
time you want to view the Moon, so that you will know where those cardinal points
are.
Fig. 13.12 Part of the surface of the Moon
Looking at the surface features of the Moon.

This is best done two or three nights after the new Moon has appeared, if the night
is clear. At such a time the Sun's rays are striking the Moon's surface obliquely and
the shadowed part of the Moon form a good background for seeing the surface
features clearly.
127
Use the telescope to view the Moon and write a report on your observations.
Position of the Moon
Try to estimate as accurately as you can the altitude (i.e. the angle a line joining
your eye and the Moon makes with the horizon) and the azimuth (i.e. the angle a
horizontal line in the direction of the Moon makes with the northern direction). This

latter measurement is done eastwards from 0 to 360. If the Moon is west of north
measure the angle and subtract from 360.
Record the date and time of each measurement. Plot the Moon's position on a graph
with the altitude on the vertical axis and the azimuth on the horizontal axis.
When you looked at the Moon through a telescope or saw a picture of it, you
probably noticed that the surface had rugged looking craters and apparent flat,
smooth, dark areas. These flat areas are called "seas" because at first they were
thought to be water but now we are sure that there is no water on the Moon. They
are areas of very fine dust.
One of the reasons why the surface of the Moon is rugged is that the Moon has no
atmosphere. So we never see clouds on the Moon, and there is no wind or running
water to cause erosion.
13.10 THE STARS
If you watch the stars on a clear night everything seems calm and serene.
Occasionally you may see some meteors or a comet (see Section 13.15) the
colouring of the sky by the aurora, or the eruption of a star like a mild explosion.
What are these stars? Most of the visible stars are enormous spheres of gases
whose interactions release much radiant energy. The temperature of the stars is
usually very high. Fortunately their very great distance from us protects us from the
violence of the energy radiated from them.
The study of the stars has always attracted people. At different times of the year
different stars are in the sky. On a clear and dark night so many stars can be seen in
the sky that it is impossible to count them. Observers in ancient times divided the
sky as they saw it into easily recognisable star groups. These groups are known as
constellations.

In our part of Africa there are four groups of stars that are easy to find. Choose a
place in your home where you can see the sky easily, and in the evenings, when the
Sun is setting, stay there and watch the stars coming out one by one. Mark the
cardinal directions (north, south, east, and west) so that you can also note the
position of the stars. Figure 13.13 shows the four groups of stars (constellations)
that can easily be seen in this part of Africa. They are Orion, the Plough, Scorpius,
and Pegasus. The following table shows when best to see these groups of stars.
Fig.13.13 Group of stars we can see over Nigeria (a) Orion (b) The Plough (c)
Scorpius (d) Pegasus

Orion: January, February, March, April, December

Plough: April, May, June; July
Scorpius: June, July, August, September, October
Pegasus: September, October, November, December
You will find the book Stars over Africa by Savage and Walton, published under the
African Primary Science Program, a very helpful guide in looking for those groups of
stars.
Record the position of each group at different times. Each position is given by the
altitude and azimuth (as we explained in connection with the Moon).
13.11 THE SUN
The Sun is one of the stars in our galaxy. Like many other stars it is an enormous
ball of glowing gas. It is at a very high temperature - at the surface about 6000C
but at its centre several millions of degrees.
Its diameter is about 1chjjjj kilometres, which is more than 100 times that of the
Earth. It radiates a
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tremendous amount of energy, but as it is 150 million kilometres away we receive
only a minute fraction of that energy. Yet this minute fraction is still sufficient to
cause serious damage at times, for example if we look directly at the Sun for some
time, if we expose ourselves to the Sun's rays and get sunburnt, or when crops are
scorched by the Sun's rays.
The Sun is the source of all our energy, and without it there could be no life. Most of
the radiation from the Sun is absorbed by the surface of the Earth and converted
into heat energy. Green plants also absorb light from the Sun and use it to
manufacture food for themselves and for animals. The rotation of the Earth helps to
provide an even distribution of the radiant energy from the Sun because the
rotation exposes different parts of the Earth to the Sun at different times.
13.12 THE SOLAR SYSTEM
The Earth is only one of the bodies that move round the Sun. The Sun, together with
all the bodies which revolve round it, make up the solar system. The solar system
consists of the sun, nine planets, thirty-two moons which revolve round some of the
planets, many comets and asteroids. The names of the planets, in order of their
nearness to the Sun, are Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, and
Pluto. (You can remember this by the letters MVE MJS UNP!)

Fig.13.14 The Solar System

S - Sun
M - Mercury
V - Venus
E - Earth
M - Mars
J - Jupiter
S - Saturn
U - Uranus
N - Neptune
P - Pluto
Each planet revolves round the Sun in its own orbit. The distance from the Sun to a
particular planet, the masses of the Sun and the planet, the size of the orbit, and
the speed of the planet in the orbit are all interdependent; if one altered they would
all (except the masses) alter.
It is interesting to note that:
1 the orbits of all the planets, except Pluto, lie nearly in one plane;
2 the planets revolve in the same direction;
3 the nearer a planet is to the Sun the faster is its speed;
4 the four planets nearest the Sun are made of rocky materials, while the two most
distant (Neptune and Pluto) consist mainly of the gases hydrogen and helium.
The following table gives the time it takes for each planet to move round its orbit
and the number of moons it has.
Print table is divided vertically into two sections in braille. Key to column headings:
tcr Time to complete a revolution round the sun
nom Number of Moons
adk Average diameter in Kilometer (km)
adst Average distance from the sun in kilometer (km)

Planet tcr

nom

::::: ::::::::: ::
Mercury 88 days 0
Venus 225 days 0
Earth 365 days 1
Mars 687 days 2
Jupiter 11.9 years 12
Saturn 29.5 years 10
Uranus 84 years 5
Neptune 164.8 years 2
Pluto 247.7 years 0Planet adk

adst

:::::: :::::: ::::::::::::

Mercury 4,900

58 million

Venus 12,000 150 million

Earth 13,000 150 million
Mars 6,800

228 million

Jupiter 140,000 778 million

Saturn 120,000 1,420 million
Uranus 50,000 2,870 million
Neptune 45,000 4,490 million
Pluto 5,920

5,900 million

13.13 ASTEROIDS
Early scientists arrived at the conclusion that a certain geometrical law determined
the distances of the planets from the Sun. According to this law they expected a
planet between Mars and Jupiter but they found none. After many years of
searching they found, one after another, many irregularly shaped lumps of rock
following the approximate orbit of the planet they were looking for. These rocks
were called asteroids and were thought to be the remains of a shattered planet. The

largest asteroid is Ceres, whose diameter is 770 kilometres. As you will understand,
it was very difficult
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to find even the largest of the asteroids when its diameter was less than the
distance across Nigeria.
13.14 COMETS AND METEORS
Planets are not the only objects which move round the Sun. There are also a large
number of comets and meteors. Comets are lumps of rock-like material which
vaporise easily. When we see them in the sky they seem to have tails. As they
approach the Sun they have no tails, but when they get near the Sun some of their
substance vaporises and the vapour is forced away from the comet in a direction
away from the Sun. This vapour reflects sunlight which makes it possible for us to
see the comets and their tails. The tails are so thin that we can see the stars
through them.
Fig.13.15 The comet
Some comets move in orbits round the Sun but others do not. Those which move
round the Sun return after a period. For example, one which has an orbit period of
75 years was last seen in 1986.
Meteors are small lumps of rock and metal shooting through the atmosphere from
outer space. Their speed is so great that friction with the upper atmosphere makes
them heat up and glow. They are commonly called "shooting stars", and are
sometimes seen at night. Meteors that are not completely burned and strike the
surface of the Earth are called meteorites.
Activity 13.3 Project
Does the position of the Sun in the sky change from day to day?
For this project you will need a south-facing room, a floor on which marks can be
made, a watch or clock, and a window with a strut down the middle of the frame.
Mark the position of the shadow of the strut of the window frame, or of a similar
fixed object, on the floor at exactly the same time each morning. Eleven o'clock
would be a good time. Do this for several weeks. The shadow will move a little each
day. What is the pattern of the marking? What conclusion can you draw from the
pattern? (If you do the experiment accurately enough, the dots or marks will form a
curved pattern which indicates the movement of the Sun during the time you
carried out this experiment.) If you were to continue to make the marks for one year
and draw the resulting pattern you would get a closed curve resembling the figure
eight.

13.15 SPACE SHUTTLE

The Space or area beyond the earth's atmosphere, in which all other planets and
stars exist is referred to as outer space.
In our efforts to gain more knowledge of the other planets and outer space around
us, special rockets called SPACE ROCKETS are sent into space. The first rocket was
sent into space in 1957 by Russia. This was followed by America in 1958. (A rocket
is a device containing an explosive powder that shoots into air when lit. It is in
shape of a tube that is driven through air by gases released when fuel is burned
inside it.)
Children have often used or played with devices like rockets. Can you remember
when you played with
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such a devices? Name the kind of device used. (Hint: knockouts used on festive
occassions.)
The early rockets did not carry human beings into space. Majority of the rockets
sent into space today are very expensive to undertake. They are used to gather
more information about existence of life in the outer space, the way human beings
and other things react in space and also to explore better, cheaper and faster ways
of communication. For example, when a communication satellite is placed in space
(by a rocket) it makes it easier, faster and cheaper to talk (by phone) from Kano,
Lagos or Abuja with someone in USA, Russia and so on. Many other experiments are
being carried out in space during space travels.
Persons who travel to space are called ASTRONAUTS. The first person to go to space
was a Russian named Yuri Gagarin in April 1961. He orbited round the earth for 108
minutes before returning. Modern Astronauts can stay as long as six months in
space performing various experiments in medicine, technology, environment,
weather patterns, or agriculture. These experiments may ultimately be of benefit to
human beings. Modern space rockets are called SPACE SHUTTLES. They are very
large and can take as many as seven people (both women and men). Each space
shuttle flight costs as much as $500 million U.S. dollars which is more than 50
billion naira.
A country like Nigeria has not been able to send any person to space because of
lack of necessary technology needed to send a person into space and the high costs
involved.
Fig. 13.16 A space shuttle
13.16 SUMMARY

In this chapter you have learnt the following things.

1 The Earth rotates about an axis through the North and South Poles.
2 Earth also revolves about the Sun.
3 The Earth's rotation about its axis causes day and night by exposing different
parts of the surface to the Sun's rays.
4 The revolving of the Earth about the Sun causes the seasons.
5 The Moon is a satellite of the Earth and revolves round it once in about 29 days.
6 Moonlight is sunlight reflected from the surface of the Moon, and because of its
relative position to the Sun, which changes from day to day, we do not always see
the full face of the Moon.
7 The Moon is barren with no atmosphere and no water.
8 Stars are enormous spheres of gases which liberate a great deal of energy.
9 For purposes of recognition stars are grouped into constellations.
10 The Sun is a star; the bodies moving round it are planets, the moons are
satellites of the planets, and asteroids.
11 Human beings are able to go to space and spend days or months using a space
rocket called space shuttle. This space travels, which are very expensive to run, are
carried out to gain more knowledge that may be useful to human beings.
EXERCISE
1 Explain the difference between a total and a partial eclipse.
2 Explain the difference between an eclipse of the Moon and an eclipse of the Sun.
3 What are the things that determine the weather conditions at any time?
4 What is the difference between (a) a satellite and a planet; (b) a planet and a
star?
5 What are asteroids, comets, and meteors?
6 What is the purpose of sending human beings into space?
7 What kinds of experiments are carried out in space.

