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Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing
May, 1996
May 1996
May 1996
May 1996
May 1996
May 1996
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Contents
A1.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION .................................. 1
A.1 USES OF LOGS ................................................................................................................................... 1
(05/96)
(05/96)
(05/96) A-1
(05/96) A-2
(05/96) A-3
In many parts of the world multiple sequences of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate sequences. Between each of the clastic
and carbonate groups, erosional inconformities
are common and the nature of deposition within each group is unique.
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION
CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous
unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those that can be measured and are useful
will be considered in this course. They are
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
RW = water resistivity: the electrical resistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
k = permeability: the ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.
% = 70%
70 + 30
Cube A:
porosity = waterfilled
SW = 100%
Cube B:
porosity = hydrocarbons and
water in
SW = 70%
Figure A2
(05/96) A-4
Shy = 1 - Sw = 30%
Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
= Sw
Cube C
The resistivity Rt of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (i.e. as Rw increases, Rt increases and vice versa).
Therefore: Rt Rw.
(1)
Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
Rt increases with decreasing porosity (i.e. as
decreases, Rt increases).
Cube C
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 100%
- Sw = 100%
Cube D
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 100%
Cube E
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 70%
Figure A3
(05/96) A-5
Therefore: Rt 1/.
(2)
Rw
Ro
(5)
Cube E
Replace 30% of remaining porosity with
hydrocarbons. Resistivity Rt increases with
decreasing water saturation Sw (i.e. as Sw decreases, Rt increases).
Therefore: Rt 1/Sw.
(3)
(6)
Rw
Sw
1
F
or
Rw
Rt
(4)
Sw
(05/96) A-6
This is intuitively obvious as the relationship between Ro and Rw is related to that particular unit cube of rock and its porosity
characteristics.
Through empirical measurements, it was determined that
a
F=
(7)
where
a = constant
m = cementation factor
The cementation factor m relates to the porosity type and how it will transmit electrical
current to the actual rock (also called tortuosity).
aRw
or S
n
w
(9)
Rt
m
Rt = Ro =
if Sw 100%, then
aRw
Rt
Sw
a) Formation Porosity ()
Defined as the fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids, where
or Rt Ro
Sw
pore volume
Ro
(8)
Rt
Through laboratory measurements, it was
found that this relationship (8) is dependent
on the saturation exponent n as
Ro
S
n
w
=
Rt
FRw
or Swn =
or Sw
100%
total volume
Rt
(05/96) A-7
For Porosity
In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that
the relationship between formation factor and
porosity could be described by the formula
a
F=
m
where
a = empirical constant.
m = cementation factor.
Some recommended F and relationships
are
0.62
F=
(for sands)
2.15
0.81
F=
(for sands)
2
1
F=
(for carbonates)
Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Interpretation Chart book is based on several different F- relationships.
d) Water Saturation (Sw)
Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with water where
water filled pore volume
100%
sw =
total pore volume
g) Shaly Formations
This describes formations where some of
the formation void space (porosity) is filled
with shale.
100%
Shy =
total pore volume
or
Shy = 1 Sw.
f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those
that are shale free.
(05/96) A-9
This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:
0.62
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr =
2.15
0.81
or Fr =
0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr =
Figure A4
(05/96) A-10
h) Key Formulas
FRw
Archies formula: S =
Rt
n
w
Formation Factor:
Ro
a. From deep resistivity
F =
Rw
Rxo
b. From shallow resistivity
F =
Rmf
a
c. From porosity
F =
m
i) Key Symbols
BHT -
Sxo
di
Shc
hRIDPH
RIMPH
RSFL
Rm
Rmf
Rmc
Rw
Rwa
Rt
Ro
Rxo
Rsh
F
Sw
K
SSP
PSP
k-
S
D
N
T
e
2
Vsh
Pe
(05/96) A-11
(05/96) A-14
(05/96) A-15
(05/96) A-17
Schlumberger
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Contents
(05/96)
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B1.0
B1.1 INTRODUCTION
The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining hydrocarbon saturation.
Electricity can pass through a formation only
because of the conductive water it contains.
With a few rare exceptions, such as metallic
sulfide and graphite, dry rock is a good electrical insulator. Moreover, perfectly dry rocks
are very seldom encountered. Therefore, subsurface formations have finite, measurable resistivities because of the water in their pores or
absorbed in their interstitial clay.
For the purposes of our discussions we will
divide substances into two general categories,
conductors or insulators.