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Chapter 14
Man in Space
14.1INTRODUCTION

Chapter 14
Is it possible for human beings to live in space? Can they live on the moon? We shall
soon find out.
In Chapter 13 "The Earth in Space" The movement of the Earth round the sun to
give rise to the seasons was explained.
Apart from the seasons, the atmosphere and other natural occurrences, such as
night and day, winds and eclipses were explained. The causes were explained in
terms of the constant motion of the Earth round the sun. Other aspects of space
such as the solar system were also studied. The major general conclusion was that
the planet Earth, on which we live, is moving through space all the time. We are
continually travelling in space, and our spaceship is the planet Earth.
In this chapter, we shall look at man in space. We shall find out what happens to
human beings when they travel in space in man-made spaceship.
14.2GRAVITATIONAL PULL
AND GRAVITY
Gravitational force is a type of force that acts on a body across a distance, without
any contact between the source and the body.
The Earth exerts a gravitational force on bodies by which it pulls these bodies
towards itself. This is why fruits fall to the ground from the tree, and do not rise
upwards, and why when a stone is thrown upwards it soon stops its upward
movement and starts to fall back to Earth.
The force of gravity is a universal force. It exists not only between the Earth and
bodies on it but also between the planets and stars.
Do not confuse gravitation with magnetism. Sometimes magnets repel each other
(a north pole repels a north pole but attracts a south pole). Gravity is always a force
of attraction, never of repulsion.

When a body is moving in an orbit round Earth, it is kept in that orbit by gravity. For
example, during the movement of the moon round the Earth, when it is in position P
(Fig. 14.1) it is moving in the direction of PX.
Fig. 14.1 Earth, Moon; P o X
It would continue to move in this direction but for the gravitational pull of the Earth
which makes it move in an orbit round the Earth.
Gravity is the force with which the Earth attracts objects towards its centre.
Gravitational pull comes from this concept of gravity. Thus, when a ripe mango fruit
falls to the ground we say that gravitational pull has brought down the mango.
Objects fall to the ground because, the Earth is a gravitational force field. For this
same reason, everything around the Earth experiences a gravitational pull.
14.3 GRAVITATIONAL PULL
AND WEIGHT
The Earth's gravitational pull is a downward force pulling objects toward the centre
of the Earth. Scientific experiments have shown that the amount of force with which
gravity pulls an object depend on three things:
1 the mass of the object;
2 the mass of the Earth;
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3 the distance between the centres of the object and the Earth.
Since gravitational pull determines the weight of object, it follows that even where
the mass of an object and that of the Earth remain unaltered, the weight of an
object may vary.
Can you explain this statements? Now, think about changing the position of the
object from a point near the centre of the Earth to other points farther away. Fig.
14.2 illustrates the idea of the difference in weight when an object is weighed on
the surface of the Earth and when it is weighed high above the Earth's surface. The
weight of an object can change as it is moved from one place to another whereas
mass does not change unless some amount of material is taken away from it or
added to it.
Fig.14.2 An object weighing 8 kg on the surface of Earth 6400 km from the centre of
earth weighs only 2 kg when weighed 12hjj km from the centre of the Earth
.
14.4 WEIGHTLESSNESS

The term weightlessness is an apparent effect. It is a feeling of being weightless. It

does not mean having no weight. We have already learnt that weight is the force
exerted by the Earth on a body. Then how can a body be Weightless? Does it mean
that the Earth no longer exerts gravitational attraction on the body? A body is really
never weightless because there is always one form of gravitational pull or another.
For example, beyond the gravitational attraction of the Earth, that of the moon
takes over.
Weightlessness is one of the major problems in space travel. A spaceship needs a
special type of force to keep it moving round the Earth. This force, which is known
as centrifugal force, is provided by the gravitational attraction of the Earth (see Fig.
14.3). The feeling of weightlessness will be experienced by the astronauts and all
the objects in the spaceship if the spaceship reaches a height above the Earth's
centre where the Earth's gravitational attraction on it becomes just equal to the
force needed to keep the ship moving in space. At this stage, the engines stop
pushing the spaceship and the spaceship just keeps moving freely through space.
The ship and all objects in it will simply be floating about freely.
Fig. 14.3. Weightlessness in a spaceship.
Fa = gravitational force
Fb = force pushing spaceship into orbit
C = Earth's centre of mass
Note that: (a) Near the surface of the Earth Fb > Fa
(b) At point O where the spaceship orbits the Earth, Fa = Fb
(c) When Fa = Fb, weightlessness is experienced and the spaceship moves in orbit
with a constant speed.
Objects that are not tied to the spaceship will float. The astronaut will not be able to
eat with a spoon or drink water from a cup. The food will not turn off the spoon into
his mouth and the water would not stay in the bottom of the cup. These are, some
of the effects of weightlessness.
Fig. 14.4 Launching a spaceship: Earth; launching point: tremendous energy is
supplied by a rocket to push the spaceship into orbit; spaceship moves freely; point
when engine stops pushing
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Fig. 14.5 The Earth as seen from a spacecraft. The north of Africa can be clearly
seen.
14.5 SPACE TRAVEL

Space scientists are very interested in the phenomenon of weightlessness. They

have carried out extensive studies on the fact that the weight of an object depends
on its position relative to the centre of the Earth.
What would it look like if we went to another planet and viewed the Earth from it?
How possible is life on the other planets?
Scientists are at present very much occupied with space travel and, as you know,
there have been many artificial satellites launched. Some of them have carried
astronauts, others have been sent up with instruments that send signals
automatically back to Earth. These signals provide useful information about other
planets. Men have already landed on the moon and are trying to land on other
planets.
On 21 July 1969 Neil Armstrong, an American became the first human being to step
on the moon.
He was followed on the same day by another American named Edwin Aldrin. They
stayed on the moon for 21 hours 36 minutes before they lifted up. See fig. 14.9. The
second moon landing took place in December 1972 when two American, Eugene
Cernan and Harrison Schmitt, stayed a total of 74 hours 59 minutes on the moon
surface. These astronauts wore special protective uniforms with oxygen masks for
breathing.

Human beings have not been able to land on other planets although investigations
of these planets (especially mars, Jupiter and saturn) have been going on. Most
experiments in space are currently carried out in space station or spacelab. These
space stations are very large space rockets which can accomodate many people
and are equipped to perform scientific experiments. One of such space stations is
the Russian Mir space station which orbited the Earth for more than twelve years
(1986-1999). Astronauts who work on these space stations usually stay for periods
of six months to one year after which they are replaced by other astronauts.
Experiments on Mir demonstrated that protein crystals grow more slowly in
microgravity and therefore protein form more perfectly in space than they do on
earth, making space proteins suitable for the design and testing of new medicines.
Several other experiments, for example on plant growth, burning of substances and
effect of weightlessness on human beings are performed in the space. Human
beings who have stayed in space for long periods develop weak bones due to loss of
calcium. To prevent this, they usually exercise for 3-4 hours a day. Sometimes,
astronauts have come out of the space station into open space to carry out some
essential repairs and experiments. In such cases, the astronauts are attached to the
space station by a long cord although they have come out a few times without a
cord by using specially equipped space suits. From the foregoing description, we

can conclude that even though human beings have gone to space many times, they
cannot live there permanently as they do on earth.
14.6 THE SATELLITE
A satellite is a natural body that revolves round a planet. The earth is a planet and
has one satellite, which is the moon. Scientists have launched artificial satellites
(space shuttle, rockets) into space to carry out experiments, collect information and
learn more about the outer space. There are other planets such as Mercury, Venus,
Mars, Jupiter, etc (see the section on the Solar System)
Artificial satellites (rockets) are often put into space to gather information. They
(satellites) are also used for photography of place (town, city or even a country).
These photographs can be used for maps, census, and finding location of mineral
resources in the ground. These all constitute Geographic Information System (GIS).
Satellites in space are also used for communication.
In Nigeria, the National Space Research and Development Agency (NASRDA), one of
the Federal Agencies promotes the use of space technologies and
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applications for socio-economic development and advancement. It does this
through the application of Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).
Escape from the Earth
Throw a stone vertically upwards; it moves up and stops and then comes down
again. The gravitational force between the Earth and the stone pulls the stone back
to the Earth. The height to which the stone rises depended on its initial upward
speed.
Suppose now we throw a ball at an angle or we shoot a shell from a gun pointed at
an angle upwards. What happens? The projectile follows a curved path. We can
suppose that the initial speed is made up of two components, one vertically
upwards and the other horizontal as shown in Fig. 14.6. The body reaches the Earth
in just the same time as it would have done if it had been thrown upwards with the
same speed as the upward component.
If the speed with which the body is projected is great enough, the path of the
projectile becomes just like an orbit of the Earth. It is actually falling freely towards
the Earth but is never getting there because the horizontal component of its speed
is too great. This may seem a very odd situation, but when you come to think of it, a
satellite like the moon must be falling freely to the Earth, because if it were not, it
would shoot off at a tangent, as we stated before.

Fig. 14.6: vertical rise of ball; initial speed and direction of travel of ball; horizontal
distance of travel of ball

Knowing how the force of gravity varies with distance from the Earth, it is possible
to calculate the speed which a body must have in order to remain in orbit round the
Earth at any particular distance from it. The moon itself moves round the Earth once
in about 29 days. It is about 384jjj kilometres from us. If you know the formula for
the circumference of a circle (2r), you will be able to calculate that the moon
travels about 2djjjjj in kilometres in 29 days or approximately 80jjj kilometres a day,
which is rather fast. To project a spaceship from the Earth which would have a
horizontal component of speed anything like this requires a tremendous force.
The rocket
The rocket is the one craft which can produce the speed necessary. You have often
made an artificial rocket when you have blown up a balloon and let it go. (Fig. 14.7).
The force of the air rushing out from the balloon sends it flying upwards. This kind of
propulsion is known as jet propulsion and is now used not only for sending rockets
up into the sky but also for driving planes.
Fig. 14.7
A simple firework rocket shoots skywards with a trail of hot burning gases rushing
out of its tail. The big space rockets which launch satellites and man carrying
capsules work on the same basic principle.
The force which moves a rocket is produced from energy released from burning
fuels. To burn a fuel, oxygen is necessary. Every rocket engine carries its own supply
of oxygen. Since it has its own oxygen supply, it does not need air to burn its fuel as
firework does to some extent. (Fireworks too contain a supply of oxygen because
the chemicals of which they are made have a lot of oxygen in them which helps the
other materials to burn.).
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The fuel and the oxidizer together are known as the propellant. A convenient way of
carrying a lot of oxygen is to take it as liquid oxygen. You will remember that when a
liquid vaporises, the gas produced occupies a much bigger volume than the liquid
from which it was obtained.
At take-off, the greatest part of the rocket's mass consists of its propellant. This
mass gets smaller as propellant burns, continually increasing the speed of the
rocket.

The top of the rocket is called the nose-cone. It carries the payload. The payload
means anything the rocket is meant to carry into space. It could be a satellite, a
camera, a thermometer, a television set, a radio, or a man-carrying capsule.
Multi-stage rockets
To obtain the speed required to put a satellite into orbit, an enormous amount of
fuel would have to be used. If a single rocket were used, almost its whole mass
would consist of fuel. However, a heavy load can be put into orbit without using all
that fuel by using two, three or even more stages.
Fig. 14.8 A multi-stage rocket

In Fig. 14.8, the first stage pushes the rocket up above much of the atmosphere; the
second stage then fires and increases the speed; then similarly the third, and so on.
At each firing, the earlier empty stage is dropped off so that there is less mass to
move each time.
Fig. 14.9 An American astronaut beside the lunar module and lunar rover vehicle
Since 1957 when the Russians launched the first spacecraft, called "Sputnik", into
space there have been many launchings of payloads into space. It costs an
enormous amount of money to launch a rocket into space. What do you think we
hope to gain from it?

You have probably seen pictures of the American astronauts who landed on the
moon. Since the moon has no atmosphere, what essential thing must they carry
with them?
The moon's gravitational force is about one sixth of that of the Earth. What would be
the weight on the moon of a man weighing 90 kg on Earth? Is his mass on the moon
different from what it is on the Earth? What difficulties would he have in walking on
the moon?
If you used a pair of scales with weights to weigh the man on the moon, what result
would you get? If you wanted to set up a camp on the moon, how do you think you
would do it? Make a drawing of what you think it would look like.
14.7 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 Gravitational force is a "Force field" which acts on other bodies across a distance
without contact.

2 Gravity is the force with which the Earth attracts objects towards its centre.
136
3. Weightlessness is a feeling which a person or object experiences when the
weight, that is the gravitational attraction, is just equal to the force necessary to
keep the body moving freely in space.
4. Many artificial satellites have been launched into space and some of them have
carried astronauts and instruments such as cameras, thermometers, television sets
and radio equipment.
5 It requires enormous energy to launch a spaceship into orbit. Such energy can be
supplied by rockets which work on the principle of jet propulsion.
6 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) is used in Nigeria for information,
scientific and technological development.
EXERCISE
1 The weight of an object may change even though its mass remains constant.
Explain.
2 Why does a spaceship need two or more (multistage) engines to launch it into
orbit?
3 What is weightlessness? Why do objects in a spaceship become weightless? What
are the problems associated with this experience in space travel?
4 Give two reasons why a spaceship requires force to take off from the moon than to
take off from the Earth.
5 Who was the first human being to land on the moon? How long did he stay on the
moon? Can human beings live on the moon? Why?
6 Mention 2 experiments performed in space. What is the importance of these
experiments?

137
UNIT 4
You and Energy
INTRODUCTION

UNIT 4
In Unit 2 you found that one of the characteristics of living things was that they can
move. So motion is going on all around us. As active human beings we move about
a great deal. Usually we do this for some particular purpose; perhaps it is walking to
school, or cooking a meal, or playing a game of football or cricket, or looking after
sick people. We also move when we are asleep, for we keep on breathing even if we
do not turn over in our beds. As we breathe our chest moves up and down. So
motion is involved in almost every activity of our daily life. There must be
something that makes things move. This thing is called force.
When bodies move they do work. As you might expect, the amount of work done
depends on the size of the force, and also on the distance through which the body
moves. To do work we need energy. In case of living things this energy comes from
food. For non-living things, for instance a car, the energy comes from the burning of
a fuel, petrol. To run an electric motor another form of energy, electricity, is
required. Sometimes we use our own energy to make a non-living thing move, for
example, when we row a boat, or ride a bicycle. An important thing to understand is
that we use up some of the energy we have stored from our food every time we do
some work. As more work is done, more of our energy is used up and has to be
replaced by the food we eat.
However, some other sources of our energy can last for ever while others can last
for only a period of time and these energies are referred to as renewable and nonrenewable respectively. Also we shall enumerate on the advantages and
disadvantages of renewable and non-renewable energy to mankind.
OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to: 1. Explain the meaning of energy.
2. State and describe the sources and uses of energy.
3. State the forms of energy.
4. Explain energy conversion in the following: (a) striking a match; (b) kicking a ball
5. Explain the meaning with some examples of renewable and non-renewable
energy.
6. State some effects of wrong use of non-renewable energy.
7. Explain the concept of force.
8. Name two contact and two non-contact forces.

9. Describe how to determine the gravitational force of an object at a given height

by using GF = mgh for calculation.
10. Describe how to set up a balanced force.
11. Explain the meaning of friction and the uses and disadvantages of friction.
::::::::::::
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Chapter 15
Energy
15.1WHAT IS ENERGY?

Chapter 15

When people run about or do heavy work such as pushing a motor car or making
ridges for planting crops, they get tired. What is happening to them when they are
doing these jobs? If a boy plays football for one hour or runs a 500 metres race, he
gets tired. He has given out something to do these things and as a result, he feels
hungry. However, after eating a meal, and resting for some hours, he feels strong
again. He has regained what he lost doing these things.
When a heavy wind blows down the roof of a school building it does an amount of
work which can keep up to ten people busy for a whole day after which they get
tired. In each of the examples given here, something is given out when work is
done. When something can do work, it is said to possess energy. We can therefore
describe energy as the ability to do work.
15.2SOURCES OF ENERGY
As has been said above, when you have done a heavy job, you get tired. To get
strong again, you have to eat food. We obtain energy from the food we eat and
without food, we die. You may ask, "Where does the energy in food come from?"
Light that comes from the sun is a form of energy. This light energy is converted into
food by green plants by a process known as photosynthesis. When you eat plants or
plant products like beans, rice, or yam you are taking in this energy.
Would there be any meat if there were no plants? In the end, then, all your food
comes from plants. When food enters the body, your body uses part of the air you
breathe in to burn up the food. Energy is released and you use this energy to do

work. We can therefore say that the sun is a source of energy; so also is the food we
eat.
A car uses petrol when it moves about. The petrol supplies energy to the car, just as
our food supplies energy to us. Where does the petrol get its energy? Petrol comes
from crude oil, formed when plants and animals that lived in the sea died and
decayed at the bottom of the sea. This became covered with a layer of rocks. When
the marine plants and animals were alive they got their energy from the sun. On
their death the energy in them became trapped in the crude oil formed by their
decay. The energy from petrol is therefore the energy from the sun which was
stored by the plants and animals when they lived.
When things burn they give out heat. It is the heat that is set free when petrol burns
that makes a car go.
Activity 15.1 Steam can do work
This experiment is dangerous, and great care must be taken. Make sure you are
wearing safety goggles. Put a few drops of water into a strong test-tube, cover the
tube lightly with a cork, and heat it over a gas flame, pointing the stopper away
from yourself and anyone else who may be in the room. Soon the steam will fill the
test-tube and will push the cork out with great force
Fig. 15.1 Steam power: cork; test-tube holder

139
Heat is a form of energy. When we heat water we give energy to it and change it
into steam. The steam takes up much more room than the water, so it pushed out
the stopper from the test-tube and made it fly away. The energy in steam is used to
do work in many industries. The wheels of some locomotive engines are driven by
steam. The heat energy in this experiment was produced by burning. The burning
gas in the Bunsen burner was a source of energy. Therefore, we can say that
anything that can burn is a source of energy.
After a heavy wind many towns are left without electricity because the wind has
knocked down some of the electric cables. The roofs of poorly constructed houses
and schools are blown away, motorists cannot get to their destinations if the roads
have been blocked by trees blown down by the wind. In each of the examples given
here work is done by the fast moving wind. We can say that wind is another source
of energy. In countries where there is normally a steady wind blowing, windmills can
be used to turn machines which can pump water from wells, grind corn, or produce
electricity.

People who live along the coast make use of the energy of the wind to facilitate
rowing their canoes. They spread out their sails when they want to move in the
direction of the wind and the wind blows on the sails and moves the canoes on their
paths.
You can use falling water to turn a wheel with teeth supported by a wire passing
through them. The falling water is the source of the energy which turns the wheel.
This source of energy was used by people in the past to turn machinery for grinding
corn. It is used today to produce electricity. Have you heard of Kainji? What is Kainji
known for? Power Holding Company of Nigeria (PHCN) has a big dam there. The
dam stores a large quantity of water which is allowed to flow through a pipe. A large
water wheel is placed at the end of the pipe. The energy of the water turns the
wheel which is connected to the electric generator. The generator produces
electricity which is supplied to many parts of the country and parts of the Niger
Republic. The water in the dam is a source of energy because it is raised by the
dam. If the water had not been raised by the dam it would not have the energy to
turn the water wheel and therefore no electricity would have been produced.
Energy is stored in some chemicals. There is much more in some than in others.
Fig. 15.2 The Kainji Dam
Activity 15.2
You must wear safety goggles for this experiment. Add a pellet of sodium hydroxide
to some water in a test-tube. Feel the tube. What do you notice? Heat is produced.
This heat energy came from the chemical energy stored in the solid form of sodium
hydroxide.
Fig. 15.3 Carefully add one pellet of sodium hydroxide to the water
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Fig. 15.4 Magnetic energy (a) A freely suspended magnet (b) Attraction and
repulsion: repulsion; like poles repel; unlike poles attract
Activity 15.3
Suspend a bar magnet at its centre with a length of thread. The magnet swings
round until it lies pointing roughly north-south. The effect is used to name the poles
of the magnet. The pole at the end of the magnet pointing north is called a northseeking pole, or N-pole for short. The pole at the end of the magnet pointing south
is called a south-seeking pole or S-pole.
Bring the N-pole of another magnet near the north pole of the suspended magnet.
What do you observe? Repeat the activity using the S-pole of the magnet. What do

you observe? Place a nail on the bench and slowly bring a magnet towards it. What
happens?
We see from these activities that a magnet is able to exert a force on some
substances. By moving objects towards itself or away from itself, a magnet does
work. It is therefore a source of energy.
Activity 15.4
Connect the ends of a torch battery with two wires to a galvanometer. What
happens to the galvanometer needle? Electrical energy flows from the battery to
the galvanometer making the needle move. The torch battery is therefore a source
of energy.
Fig. 15.5 Electrical energy: torch battery; galvanometer
Nowadays there is a great deal of talk about atomic energy which is a form of
energy derived directly from changes in the structure of the atom. These changes
result in the generation of heat which can be turned into electrical energy. This new
source of energy is becoming more important each day.
From what we have said in this section, we can see that there are many sources of
energy. Many of these sources like petrol, food, and wood are mere stores of energy
for they get their energy from the sun. Even nuclear atomic energy is energy stored
in the nucleus of the atom. So, in the end we are dependent upon one source - the
sun - for all our energy except atomic energy.
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Fig. 15.6 Sources of energy
Muscular: boy on bicycle; man using bow the arrow at target
Electromagnetic: radio telescope; X-ray of hand; light bulb; radio antenna
Nuclear: nuclear plant
Chemical: wood fire; tractor; bread; vegetables
15.3 FORMS OF ENERGY
There are many different forms of energy though energy can be converted from one
form into another. This will be treated in chapter 16. Throw a stone and you give it
energy. The moving stone has energy because it can do work. It does work if it
smashes a window and it does work if it knocks something over. In doing work, the
stone loses energy and slows down, or stops. The energy of the moving stone is
known as kinetic energy. The faster the stone is moving the more kinetic energy it

has. If two stones are thrown at the same speed, the stone with the greater mass
has more kinetic energy.