Conductors are substances which pass electrical current e.g. water, shales, mud. Insulators
are substances which do not allow electrical
current flow e.g. hydrocarbons, or rock matrix.
The measured resistivity of a formation depends on:
- Resistivity of the formation water.
- Amount of water present.
- Pore structure geometry.
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance is the resistance measured between
(05/96) B-1
(05/96) B-2
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B1.2
FORMATION WATER
RESISTIVITY RW
As previously indicated, formation matrices
are insulators; thus a formations ability to
conduct electricity is a function of the connate
water in the formation. Several factors must be
considered:
- the volume of the water (porosity)
- the pore space arrangement (type of porosity)
- the temperature of the formation
- the salinity of the water.
a) Water Salinity
As salinity increases, more ions are available
to conduct electricity so Rw (water resistivity)
decreases.
b) Water Temperature
As water temperature is raised, ionic mobility
increases and resistivity decreases. Chart Gen-9
(Figure B2) in the Log Interpretation Chart
Book, illustrates these relationships.
c) Water Volume
As water filled pore space in a rock is increased, resistivity decreases. If some water is
displaced by hydrocarbons (insulators), water
saturation decreases; resistivity increases.
B1.3
FORMATION RESISTIVITY
MEASUREMENTS
If we consider a formation whose pore space
contains only water, its true resistivity is called
Ro. We know that an important relationship
exists between formation resistivity and the resistivity of the saturating water - Rw. The ratio
of these two values, F, is called Formation Resistivity Factor, or more commonly Formation
Factor, which is a constant; where:
F = Ro / R w
For example, if the salinity of the connate
water increases, Rw will decrease. This will in
turn allow current to flow more easily through
the formation, thus lowering Ro and maintaining F at a constant value. This is what we
should expect as F is an inherent formation
characteristic.
Formation factor can be related to formation
porosity by the general formula:
F = a / m
where
a = constant
m = cementation factor
(05/96) B-3
Chart GEN-9
Figure B2
(05/96) B-4
Schlumberger
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B1.4 TO SUMMARIZE
1. Dry rock formation is an insulator.
2. Formations conduct current because of
water in the pore spaces.
3. Knowledge of water resistivity (Rw) is
essential for log interpretation.
4. Resistivity used rather than resistance.
5. Formation Resistivity Factor (F) is a
porosity related formation characteristic.
6. Relationships:
a. F = (Rt / Rw) = (Ro / Rw)
100% water saturated porous rock
b. F = a / m
7. Symbols:
Rw - resistivity of connate water.
Rt - true formation resistivity.
Rxo - resistivity of flushed zone.
a - a constant.
m - cementation factor.
B1.5
Rxo
(for clean formations only)
Plotting Rxo as a function of radial
depth into the formation yields Figure
B4.
2. Transition Zone. Further from the borehole the flushing action of the mud
filtrate may create a variety of situations. If the flushing proceeds as a
uniform front, we call this a step profile of invasion (Figure B5a). If the
intermingling of formation fluids is
very gradual, we would call this a
transition zone (Figure B5b). Sometimes in oil or gas bearing formations,
where the mobility of hydrocarbons is
greater than the connate water, the oil
or gas move out leaving an annular
zone filled with connate water (Figure
B5c). If Rmf > Rw, then the annular
zone will have a resistivity lower than
Rxo and Rt and may cause a pessimistic
saturation calculation.
(05/96) B-5
Chart GEN-3
Figure B3
(05/96) B-6
Schlumberger
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water resistivity Rw, and water saturation Sw. Plotting Rxo, Ri and Rt as a
function of invasion:
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure B5
(05/96) B-7
B1.6
SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
(SP) CURVE
a) Introduction
The SP curve is a continuous recording (versus depth) of the difference in potential between a moveable electrode in the borehole
and a fixed (zero) potential surface electrode.
Units used are millivolts.
The SP was discovered quite by accident in
the very early days of electrical logging. In
some of the first test wells logged by Schlumberger using the point-by-point technique, it
was noted that a small natural potential was
present in the well even when the current
source was turned off. This spontaneous potential is due to a combination of two phenomena: an Electrokinetic potential usually
negligible, and an Electrochemical potential
composed of a membrane potential and a liquid-junction potential. The membrane potential is about five times bigger than the liquidjunction potential.