There is another type of energy, potential energy or energy of position. An object

has potential energy if it has been pushed or pulled into a position from which it can
do work. A compressed spring has potential energy, as does a stretched rubber
band or a stretched bow, for they can do work when released. A fully wound watch
possesses potential energy which is used to move parts of the watch as the watch
ticks away in the course of the day. The water in the Kainji dam has potential energy
because it is higher than its surroundings. It can do work as it falls to a lower level.
Both kinetic energy and potential energy are known as mechanical energy.
Food, petrol, gas, oil and wood can be called chemicals. Chemicals are not only
things which are sold by the chemist. Every substance in the world is a chemical.
You are made up of a lot of chemicals - or, at least, your body is. Energy stored in
chemicals is
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called chemical energy. There is a lot of energy in petrol, oil, coal, wood, and in
some kinds of food.
Chemical energy can be changed into other kinds of energy. It can be changed into
heat, but to do this, it is not always necessary to burn the chemicals. Heat energy
can make things move. The chemical energy in petrol is converted into heat in the
engine and this makes the car move.
The next experiment shows another form that energy can take.
Activity 15.5
Hold a ruler on the table so that part of it hangs over the edge. Bend the piece that
sticks out and then let it go. What happens? If you look carefully, you will see the
ruler vibrating. You will also hear a sound. Here, energy of motion is changed into
sound energy. Pluck a tuning fork. You will see the fork vibrating and you will also
hear a sound. Again, energy of motion is changed into sound.
Fig. 15.7 Energy of motion can be changed into sound: table, ruler
You speak and sing. A donkey brays. An elephant "trumpets". A bird twitters. Where
do they get the energy to make these sounds?
Activity 15.6
Connect a torch battery to a small lamp. What happens?

After a time feel the lamp. The thin wire in the lamp gets hot and it glows brightly
giving out light. Here electrical energy is converted to heat energy and light energy.
So far the following kinds of energy have been mentioned: chemical energy, heat
energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical energy, kinetic and potential energy.
These kinds of energy can be changed one into another. We have in the previous
section described the relatively new form of energy known as nuclear or atomic
energy. This kind of energy can also be changed to heat energy and eventually to
electrical energy.
Fig. 15.8 Electrical energy can be changed into heat and light energy: key, lamp,
battery
15.4 TRANSFER OF ENERGY
You have studied the various sources of energy as well as the forms of energy. In
this section, you will be studying how energy can be transferred from one place to
another; using heat energy as an example. Heat energy can be transferred through
such methods as conduction, convection, and radiation.
15.5CONDUCTION
Activity 15.7
Hold a thick piece of copper wire in a bunsen flame. Can you continue to hold it for
long?
The end of the wire which is not in the flame very quickly becomes hot. How does
the heat get along the wire? The only way in which this can happen is for the heat
to be passed on from one particle to the next until it reaches the far end of the wire.
We say that heat has been conducted along the wire, and the process is called
conduction.
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Heat flows from a hot body to a cold body by itself. If you think for a minute, you will
see why this is so. Heat is a form of energy. A hot body has energy stored up in it;
that is potential energy. The only way in which a body with potential energy can lose
it is by letting it pass to a body which has energy at a lower level. So, a hot body
must lose heat energy to a cooler one.
Do all substances conduct heat equally? We can easily find out.
Activity 15.8
Fig. 15.9 shows the apparatus we shall use. It consists of a metal tin with five holes
in the side which we can fit rods passing through corks. These rods are of different
materials. Three of them are metal, one is glass, the other is plastic.

Fig. 15.9: hot water; cork; wax on rods; iron; plastic; zinc; glass; copper
They are all of the same diameter. Before putting them into the side of the can,
cover them all with a coating of wax. Then pour some boiling water into the can.
What happens to the wax on the rods? On which rod did the wax melt most rapidly?
What conclusions can you draw about the conduction of heat by these substances?
Activity 15.9
Heat a pyrex test-tube half filled with water, by applying the flame near the middle
of the tube. What happens to the water after some time? Touch the bottom of the
tube. How hot is it? What can you deduce from your observation about the
conduction of heat by water?
Good and bad conductors
From Activity 15.7, you found that heat from one end of the rod was transferred to
the other end without any movement of the particles of the rod. This method of
heat transfer (conduction) occurs mostly in metals. Activity 15.8 shows that some
substances conduct heat more easily than others. Good conductors are substances
which conduct heat readily. All metals are good conductors of heat. Bad conductors
are substances which do not conduct readily. Liquids and gases are bad conductors
of heat. Water is an example of bad conductor.
15.6 CONVECTION
Activity 15.10
Use a piece of glass tubing to drop a crystal of potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
on one side of a beaker full of water. Heat the beaker under the crystal as in Fig.
15.10.
Fig. 15.10: heat; warm water; cool water replaces hot at bottom; crystal of
potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII)
What do you observe? Eventually all the water in the beaker will be heated up and it
will boil. We have already found out that water is a bad conductor of heat. Yet, when
you heat a beaker of water at the bottom, the water at the top very soon gets warm
as you can test with your finger. How has the heat been transferred from the bottom
of the beaker to the top?
The heat flows this time from the bottom to the top by the actual movement of the
liquid molecules. This transfer of heat by the movement of liquid molecules is called
convection.
The purple colour of the potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII) shows the convection
current clearly. Why should the liquid move like this when it is heated?

144
As the water is heated, molecules acquire heat energy, and move further apart. The
hot liquid therefore becomes less dense than the colder liquid above. The molecules
from the bottom rise to the top carrying the heat energy with them. The molecules
from above sink to take the place of the risen molecules, and they in turn are
heated and the cycle continues until the water boils.
Can you now explain why we heated the test-tube of water in Activity 15.9
somewhere about the middle instead of at the bottom?
15.7 RADIATION
Activity 15.11
The beaker in Fig. 15.11 contains hot water at a temperature given by the
thermometer T1. T2 is another thermometer brought near the beaker as shown.
Does T2 show a rise in temperature?
Fig. 15.11: thermometer T1; hot water; beaker
be thermometer T2
The heat given to T2 from the beaker did not travel there by conduction.
How do we know? Nor did it travel by convection. How do we know?
This method of heat transfer which does not involve any material between the
source of the heat and the receiver is called radiation. The heat is transferred by
means of waves.
15.8 RENEWABLE AND
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Energy has been described as the ability to do work. Energy is needed to carry out
many (or all) the activities we do. Energy (petrol, gas) required to run motor
vehicles provide electricity and do many other activities in the home e.g. cooking.
Some of the sources of energy can last for ever while others can last for only a
period of time.
Renewable energy is energy from a source that can last for ever. Examples of
renewable energy are solar energy (energy from the sun); hydroelectric dams that
have generators turned by water to produce electricity (e.g. Kainji Dam, Shiroro
Dam); wind power, which is a source of energy used to run windmills to produce
electricity. Electricity from windmills is not common in Nigeria as in some overseas
countries. It is clear from the above examples that sun, water and wind will always
exist and hence the term renewable energy.

Non-renewable energy on the other hand is from a source that can only last for a
time. Examples are crude oil, coal, fuel, wood, etc. Nigeria has crude oil and coal
but it is known that it will only last for a period of time. Hence the need to look for
alternative source of energy.
15.9 ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES OF RENEWABLE AND
NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY
Renewable and non-renewable energy have advantages and disadvantages. These
are shown in the table below:
Print column format changed as follows:
Advantages
Disadvantages
1.Renewable energy lasts a life time.Non-renewable energy does not last a
lifetime.2.Renewable energy is clean and does not cause pollution.Non-renewable
energy causes pollution eg. smoke.3.Renewable energy is cheap once it is fully
installed.Non-renewable energy is expensive e.g. cost of fuel.
15.10 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1. Energy is necessary for all life including the activities of human beings.
2. It is not easy to say what energy is but we can say what it will do. Energy will
enable things to move in all sorts of ways. It will enable things to get hot, it will
enable things to give out light. In all of these, work is done. Energy may be
described as ability to do work.
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3. The sun is the primary source of all energy available on the Earth. Other sources
of energy can be regarded as stores of energy or secondary sources. These include
food, wind, heat, running water, magnets, chemicals, electric cells and atomic
reactors.

4. Energy can take different forms. Here are some of them: Chemical energy, heat
energy, light energy, sound energy, electrical energy, mechanical energy (Kinetic
energy and potential energy).

5. Energy reaches us from the sun in the form of light and heat.
6. Energy can also be grouped as renewable and non-renewable energy.
7. Renewable energy can last for a life time, eg. solar energy, wind energy and
energy from water (hydro-electric dam)
8. Non-renewable energy can only last for a period of time. Examples are crude oil,
coal, fuel wood, etc.
9. Renewable energy does not cause pollution and is generally cheap while nonrenewable energy is not cheap and can cause pollution.
EXERCISE
1. Name three natural sources of chemical energy.
2. What kind of energy has a catapult when the elastic has been pulled back?
3. How does the energy we get when we eat meat, get into the meat?
4. Name the two forms of mechanical energy.
5. Differentiate between renewable and non-renewable energy.
6. Give two examples of renewable energy and two of non-renewable energy.