(05/96) B-8
b) Electrokinetic Potential
If a solution is forced, by differential pressure, to flow through a membrane, an electrical potential will appear across the membrane
(Figure B6). A similar situation occurs when
the mud filtrate flows through the mudcake
because of the differential pressure between
the mud column and the formation. This electrokinetic potential (Ekmc) is generally very
small.
In a very low permeability formation, where
the mudcake is only partially built up, this
electrokinetic potential may be as high as 20
mV. This situation is, however, very rare and
in general the total electrokinetic potential can
be neglected.
c) Electrochemical Potential
This potential is created by the contact of
two solutions of different salinity, either by a
direct contact or through a semi-permeable
membrane like shales.
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1) Membrane Potential
An ideal cationic membrane due to its physico-chemical composition is permeable to positive ions (cations) only. Shales are ideal
membranes as long as they are not too sandy or
too limy. In a borehole, a shale section usually
separates salty water (generally the connate water of the virgin zone) from a less salty liquid
(generally the mud) (Figure B7). There is migration of the positive ions (Na+) from the salty
water (formation) to the less salty water (mud).
When an equilibrium is reached:
- positive ions that have already crossed
the shale membrane exert a repelling
force on the positive ions in the mud.
- negative ions left behind in the formation exert an attractive force on the
positive ions which cannot travel any
more into the shale.
where:
amf and aw are the electro-chemical activities of mud filtrate and connate water.
2) Liquid Junction Potential
The liquid junction potential takes place at the
boundary between the flushed zone and the virgin zone. There is no shale separating the two
solutions. Anions as well as cations can transfer from one solution to the other (Figure B8)
because of the higher salinity of the formation
water, both cations Na+ and anions Cl- will migrate towards the mud filtrate. The Na+ ion is
comparatively large and drags 4.5 molecules of
water. The Cl- ion is smaller and drags only 2.5
molecules of water. Hence, the anion Cl- will
migrate more easily than the Na+ ions.
The difference of potential appearing between the two solutions is given by the formula:
Em = K Log
amf
aw
(05/96) B-9
Schlumberger
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amf
aw
(05/96) B-11
g) Solution of Rw from SP
Because of its dependence on Rmf and Rw, the
magnitude of SP deflection enables us to solve
for the Rw of the formation when Rmf is known.
This method, when applied in clean matrix, is
generally accurate.
1. From log heading, get Rmf at surface
temperature.
2. Convert Rmf to formation temperature
using chart Gen-9 (Figure B12).
3. Convert Rmf at formation temperature
to Rmfe using:
Rmfe = .85 x Rmf. (approximation)
If Rmf is below .03 ohm-metre or above
1.5 ohm-metre @ formation temperature, use chart SP-2 (Figure B12) to
get Rmfe.
4. Calculate static SP from log at zone of
interest.
5. Enter chart SP-1(Figure B11) with
static SP, formation temperature and
Rmfe to get Rwe at formation temperature.
6. Enter chart SP-2 (Figure B12) with Rwe
and formation temperature to get Rw.
(05/96) B-12
Schlumberger
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SP-1
Figure B11
(05/96) B-13
SP-2m
Figure B12
(05/96) B-14
Schlumberger
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B2.0
Measurement of Rt by
Induction Principles
Non-Conductive Boreholes
- including Fresh Mud Systems, Invert
Mud Systems and Air-filled holes.
a. Dual Induction - SFL (No
longer in service)
b. Phasor Dual Induction - SFL
c. Array Induction Imager
2.
Conductive Boreholes
- including Saline to Salt Saturated Mud
Systems
a. Dual Laterolog
B2.1
INDUCTION LOGGING
PRINCIPLES
The induction logging tool was originally developed to measure formation resistivity in boreholes containing oil-base muds and in airdrilled boreholes. Electrode devices did not
work in these nonconductive muds, and attempts to use wall-scratcher electrodes were
unsatisfactory.
Experience soon demonstrated that the induction log had many advantages when used for
logging wells drilled with water-base muds.
Designed for deep investigation, induction logs
can be focused in order to minimize the influences of the borehole, the surrounding formations, and the invaded zone.
Principle
Todays induction tools have many transmitter and receiver coils. However, the principle
can be understood by considering a sonde with
only one transmitter coil and one receiver coil
(see Figure B13).
A high-frequency alternating current of constant intensity is sent through a transmitter coil.
The alternating magnetic field created induces
currents in the formation surrounding the borehole. These currents flow in circular ground
loops coaxial with the transmitter coil and
create, in turn, a magnetic field that induces a
voltage in the receiver coil.