146
Chapter 16
Energy Conversions
16.1INTRODUCTION

Chapter 16

Chapter 16
Energy is so important in every thing we do that we cannot escape discussing it
over and over again. Let us remind ourselves of some of the things we already know
about energy. Energy is required to do work. Work is done when a force moves
through a distance and it is measured by the force multiplied by the distance

through which the force moves. A body that has energy can do work. The energy
may be imparted to and stored in a body by doing work on that body. Stored energy
is called potential energy. There are various forms of energy. We have come across
chemical energy, energy of movement (that is kinetic energy or mechanical
energy), electrical energy, light, heat, and sound. These forms can be converted
into one another.
16.2CHANGING POTENTIAL
ENERGY TO KINETIC ENERGY
When an object rests at a point some height above the ground, we say that the
object has potential energy. This is because the object is capable of doing work if
free. Work must have been done on the object in taking it to this position. This work
done is stored in the object as potential energy. As the object is set free, it falls
towards the ground because of the gravitational pull on it. While falling, it
accelerates.
At each point in its motion, it has both potential and kinetic energy. While the
original potential energy decreases, the kinetic energy increases. This means that
the potential energy is being converted to kinetic energy during its motion
downward. Just before it hits the ground, all its original potential energy is
converted to kinetic energy.
A falling body can be made to raise another body of smaller mass if we connect the
two bodies by a string passing over a pulley. The energy to raise the smaller body is
obtained from the work done on the falling body by gravity. The work done against
gravity is stored in the stone as potential energy, and is regained in the form of
kinetic energy as the stone falls to the ground.
Consider these questions. A mango falls from the branch to the ground. What
energy had it before it left the branch? What energy had it just before it hits the
ground? What has become of this energy when it hits the ground? A gun is fired and
the bullet from it hits a bird which falls to the ground. What energy changes took
place from the moment of firing the gun to the moment the bird hits the gound?
If you have answered these questions correctly, you will find that in each example
you have started off with one form of energy and ended up with another form.
16.3 CHANGING ENERGY FROM
ONE FORM TO ANOTHER
Before we look into specific conversions, let us consider the following activities
which show the conversion of one form of energy to another. Try to work out what
energy conversions actually take place in each case.

Activity 16.1
1 Rub your finger on the bench. What happens?
2 Put some nails into a tin and shake it. What happens?
Activity 16.2
A long metal tube has a piece of wire gauze fixed in it a few centimeters from one
end. Fix the tube vertically in a stand as shown in Fig. 16.1. Put a bunsen burner
flame under the tube so that it heats the gauze. Then take the flame away. What
happens?
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Fig. 16.1
Activity 16.3
1 Make a paper spiral. Stick it through with a pin and hold it about 10cm above a
small bunsen burner flame as shown in Fig. 16.2. Be careful that the flame does not
set the paper alight, and that the spiral moves easily on the pin. What happens to
the spiral?
Fig. 16.2: spiral of paper
2 Boil some water in a flask with a suitable outlet through which steam is directed
on to a simple rotor (a metal disc cut to make vanes) as shown in Fig. 16.3. What
happens to the rotor? Trace the energy conversions from the gas in the bunsen
burner to the rotor.
Fig. 16.3: round bottomed flask; delivery tube; wire; rotor; wire gauge; Tripod stand;
Bunsen burner
Activity 16.4
1 Hold a small piece of magnesium ribbon in a flame, holding the ribbon in a pair of
tongs. Do not look directly at the flame while you do the experiment. What
happens?
2 Put a small heap of the orange chemical ammonium heptaoxodichromate (VI) on a
piece of asbestos board. Heat a thick piece of wire red hot in a bunsen burner flame
and then put it into the top of the heap of the chemical. What happens?
Activity 16.5
Take a piece of steelwool. Wrap a copper wire round one end of it, and connect it to
one end of a battery. Connect another copper wire to the other end of the battery.
Now gently brush the free end of this wire over the steelwool. What happens?

In all the above activities, energy changes occurred from mechanical to heat or
sound, from heat to sound or mechanical, from chemical to heat and light, and from
electrical to heat and light. Make sure that you identify which is which. Let us now
look at other energy conversions.
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16.4 CHEMICAL ENERGY TO ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Activity 16.6
Fig. 16.4: carbon rod; zinc strip; wire; bulb holder; bulb
Set up the apparatus shown in Fig. 16.4. The beakers contain water, a carbon rod,
and a strip of zinc. They are connected up by wire as shown; the carbon rod is
connected to one end of a small torch lamp and the zinc strip to the other end of
the lamp. Does the lamp light? Disconnect the lamp. Put some common salt into
each of the beakers and stir. Then reconnect the lamp. Does it light now? What
happens at the zinc strip and carbon rod? (They are called electrodes.) Is there any
evidence of a chemical reaction occurring? There are four forms of energy involved
in this experiment. Can you name them?

The arrangement of two electrodes in solution (it does not have to be a solution of
common salt; any other salt solution, acid or alkali will do) is called a simple cell.
The cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy. We use simple cells quite a
lot in our everyday life. A torch battery contains simple cells but not the same kind
of cell as the one you have just used in Activity 16.6.
Activity 16.7
Take an old torch dry cell. Open it up and see what is inside it. There is a zinc case
and a carbon rod down the middle. These are like the zinc and carbon electrodes
you used in Activity 16.6. Packed around the carbon rod is a layer of powdered
manganese (IV) oxide and outside this is a layer of ammonium chloride paste (see
Fig. 16.5). There is no mobile liquid in the cell. That is why it is sometimes called a
dry cell although it is not really dry. If it were, it would not work.
Fig. 16.5: brass cap; carbon rod; manganese dioxide powder; ammonium chloride
paste; zinc case

In Activity 16.6, did the lamp remain alight very long? Does your torch lamp,
powered by a dry battery, remain alight longer? In the dry cell, an additional
chemical is put in to enable it to do this. This is the manganese (IV) oxide, a
substance you have come across before. Where?

16.5 HEAT ENERGY TO

ELECTRICAL ENERGY
Activity 16.8
Connect a copper wire, a galvanometer, G, and iron wire as shown in Fig. 16.6. Keep
one junction in melting ice in the beaker A and the other junction in water in beaker
B. Heat the water in beaker B with the bunsen burner flame and observe the
galvanometer needle. What happens? Remove the beakers and gradually heat the
junction directly with the bunsen burner flame. What do you notice? Suppose you
use two copper wires or two iron wires in this activity, will you observe the same
effect when one junction is heated?
149
Fig. 16.6 A thermocouple: (a) G, Cu, Fe, A; (b) G, Cu, Fe, Cu
In the above activity, you will have noticed that the galvanometer needle moved
when one junction was heated. Whenever two dissimilar metals are joined together
and their two junctions are kept at different temperatures, one junction becomes
more highly charged with electricity than the other and the arrangement can be
used to send an electric current through a circuit. The greater the difference in
temperature between the two junctions, the greater the electric current. When we
join together two dissimilar metals at two junctions, we have a thermocouple. The
one you have just made is a copper-iron thermocouple.
As you must have observed, the only thing that happened to the thermocouple was
that heat energy was supplied to one junction to produce electrical energy in the
system. This change of heat energy to electrical energy has some useful
applications.
Project
Use a steam engine to drive a generator by making use of the arrangement in Fig.
16.7. This method of producing electricity is used in many countries.
Fig. 16.7: boiler, valve, generator
16.6 HEAT ENERGY TO
LIGHT ENERGY
Activity 16.9
Heat a piece of stout iron wire in a flame from the bunsen burner. What happens?

This simple conversion of heat to light energy is quite common. When we heat any
solid and it becomes red hot, it glows. Firewood and metals often glow when they
are heated.
16.7 MECHANICAL ENERGY TO
ELECTRICAL TO HEAT ENERGY
Activity 16.10
Your teacher will help you connect the circuit shown in Fig. 16.8. The armature (a
rotating coil) is placed between two magnets.
Fig. 16.8: commmutator (strips of bare wire); shaft; to coil armature; to
galvanometer armature support; shaft armature
150
The armature shaft is connected to a flywheel which can be turned with the handle.
If no flywheel is available, spin the armature by some other means mechanically.
How do you do this? While the armature is spinning, what happens to the
galvanometer connected to the arrangement?
Replace the galvanometer with a torch light bulb and using the flywheel, spin the
armature until the bulb lights. Do this for some time and touch bulb. What do you
observe?
Activity 16.11
You will need for this experiment a water turbine which is just a wheel which is
turned round by the water from the tap hitting the vanes on the wheel, as shown in
Fig. 16.9. Connect the two wires from generator to a small lamp. What are the
changes that have taken place?
Fig. 16.9: water in; belt; dynamo; water turbine; water out; sensitive meter

In both Activities 16.10 and 16.11, you have produced electricity through
mechanical work done. The electrical energy produced was changed to heat.
Converting electrical energy to heat is a very common occurrence especially in our
homes. We use an electric heating coil to boil water in the home; and if we touch an
electric bulb after it has been alight for sometime, we feel it to be hot. In some
countries, especially those in temperate regions of the world, electric heaters are
used to keep rooms warm.
16.8 ELECTRICAL ENERGY TO
MECHANICAL TO SOUND ENERGY

Activity 16.12
Connect an electric bell with a battery through a switch. Press the switch. What
happens?
If you open the bell, you will observe that it has metal hammer which hits the gong
to produce the sound and that we hear. The hammer is connected to a springy
metal strip placed in front of an electro-magnet. When an electric current is passed
through the electric bell, the electromagnet attracts the metal strip carrying the
hammer which then strikes the gong and produces sound. The attraction of the strip
breaks the circuit whereby the strip returns again to make electrical contact and the
process repeats again as long as current is passed through the circuit (see Fig.
16.10).
Fig. 16.10: switch; soft iron of the electromagnet; screw; iron strip (carrying a
hammer); springy metal strip; battery; gong; hammer
16.9 APPLIANCES: APPLICATION
OF ENERGY CONVERSION
The bicycle
In a bicycle, the rider's chemical potential energy is changed to mechanical energy
(kinetic energy) when he presses on the pedal and produces a forward motion of the
bicycle. The more he pedals, the faster the
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bicycle moves. If the bicycle has a dynamo attached to it, the headlamp of the
bicycle is lit as the pedals are turned. In this case, the chemical potential energy of
the rider is converted to kinetic energy (mechanical energy) in turning the pedals
and this in turn is converted to electrical energy which lights the lamp, producing
light and heat energy. The bicycle is a very dependable means of transport and
serves as an alternative to a motor vehicle especially in rural areas.
Fig. 16.11 A boy riding a bicycle
Pressing iron
An electric pressing iron converts electrical energy to heat energy which is used to
press clothes. It consists of a coil of wire (filament), a plane metal surface, a switch
and a bimetallic strip. When current passes through the heating coil in the iron,
electrical energy is converted to heat energy and the temperature of the iron rises.
When the iron reaches the temperature set by its switch, the bimetallic strip is bent
and this switches off the current as the contact points are now separated. When the
iron cools, the strip uncurls, contact is again made and current flows once more to
heat the filament.