Because the alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant frequency and amplitude, the ground loop currents are directly proportional to the formation conductivity. The
voltage induced in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore, to the conductivity of the formation.
(05/96) B-15
B2.2
(05/96) B-16
Schlumberger
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The SFL device is able to preserve the spherical potential distribution in the formation over
a wide range of wellbore variables, even when
a conductive borehole is present. To accomplish this, the SFL device is composed of two
separate, and more or less independent, current
systems (Figure B14). The bucking current
system serves to plug the borehole and establish the equipotential spheres. The io survey
current system causes an independent survey
current to flow through the volume of investigation; the intensity of this current is proportional to formation conductivity.
Medium Induction (ILM) - depending on the invasion diameter and profile the ILM may be influenced by
Rxo or Rt zones ... or both. (Radial
Distance 60-80 cm.)
Deep Induction (ILD) - is mostly affected by Rt, unless invasion is very
deep.
Either or both induction
curves may be influenced if an annulus is present. (Radial Distance 1.21.5 m.)
(05/96) B-17
Figure B15
(05/96) B-18
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Schlumberger
a) Log Presentation
a. Logarithmic: A 1:240 scale is presented with resistivity curves on a logarithmic scale. This is the preferred
presentation for log analysis. (Figure
B15)
b. Log-Lin: Here the 1:600 scale
presents two resistivity curves, the
SFL (averaged) and the ILD on the linear resistivity scale. Also included is
the equivalent ILD conductivity
curve. This presentation is primarily
for correlation purposes. Both presentations are recorded simultaneously.
b) Tool Characteristics and Applications
1. The Dual Induction SFL is most effective when used in holes drilled
with moderately conductive mud, e.g.
where Rmf / Rw > 2.5 .
2. Vertical Focusing is good, reliable
values of Rt may be obtained where
bed thickness is > 4.0 metres.
3. Since this tool actually measures formation conductivity and converts the
values to resistivity, results are most
accurate in zones of low resistivity.
4. The recording of three curves which
investigate different amounts of formation volume enable us to study invasion profiles, and where invasion is
deep, make correction to obtain Rt.
5. Since the two Induction devices produce their signals by inducing a magnetic field in the formation, they can
be run in air drilled wells or wells
drilled with non-conductive mud.
(The SFL requires a conductive mud
path to the formation and cannot be
presented). A Gamma Ray curve is
usually recorded in place of the SP.
(05/96) B-20
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
Figure B16
(05/96) B-21
Rint-2c
Figure B17
(05/96) B-22
Schlumberger
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(05/96) B-23
(05/96) B-24
b) Log Presentation
The same presentation format is used for
both generations of induction tools. The two
logs can be identified by the following differences (Figure B19):
1. Deep Induction (IDPH) - the log inserts use the IDPH acronym to identify Phasor processing.
2. Medium Induction (IMPH) - the log
inserts use the IMPH acronym to
identify Phasor processing.
3. There is a hash mark up the right side
of the depth track.
c) Tool Characteristics, Improvements,
and Applications
1. Phasor Induction - SFL can be most
effectively used in holes filled with
moderately conductive mud, nonconductive mud, and air drilled
holes.
2. Vertical focusing is good and gives
reliable values of Rt for beds thicker
than 2.5 metres with no shoulder bed
corrections required.
3. Measures low resistivities accurately.
4. Recording of three focused resistivity
logs, which investigate different volumes of formation.
5. Reliable for resistivities up to 1000
ohm-m versus 250 ohm-m with normal Induction tool.
6. Gives accurate readings in boreholes
up to 66 cm in diameter (Rt/Rm <
1000).
7. Operates at varying transmitter frequencies to improve signal to noise
ratios.
8. Uses digital transmission techniques
to improve accuracy of calibration
and measurement.
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
Metres
Feet/Inches
1.58
0.79
0.41
62 inches
31 inches
16 inches
1.22
0.66
041
48 inches
26 inches
16 inches
2.
At 0.1 ohm-m ho- ID
mogeneous forma- IM
tion
SFL
IDPH
IMPH
IDER*
IMER
IDVR#
IMVR
SFL
2.46
1.85
0.92
0.92
0.61
0.61
0.61
8 feet
6 feet
3 feet
3 feet
2 feet
2 feet
2 feet
(05/96) B-25
Figure B19
(05/96) B-26
Schlumberger
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These charts (Rint-11) apply to the Phasor Induction tool when operated at a frequency of 20 kHz. Similar charts
(not presented here) are available for tool operation at 10 kHz and 40 kHz.
The 20 kHz charts do provide, however, reasonable approximations of R xo/Rt and Rt/RIDPH for tool operation at 10
kHz and 40 kHz when only moderately deep invasion exists (less than 100 inches).
All Phasor* Induction invasion correction charts are applicable to Enhanced Resolution Logging (ERL*) and Enhanced Resolution Analysis (ERA*) presentation.
Rint-11a
Figure B20
(05/96) B-27
(05/96) B-28
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
B3.0
Measurement of Rt
by Laterolog Principles
(05/96) B-29
b) Log Presentation
The DLL-MSFL presentation is very
similar to the Phasor Induction. Differences include expanded resistivity
scale (0.2-200,000 ohm-m) and the
addition of Gamma Ray and Caliper
(if MSFL is used). See log in Figure
B23.
c) Tool Characteristics and
Applications
1. The Dual Laterolog performs most
effectively in saline mud (high Rt/Rm
ratios) or where Rmf/Rw < 2.5. (Figure
B22)
2. The tool has an excellent resistivity
range; by utilizing a unique design,
resistivity resolution from 0.2 to
40,000 ohm-m is possible.
(05/96) B- 30
Schlumberger
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Figure B23
(05/96) B-31
(05/96) B- 32
d) Limitations
1. The tools should not be used in fresh
muds (Rmf/Rw > 2.5.)
2. The tools requires good centralization to minimize borehole influence
on the LLs.
3. If invasion is deep, a good value of
Rxo (e.g. from a Micro-Spherically
Focused Log) is required to correct
LLd for invasion influence to obtain
an accurate value of Rt.
Correction Charts are available for the influence of:
- borehole (diameter and mud resistivity).
- invasion. (Chart Rint-9b)
- bed thickness.
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
Rint-9b
Figure B24
(05/96) B-33
Schlumberger
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B4.0
Measurement of Rxo by
Micro-resistivity Principles
B4.1 INTRODUCTION
As has been mentioned, a measurement of
flushed zone resistivity, Rxo, is an important
input when attempting to define invasion diameter. Since the flushed zone may only extend a few centimetres from the borehole, a
shallow reading device is required. Such tools
are the Microlog, Microlaterolog, Proximity
log and the Micro-Spherically Focused Log.
All are pad type devices which are pressed
against the borehole wall to make their measurements.
Today, the Microlog and Micro-Spherically
Focused Log are completely combinable with
all main logging services. The Microlaterolog
and Proximity log have been discontinued due
to their limitations in design, hence explanations of their measurements are not provided.
Another service, the Electromagnetic Propagation Tool, also provides an excellent Rxo measurement. This service is an advanced device
and will not be discussed in this book. For
more information, refer to Schlumberger Log
Interpretation Applications/Principles.
(05/96) B-35
B4.2 MICROLOG
With the microlog tool, two short-spaced
devices with different depths of investigation
provide resistivity measurements of a very
small volume of mudcake and formation immediately adjoining the borehole.
Comparison of the two curves readily identifies mudcake, which indicates invaded and,
therefore, permeable formations.
a) Principle
The rubber microlog pad is pressed against
the borehole wall by arms and springs (Figure
B25). The face of the pad has three small inline electrodes spaced 1 inch (2.5 centimetres)
apart. With these electrodes a 1 by 1 inch microinverse (R1"x1") and a 2 inch (5.1 centimetres) micronormal (R2") measurement are recorded simultaneously. The currents emitted
from these electrodes are totally unfocused
and hence flow by the path of least resistance
(Figure B26).
(05/96) B-36
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
Figure B27
(05/96) B-37
Under favourable circumstances the microlog can be used to obtain Rxo but it is generally
considered a good qualitative indicator of
permeability, rather than an Rxo measurement.
b) Microlog Limitations
- Rxo/Rmc must be less than about 15.
- Mudcake thickness < 1.2 cm
- Depth of Flushing > 10 cm, otherwise the microlog readings are affected by Rt.
The second improvement is in the tools response to shallow Rxo zones in the presence of
mudcake. The chief limitation of the Microlaterolog measurement was its sensitivity to
mudcakes. When mudcake thickness exceeded
about 3/8 inch, the log readings were severely
influenced at high Rxo/Rmc contrasts. The Proximity log, on the other hand, was relatively
insensitive to mudcakes, but it required an invaded zone diameter of about 100 cm in order
to provide direct approximations of Rxo.