Fig. 16.12: power supply; switch; filament; contact points; bimetallic strip
Radios and televisions
Radio waves are used in telecommunication. When they are received by radio
receivers, the signals in the form of waves are converted to audible sound waves
which we then hear. In a radio station, sound energy is converted to electrical
energy and sent into the air in the form of radio waves. When the waves are picked
up by a receiver, they are converted to electrical energy and then to sound energy.
In the case of television, the pictures and sound are converted to radio waves which
are transmitted through space and when picked up by receivers, they are converted
to electrical energy and then to light and sound.
Fig. 16.13 Radio and television
The telephone
Fig. 16.14 (a) Modern Telephone; GSM Phone
The telephone converts sound energy into electrical energy which then passes
through wires. The telephone set consists of an earpiece and microphone. When we
speak into the microphone, sound energy is converted into electrical energy. This
electrical energy is carried
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by wires to receiver's telephone earpiece where it is converted back into sound
energy.
Fig. 16.14 (b) Telephone earpiece: diaphragm holder; thin metal diaphragm;
solenoid; permanent magnet; to telephone line; small coils of wire
Electric motor
In the electric motor, electrical energy is converted into mechanical energy. The
motor consists of a rotating coil (armature) in between two magnets with an axle
through the armature as shown in Fig 16.15.
Fig. 16.15 The electric motor: to battery; rivet; metal tube; sellotape; brushes; bare
ends of coils; rubber rings; magnet; wooden block; axle; split pin; base; yoke;
magnet; coil in slot
When current is passed through the armature in a magnetic field, the armature
rotates turning the axle. If the axle is connected to a wheel, the wheel rotates as
well; thus electrical energy is converted to mechanical energy.
Electric motors are used in many devices such as in electric fans, to start cars, in
grinding machines and in locomotives.

16.10 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 Energy can be converted from one form to another.
2 In energy conversion, we start off with one form of energy and end up with
another form.
3 A thermocouple with junctions maintained at different temperatures produces
electricity.
4 Steam or water can be used to drive a generator to produce electricity.
5 Energy conversions have a wide application especially in common appliances
found in our homes.
EXERCISE
1 Describe the energy changes that occur when an electric pressing iron is used to
press clothes.
2 How can we make a falling body do work on another body? What energy changes
occur in such a situation?
3 Describe a device for changing chemical energy to other forms of energy. State
the energy changes that occur in the process.
4 Explain the term thermocouple. Describe how it can be used to produce electricity.
5 Name two appliances in the home. Describe the energy conversions in each of
them.

153
Chapter 17
Forces
17.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 17

If you were asked the meaning of the word "force" you would probably say that it
had something to do with strength. "We forced the car to move by pushing it along.
He forced me to carry the log of wood." "The force of the wind blew the roof off the
house." All these sentences involve the idea of strength.
We exert forces by means of our muscles. We know when we are applying a force
because our muscles become taut. Feel the muscles in the upper part of your arm;
then lift a load off the floor with one hand and feel the muscles in your arm again. Is
there any difference? The stronger a boy or a girl is, the greater the force he or she
can exert. A small boy, who is not yet very strong, would find it difficult to push a
table along, whereas for a bigger, stronger boy it would be easy (Fig. 17.1).
Fig. 17.1(a) Small boy pushing table
Fig. 17.1(b) Bigger boy pushing table How effective at exerting forces are these two
students shown in (a) and (b).
At the end of the activities in this chapter, we shall discover that a force is any
action that moves or tries to move a body or alter its speed, in a given direction.
17.2 FEELING FORCES
Activity 17.1
Hold the two ends of a strip of rubber or a rubber band. Stretch it and let it return to
its original length. Do this several times. What do you feel?
Activity 17.2
Push down on a block of wood placed on the table. Now do the same thing with a
piece of foam rubber and a piece of plasticine.
What happened to the shape and size of the rubber strip, the block of wood, the
foam rubber, and the plasticine? What happened to their shape and size when you
stopped pushing or pulling?
Activity 17.3
Sort yourselves out into pairs (A and B) of about the same weight. Let one member
of each pair hold one end of a rope and the other the other end (Fig. 17.2).
Fig. 17.2 (a) (b)
154
What happens (a) when only A pulls, (b) when only B pulls, (c) when A and B pull
together?

In each of these activities, we have felt the presence of a force. The forces we have
felt so far have appeared in pairs. This is true of the forces shown in Fig. 17.1 and
Fig. 17.2, and those experienced in Activities 17.1 to 17.3.
As a pull was exerted on the rubber strip to stretch it, the strip exerted a pull on
your hands as it tried to contract or return to its original length. When you push on a
block of wood, the wood pushes back. When you release your push on the foam
rubber you notice that the foam comes up, showing that it was pushing on your
hand. In some cases the object pushed changes shape; sometimes it doesn't.
In Fig. 17.1, the push was applied directly to the table, while in Fig. 17.2, the pull on
each person was applied indirectly (i.e. through the rope). The force (pull) on the
rope is called tension.
17.3 TYPES OF FORCES
So far we have come across forces whose sources are in contact with the body to
which they are applied. This contact can be direct or indirect. All such forces are
called contact forces. Push, pull, and tension are examples we have met so far.
Another common example, which we shall discuss in Section 17.5, is friction.
Other forces exist whose sources do not require contact with the body to which they
are applied. Such forces are called force fields. They are noncontact forces and the
common examples are gravitational force, magnetic force and electrical force.
These are dealt with in Sections 17.7-17.9.
17.4 BALANCED AND
UNBALANCED FORCES
Activity 17.4
Push a block of wood placed on a table and notice the direction in which it moves.
Now tie a string to the wood and pull the wood by means of the string in such a way
that the string is along but not touching the table (Fig. 17.3). Do you feel any force?
Fig. 17.3
Activity 17.5
Take a large glass tray and put some spherical beads, or leadshot, or small, smooth,
round seeds on it to cover most of the surface. Put a small weight on the beads and
give it a short, sharp push. Notice that the weight moves easily. While the weight is
moving try to change its direction of motion. Also try to make it move faster, and to
slow it down, or stop it. Try to answer the following questions.
Does the weight continue to move in the direction in which you pushed it? Does it
continue to move with the same speed if you do not touch it? How can you change

the direction of motion? Suppose you want it to move faster, what would you do? In
what direction would you have to apply a force to make the weight slow down or
stop?
In these experiments we observe that forces cause motion, make moving bodies
move faster or slower, or cause a change of direction of motion. Since forces always
occur in pairs, change of motion must be caused by unbalanced forces. If a body is
at rest, it means that all the forces acting upon it are equal and opposite. If the
forces acting on it are not equal (the forces are unbalanced), the body will move in
the direction of this unbalanced force.
Fig. 17.4: small weight; small spherical beads
155
The direction of a force is usually indicated in a diagram by an arrow. Whenever the
direction of a force is known, we can say something about the motion of the body to
which it is applied.
If a body is already moving, do we require a force to keep it moving? Let us find out
in the following activity.
Fig. 17.5: weight W; small spherical beads; pulley; washers
Activity 17.6
Set up the apparatus shown in Fig. 17.5. Two strings are tied to the weight which is
placed on top of some spherical beads (or lead shot, or round seeds) in a level tray.
The strings, passing over pulleys, carry some washers which act as weights. What
happens if you have the same number of washers on each string?
Give the weight W a push along the line of one of the strings. Does it move with
constant velocity or does it move faster, or slow down?
Make one of the forces bigger by putting more washers on one of the strings. We
now have an unbalanced force. What is the direction of this unbalanced force? In
what direction does the weight W move? What can you now say about the forces
acting on a body moving with constant speed in a straight line?
You may have observed that a body in uniform motion (i.e. moving with a constant
velocity) in a straight line requires no force to keep it moving. To change the
direction of motion of the body, a force is required. If the forces acting on a body are
balanced, the body is either at rest or is moving uniformly in a straight line.
Fig. 17.6: glass; block of wood
17.5 FRICTION

Activity 17.7
Put a block of wood on a sheet of glass on the table. Attach a spring balance to it.
Pull gently on the spring balance taking care not to pull so hard as to move the
block. Does another force act on the block as you pull the spring? If there is another
force which one is bigger?
Now increase your pull gradually and note the reading of the spring balance. Is the
force preventing the motion of the block increasing or decreasing? Continue to
increase your pull gradually until the block begins to move with a steady speed. Is
the force which prevented motion before still acting? Stop pulling the block. What
makes the block slow down and stop?
Place a book on top of the block of wood and note the force now required to set the
block just moving with constant speed. Compare this force with that required
without the book.
Repeat the experiment with two or three pieces of glass tubing placed under the
block.
Try the experiment again after wetting the surface on which the block rests. In each
case note the force required to just set the block moving.
In Activity 17.7, you would have noticed that whenever we try to move an object
that is in contact with another object, a force comes into play between the surfaces
in contact. This force tries to stop the body from moving. The force is called friction.
Before the object can actually move, this frictional force must be overcome. The
frictional force continues to act as long as the body moves. When the force causing
the body to move is taken away, friction slows down the body until it comes to a
stop. Once the body has stopped, the frictional force disappears, but it is
immediately set up again whenever we attempt to move the body.
156
If a wooden block is given a push on a cement floor it will move a short distance and
then stop. If the same block is given the same push on a polished wooden floor it
will move much further before it stops. The only thing that is different in the two
situations is that the polished floor is smoother than the concrete one. The rougher
a surface is, the greater the frictional force between it and any body placed upon it.
Just as there is friction between two solids in contact, there is also friction when a
solid moves in a liquid or in a gas. Will the frictional force be as great as between
two solids?
The cause of friction can be seen if surfaces are examined under the microscope. It
is then found that however smooth a surface may appear to be, it is actually
covered with tiny hollows and projections (Fig. 17.7). When the two surfaces come

into contact the projections interlock. For one surface to slide over the other, these
links must be broken.
Fig. 17.7 The very small irregularities on the surface of a "smooth" sheet of glass
which can only be seen using a very special technique
17.6 FRICTION IN USE
It might be thought that because friction stops motion it is a bad thing. Without
friction, moving parts of machines would move more easily and we should not have
to use so much energy to make a machine work. In fact, if there were no friction,
once a body started moving, it would never stop. Many people have tried to make
machines which once started would go on working for ever. They have always failed
for the simple reason that no surfaces can be made between which there is no
friction.
However, friction is not always a bad thing. It is actually very useful. Without it
motion would be impossible. That seems an odd thing to say, when just now we said
that friction always acts to stop motion. But just think of what happens when you
walk on wet, slippery ground or on a well-polished floor. Is it easy to get along?
The tyres of cars have rough surfaces so that when the engine of the car makes the
wheels go round, they grip on the surface of the road. If the tyres and the road were
so smooth that there was no friction between them, the car would not go along at
all.
Fig. 17.8 The tread on tyres is important in increasing friction between the tyres and
the road
On the other hand, there are times when friction is a nuisance. It causes wear on
the moving parts of machines. Energy must be used to overcome friction and this
energy is converted into heat. Consequently, the bearings of machines get hot
when they are running. Sometimes the energy is partly converted to sound. An
example is when your friend rides a rusty old bicycle, and you can hear all the
squeaks and groans that the machine makes. In order to reduce friction, oils and
greases are placed between the two surfaces in contact. These oils are called
lubricants.
157
EXERCISE
1 If it is a very wet day and the driver of a car at high speed suddenly applies his
brakes, what will happen? Why does this happen?
2 How do the brakes of a car or a bicycle work? Are the brake linings smooth or
rough? What force stops the car?

3 Name three instances where we come across friction.

4 A plane is landing. What forces bring the plane to rest?

17.7 GRAVITATIONAL FORCES

So far we have dealt with contact forces, that is, forces that come into play when
objects are in contact. Pushes and pulls can obviously only occur when at least two
bodies are concerned.
In force fields, the forces act at a distance, that is, without the bodies concerned
being in contact. Gravitational force is an example of such a force.
If you jump off the roof, you will be pulled to the Earth. Yet there is no contact
between you and the thing that is pulling you. It is not as if the Earth stretched out
hands and pulled you down. As far as you can see, there is nothing there to pull
you.

Activity 17.8
Hold a small object up in your hand and let it go. Where does it move to? Because it
moved, what must have been acting on it?
Put masses of 5g, 10g and 20g on the flat side of a ruler. Stand on a stool and
release them all at the same time by tilting the ruler. Do they reach the ground at
the same time?
Any object above the ground tends to fall to the ground and can remain above the
ground only when something is holding it there. The force with which the Earth
attracts objects towards its centre is called gravity or gravitational force. The weight
of an object is actually a measure of the gravitational force (pull) on it.
Fig. 17.9 Galileo experimenting with a coin and a feather
If a piece of stone and a feather are allowed to fall at the same time, which one
reaches the ground first? Is there any other force acting that prevents the feather
from falling at the same rate as the stone? If there is, how could we get rid of it?
Galileo, a famous scientist, once did a very interesting experiment called the guinea
and feather experiment. The guinea was a coin. He found, as you might expect, that
when he let these two objects fall from the top of a tower, the coin got to the
ground first. Then he got a long glass tube and put a coin and a feather inside it. He
then took all the air out of the tube with a vacuum pump and turned the tube
upside down. This time, the coin and the feather both fell at the same rate and

reached the bottom of the tube together. It must have been the air that stopped the
feather from falling at the same rate as the coin in the first experiment.
If the air is still, objects of different masses but of a similar shape (and therefore
similar air resistance) will be seen to fall at approximately the same rate.
To calculate gravitational force (Gf), the following formular is used:
Gf = mgh
m = mass of the object measured in kilogram (kg)
g = acceleration due to gravity measured in metre per second square (m/s2)
h = height measured in metres (m)
158
17.8 MAGNETIC FORCES
Activity 17.9
Place a magnet on the table and bring the end of another magnet near it. What
happens? Now move one of the magnets towards some iron filings or nails. What
happens? Do you think a force or forces are acting?
Fig. 17.10 Diagram of a Magnet
Activity 17.10
Take a razor blade and rub off the sharp edges on a rough surface. Mark one end of
the blade with paint or chalk. Cut the blade into two and put the two pieces across
the gap of a horse-shoe magnet for a short time. Remove the two pieces of blade.
Bring the two blades end-on together as shown in Fig. 17.11. What happens? Now
turn one of the pieces round and try bringing them together. What happens now?
Fig. 17.11

These two experiments show that forces exist between two magnets placed near
each other. We feel these forces as we bring the magnets together. In one case we
felt the magnets try to come closer together; they attracted each other. In the other
case they tried to separate further; they repelled each other. The forces appear to
originate from the ends of the magnets. These ends are called the poles of the
magnets. When the magnets attract each other the poles are not alike; when they
repel each other they are alike. So we say that, in magnetism, like poles repel, and
unlike poles attract.

When a magnet is brought near metal objects made of iron the objects are drawn
towards the magnet.
In all these cases the force does not arise from the two objects coming into contact.
The forces are acting from a distance. We can say that a magnetic force field exists
around a magnet. When magnetic objects are within this field they are acted upon
by the magnetic force.
In a similar way everything around the Earth experiences a gravitational force and
the whole region around the Earth is a gravitational force field. In general any region
where a force can be felt is called a force field.
17.9 ELECTRICAL FORCES
Activity 17.11
Rub a dry plastic ball-point pen on your dry hair or on a dry duster. Bring the pen
close to a small piece of paper. What happens? What must have been acting on the
paper?
Activity 17.12
Fig. 17.12: beaker; aluminium foil; pencil; card; wire
For this experiment we need an instrument called an electroscope. If you do not
have one in your laboratory you can easily make one for yourself as follows: Take a
short piece of thick, bare wire and bend it at one end to make a hook. Now wind the
wire around the middle of a pencil or a plastic pen. Place the pencil
159
across a beaker. Cut a strip of aluminium foil from a cigarette packet, and hang the
foil on the hook as shown in Fig. 17.12. To make sure that the foil does not fall off
the wire you can put a small dab of glue on it and stick it to the wire. You can also
put a piece of cardboard or paper over the beaker to keep out draughts.
Take a dry plastic or ebonite rod and rub it on your dry hair or with a piece of dry fur
or flannel. Touch the rubbed rod on the wire sticking out of the top of the
electroscope. What happens to the leaves of aluminium foil? Rub the plastic rod
again and bring it close to the wire, but not touching it. What happens to the
aluminium leaves this time? Now stroke a metal rod and bring it close to the wire.
What happens? Bring your ball-point pen which you have rubbed on your dry hair
near the wire. What happens?
You will have found that in some of these experiments, the leaves moved apart
we say they diverged. When a dry plastic pen is rubbed on dry hair, or a plastic or
ebonite rod on fur or flannel, it becomes charged with electricity. A rod can be
charged either positively or negatively according to what it is made of and what we

rub it with. If we were to test the material we rubbed the rod with, we would find
that it too had become charged. The charge is opposite to that of the rod or pen.
Thus, if the pen is charged positively, our hair would be charged negatively. What
does this tell us about these materials? Obviously we have "rubbed off" charge from
one to the other. We have not really made electricity. It was there already but we
have separated it from one of the materials. We have taken negative charges from
our hair and this has left the hair positively charged.
In Chapter 10, we learnt about the particules that make up matter. We know they
are very small so small that no-one can see them; we know they are in motion, and
we know that there are forces of attraction between them. Now we have discovered
there must be electricity in them too.
Just as in the case of magnetic poles, unlike electric charges attract each other and
like electric charges repel each other. That is, between two positive or two negative
charges, there exists a repulsive electric force, and between positive and negative
charges, there exists an attractive electric force. How does this explain why the
leaves of the electroscope diverge?
All matter contains a number of positive and negative charges. When a substance
has more positive charges than negative charges, we say that the substance is
positively charged. When there are more negative charges, it is said to be
negatively charged. With an equal number of positive and negative charges, the
substance is said to be neutral, that is, not charged. (See Fig. 17.13.)
Fig. 17.13 Distribution of charges in neutral and charged bodies (a) positive charged
body (b) negatively charged body (c) neutral body
17.10 UNIT OF FORCE
Whenever we want to measure something we need to have some unit in which to
express the measurement. Thus the unit of length is the metre. We can express any
distance we want to measure in metres or fractions of a metre. Similarly the unit of
time is the second. We can express any period of time as so many seconds.
Scientists call the unit of force the Newton (which is given the symbol N). This unit
was named after Sir Isaac Newton who first discovered the facts about gravity.
The weight of a body is the force that the Earth exerts on it. If we attach a body to a
vertical piece of elastic or a spring, the elastic or spring is stretched downwards just
as if you had pulled it down with your hands. To stretch the elastic or spring a force
is required. This force is the pull of the Earth on the body that you have attached to
the elastic or spring.
What is a newton? Suppose a body with a mass of 1 kilogram (1 kg) is fixed on to
the end of a spring it will stretch the spring by a certain amount, say 10 cm. If you
now replace the 1 kg mass with one of 2 kg, it will stretch it twice as far, that is 20

cm. So the pull of the Earth is twice as great on 2 kg as it is on 1 kg. The

gravitational force on a mass of 1 kg is about 10 newtons - not exactly, but quite
near enough for us to get some idea of the magnitude of a newton.
All forces, of whatever kind, are measured in newtons. The actual measurement of a
force will be dealt with later.
160
17.11 SUMMARY
In this chapter you have learnt the following things.
1 There are many types of force. Some control the very tiny invisible particles that
make up matter, others control big objects around us on Earth, and some control
the movement of the Earth and other heavenly bodies.
2 Forces can be grouped broadly into contact forces and force fields.
3 A force is needed (a) to make objects move, (b) to make objects change their
direction of motion, and (c) to make objects slow down or stop moving altogether.
4 Forces always occur in pairs. A body moving with constant velocity is under the
action of equal and opposite forces (balanced forces).
5 The unit of force is the Newton (N).
6 Frictional forces are very important in our lives. Sometimes they are a help and
sometimes a hindrance, but we could not move if they did not exist, or if by some
means we started moving we would not be able to stop.
7 Forces exist everywhere - inside matter, on the surface of liquids and in space.
EXERCISE
1 Group the following forces into "contact force" and "force field": gravity, friction,
tension, electric force, magnetic force, push, pull.
2 State and describe briefly the effects of a force.
3 State and describe an advantage of friction.
4 A body moving in a straight line suddenly changed its direction and moved with a
constant speed. Which of these statements is correct?(a) The force acting on the
body was reduced.
(b) The force acting on the body was increased.
(c) There was no change in the force acting on the body.

(d) A balanced force produced the change in the direction of motion.

(e) An unbalanced force produced the change in the direction of motion.
5 Explain the terms (a) force, (b) weight, and (c) charged body.

165
Index

Index
Accidents prevention of, 73
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome, 94
Africa a biographical map of, 59
African toad mating, 105
Air, 36 expansion of, 38
experiment on, 36
importance to living thing, 42
in the soil, 37
in water, 38
properties of, 38
what is made of, 39
Air pollution, 70 causes of, 71
effects of, 71
prevention of, 71
Alcohol, 98
Aldrin, Edwin, 133
Altitude, 127

Ammonia, 28
Animal cells, 108
Animals classifying, 114
with or without backbone, 115
Aphids, 85 control of, 87
example of, 86
life cycle of, 86-67
Asteroids, 128
Astronauts, 130, 132
Atmosphere, 123
Atomic clock, 20
Azimuth, 127
Backbone, 115 see spine
Bacteria, 69, 76, 91 coliform, 77
types of, 76Balance, 8 chemical, 19
types of 18 Balanced diet, 48
Balanced Environments, 59-66
Bathroom scale, 26
Bed bug, 85, 88
Bilharzias 89
Black flies, 86 and bugs, 85 see also simulium dammosum, 85
Boiling point, 31
Borgu Game Park, 64
Bunsen burner, 8
Candle burning, 39
Candle clock, 20

Canopy, 60
Carbohydrates, 48, 49, 50, 57
Carbon cycle, 58
Carbon dioxide (Carbon IV Oxide), 42, 52
Carnivores, 103
Carnivorous animal, 64
Cellulose, 110
Cernan Eugene, 133
Chemical balance, 26
Chlorine, 91
Chlorophyll, 57, 110
Chloroplast, 110
Cholera, 89
Classify, 3
Cleanliness of hands and nails, 47
of your clothes, 47
of your hair, 46
of your skin, 46
of your teeth, 46
personal, 46
advantages of observing, 47
disadvantages of observing, 47
166
Clinical thermometer, 24
Cocoon, 85
Comet and meteors, 129

Communities, 51
Community, 51, 52 of a tropical savanna, 51 Compost pit making, 77
Composting latrine in double vault, 79
Compressibility, 33
Conclusion drawing, 1
Conductor, 142 bad, 143
good, 143
Constellations, 127
Consumer, 52
Control, 40
Convection, 142
Copper (II) tetraoxosulphate, 28 anhydrous, 41
hydrated, 41
Copper, 33
Cubit, 16
Decompose, 52
Degree Celsius, 24
Degrees, 24
Dense, 27
Desalination, 92
Disease causes and prevention of, 97
communicable (infectious), 81
non-communicable, 81
preventing, 88-99
Disease vector, 81-87
Disposal of human waste other methods for, 78

Disposing, 74
Distillation, 92 fractional, 92
Donkey, birth of, 106
Drug Abuse, 99 preventing, 98
Drugs, 98 in the home, 98
Dysentery, 89
Earth in space, 122-130
Earth revolution the sun, 122
Earth, 122, 131
Earth's atmosphere, 123
Earth's axis, 123
Eclipses, 126 annular, 126
of the sun, 126
partial, 126
total, 126Egyptian water clock, 20
Elephantiasis, 89
Energy, 63, 138-145 and materials for communities, 51-58
and you, 137
application of, 150-151
atomic, 140
changing from one to another, 146-147
chemical, 142
electrical, 140
form of, 141
kinetic, 141, 146
magnetic, 140

 mechanical, 141
nuclear, 142
potential, 141
renewable and non-renewable, 144
sources of, 138, 141
transfer of, 142
what it is, 138
Energy (potential) changing to Kinetic energy, 146
Energy conversion, 146-152 electrical to mechanical to sound, 150
heat to electrical, 148
heat to light, 149, 150
chemical to electrical, 148
mechanical to electrical, 149
Energy Pyramid, 63
Enviroment, 9 effects of human activities on, 67-80
making it clean, 69
responding to, 104
Environmental sanitation, 74
Equator, 16
Evaporation, 30
Event, 9
Excreting waste, 106
Excretion, 106
Expanded Programme on Immunisation, 93
Experiments, 1, 2 to show that air has mass, 38
to show that air occupies space, 37

167
to show that air supports burning, 39
to show that carbon dioxide is present in air, 41Family Health, 43-50
Farming, 67
Fats, 48, 49
Feeding, 102
Filter beds, 90, 91
Filtration, 90
Food and Health, 47
classes of, 49
classifying, 48
type of, 48
Food Chain and food web, 52
in tropical rain forest, 60
making, 52
Food web, 52
Foodstuffs, 48, 49
Foot, 16
Force, 153-160 balanced and unbalanced, 154
centrifugal, 132
contact, 154
electrical 154, 158
feeling, 153
field, 154
gravitational, 154, 157
magnetic, 154 , 158

 types of, 154

unit of, 159"Force field", 135
Force of gravity, 134
Friction, 155 in use, 156
Galvanometer, 149
Gases, 27, 29
Gastro-intestinal enteritis disease, 73
Geographic Information System, 133
Germs, 69
Global Navigation Satellite System, 134, 136
Grams, 18
Gravitation, 131
Gravitational force, 131 of the moon, 135 Gravitational pull and gravity, 131
weight, 131Gravity, 17, 131, 157
Ground water, 78
Growth, 103
Habitat, 51 of Africa, 59
Hallucinogenic effects, 99
Health effect of exercise on, 45
levels of, 45
way of maintaining good one, 45
Healthy and Unhealthy children, 44
Healthy environment characteristics of, 68
Heat as a form of energy, 139
Heating other substance, 39 Herbivores, 103
HIV-AIDS, 94, 95 way through which it can be transmitted, 94

 ways of not contracting, 96

Hour glass, 20
Housefly control of, 84
life cycle of, 83
Hydrogen carbon (IV) how indicator works, 53
indicator, 52, 53
Hygiene, 44
Hypotheses, 1, 4, 28, 29
Immunisation, 93
Internet, 7, 14
Invertebrates, 115, 116
Isobars, 124
Kainji Dam, 144
Kilogram, 18
Larva, 83
Lever arm balance, 26
Liebig condenser, 92
Life process, 106-107
Liquid, 27, 29, 33 distilling a mixture of, 92
Living and non-living things, 100
Living things, 102 characteristics of, 107
168
Magnesium burning of, 39
Magnet, 5 diagram of, 158
work with, 5Magnetic force field, 158
Malaria parasite, 81

Malaria, 81, 83 carrying mosquitoes, 81, 82

Mass, 17, 132
Matter, 28 state of, 27
what it is made of, 27
Measurement, 15
Measuring degree of hotness, 23
length, 15
mass, 17
things, 15
time, 19
weighing, 15
Melt, 30
Melting point, 30 and boiling point, 31
Meningitis, 94
Meteors, 129
Methylated spirit, 28
Metre rulers, 16 see metre scales
metre, 16
Metric system of length, 17
Microscope, 8
Minerals, 48, 49, 50
Moon, 125, 130 observing, 126
part of surface of, 126
phases of, 125
position of, 127Mosquito control of, 82
life cycle of, 82

 types of, 82
Mould, 75, 76
Mount Everest, 123
Movement, 103
National Drug Law Enforcement Agency, 99
National Space Research and Development Agency, 133
Nature balance in, 64, 65
circulation of oxygen and carbon dioxide in, 57
two related cycles in, 57Negatively charged, 159
Newton, 159
Night and Day, 122 demonstrating, 122
Nitrogen, 42
North Pole, 16, 122, 123, 130
Northern Hemisphere, 123
Nutrient, 48
Observing, 3
Omnivores, 103
Onchocerca volvulus, 85
Onchocerciasis, 85 see river blindness
Onion cells, 109
Organic matter, 75
Organisms, 100, 104 animals, 114
grouping, 113
many cells, 112
monera, 113
plants, 114

 prostista, 113
single-celled, 111
sorting out, 112
fungi, 113Oxygen, 55 how it is maintained in a community, 55Parasites, 77
Particle theory, 33
Particles, 29 in solid, Liquid and gases, 29
Pathogen, 81, 89 preventive strategy, 89
Pendulum 20 length of, 21
measuring the time taken from swing, 21
Pendulum clock, 20
Penumbra, 126
Personal Health meaning of, 44
Petals, 14
Phosphorus, 40
Photosynthesis, 57, 110, 138
Pit latrine, 70, 79 safe, 78
Planets, 128
169
Plants classifying, 115
flowering, 117
non-flowering, 117Plants and animals building block of, 108
differences between, 107-108, 110
variety in, 111
Plants cells, 109
Plasmodium, 81
Poles, 158

Population, 51, 52
Positively charged, 159
Potassium tetraoxomanganate (VII), 28
Power Holding Company of Nigeria, 139
Pressure, 33
Proboscis, 84
Producer, 52
Propellant, 135
Proteins, 48, 49, 50
Protozoa, 77
Public toilet, 77
Pulse taking, 45
Pupae, 84
Pyramid of mass, 63, 64
Pyramids of numbers, 62
Quartz crystal clock, 20
Radiation, 142
Rain cloud, 124
Rainbow, 13
Recording, 1
Refuse, 74 classification of, 75
container for, 77
Refuse disposed, 76
Refuse dump, 74 decompose, 75
item found in, 75
Refuse in the home disposal of, 70

Reproduction, 104 asexual, 104

sexual, 104
Respiration, 57, 103 external, 103
importance of, 103
Roads and Houses construction of, 67Rocket, 134 multi-stage, 135
Roughages, 49
Satellite, 133 artificial, 133
Scale marks, 19
Scales, 17 for measuring length, 17
Schmitt, Harrison, 133
Science Equipment uses of, 8
Science, 2 what about, 1
learning about, 2
and development, 121
Scientist, 3, 27 record, 3
carrying out experiment, 4
communicate, 7
make guesses, 4
observe, 3
sort things, out, 3
things they use, 7
Seasons. 123
Senses, 12, 14 of lines to test, 13 Sewage, 77 disposal of, 70
Sewage system control, 79Sexually transmitted infections, 94
Shadow clock, 19, 20
Shadows, 125 making, 125

Sirius, 19
Sleeping sickness, 84 see nagama
Sodium hydroxide, 139
Solar system, 128
Solid, 27, 29, 30, 33 heating of, 30
Sorting, 4, 9 objects, 11South Pole, 122, 123, 130
Southern Hemisphere, 123
Space man in, 131-136
Space shuttle, 129, 130
Space travel, 133
170
Spaceship, 132
Span, 16
Spores, 75
Spring balance, 26
"Sputnik", 135
Stamp collection, 11, 12
Star Over Africa, 127
Stars, 127 group of, 127
State change of, 29
effect of heat on, 31
of matters, 29
Steam power, 138
Steam, 138
Stimulus, 104
Stopwatch, 18

Sun, 127, 128, 130

Surface bombardment of by particles, 34
Sustainable development, 59
Technology, 77
Temperature, 24 of the body, 24
Thermocouple, 149
Thermometer, 8, 23
Tornado, effect of, 37
Transportation use of, 67
Tropical Rain Forest animals in, 61
community, 59, 60Tropical savanna, 62 animals and plants in, 62
communities, 61
scene, 61
Troposphere, 123
Trypanosome, 84
Tsetse fly, 84 biting, 84
control of, 85
life cycle of, 85Typhoid, 89 Umbra, 126
Vector, 69, 70
Vertebrates, 115, 116
Virus, 77
Vitamins, 48, 49
Volume measuring, 22
of a cork, 23
of irregular solid, 23Water, 53 chlorination of, 93
distillation of, 92

 distilled, 92
evaporation of, 91
purification of, 89
sources of in rural areas, 88-89
spring, 93
uses of, 93
Water cycle, 54 demonstrating, 54
Water in stem movement of, 55
Water Pollution and water supply, 73
Water table, 78
Water-borne disease, 89 preventable strategy for, 89
Water-related insect vector, 89 preventive strategy, 89
Weighbridge, 26
Weight, 132
Weightlessness, 132, 135
Wildlife disappearing, 64
Wildlife Game Reserves, 64
Wind, 124 effect of on trees, 36Yankari Games Reserves, Bauchi, 64
THE END