(05/96) B-38
Synthetic microlog curves can also be computed from MicroSFL parameters. Since the
measure current sees mostly the flushed zone
and the bucking current sees primarily the
mudcake, it is possible to mathematically derive micronormal and microinverse curves.
Schlumberger
Schlumberger
a) MicroSFL Limitations
- depth of flushing > 12 cm.
- mud cake thickness < 1.2 cm.
- radial investigation 10 cm.
b) MicroSFL Applications
- Identification of permeable zones.
- An excellent value of Rxo from the
MSFL provides a quick look over-lay
technique for comparison with an Rt
curve after being normalized in a
100% Sw zone. After normalization
when curves separate, moved hydrocarbon is indicated.
- Sw determination using Rxo and Rt
values provide an independent lithology-free check on other methods. It
should be noted that the use of this
system in fresh muds where deep invasion is present, should be approached with caution.
(05/96) B-39
Example:
Rxo-3
Figure B29
(05/96) B-40
Contents
C1.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................................................... 1
C2.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE BHC SONIC TOOL.......................................................... 3
C2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 3
C2.2 POROSITY DETERMINATION .......................................................................................................... 4
C2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC INTERPRETATION: ....................................................................... 7
C3.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE LITHO-DENSITY TOOL ................................................. 11
C3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 11
C3.2 PRINCIPLE....................................................................................................................................... 11
C3.3 POROSITY FROM A DENSITY LOG ............................................................................................... 13
C3.4 LITHOLOGY FROM THE PE MEASUREMENT ............................................................................... 17
C3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY LOG:......................................................................................... 20
C4.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL .............................. 21
C4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 21
C4.2 PRINCIPLE ....................................................................................................................................... 21
C4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CNL LOGS ................................................................................................ 23
C5.0 TOTAL POROSITY DETERMINATION ................................................................................................ 29
C6.0 GR LOG ................................................................................................................................................. 31
C6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 31
C6.2 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS ................................................................................................... 31
C6.3 NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY TOOL ........................................................................ 34
C7.0 BOREHOLE GEOMETRY BY CALIPER MEASUREMENT ................................................................. 37
C7.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................ 37
Single-Arm Caliper Configuration .......................................................................................................... 40
Two-Arm Caliper Configurations ............................................................................................................ 40
Three-Arm Caliper Configurations ......................................................................................................... 41
Four-Arm Caliper Configuration ............................................................................................................. 41
C8.0 WORK SESSION ................................................................................................................................... 43
(05/96)
(05/96)
C1.0
Porosity Measurements
C1.1 INTRODUCTION
Total porosity may consist of primary and
secondary porosity. Effective porosity is the
total porosity after the shale correction is applied. Rock porosity can be obtained from the
sonic log, density log or neutron log. For all
these devices, the tool response is affected by
the formation porosity, fluid and matrix. If the
fluid and matrix effects are known or can be
determined, the tool response can be determined and related to porosity. Therefore,
these devices are usually referred to as porosity logs.
(05/96) C-1
(05/96) C-2
(C1)
tLOG tma
or
(C2)
tf tma
(05/96) C-4
where
tLOG is the reading on the sonic log in
sec/m
tma is the transit time of the matrix material
tf is the transit time of the saturating fluid (about 620 sec/m for freshwater mud systems)
= 182 sec/m
= 156 sec/m
= 143 sec/m
= 164 sec/m
t - tma
SVcor =
tf - tma
(C3)
CP
(C4)
tLOG
(05/96) C-6
Raymer-Hunt (approximation):
5(352 - 182)
=
30%
8(352)
Chart Por-3m (Figure C6) solves this equation graphically. Enter tlog of 352 sec/m on
abscissa and project upward until the appropriate tma line is reached (Vma= 5500 m/sec).
If different values of Vma are used, we get different values of .
With a tlog = 250sec/m we would get
352 - 182
=
39%
620 - 182
Vma
Vma
(m/sec)
tma
( sec/m)
Sandstone
5486
182
Vma (m/sec)
Range of
Values
54865944
Limestone
6400
156
64007010
Dolomites
7010
143
70107925
Anhydrite
6096
164
6100
Salt
4572
219
4566
Casing (iron)
5334
187
5348
Wyllie
F
RaymerHunt
F
16%
21%
26%
18.5%
24%
28.5%
(05/96) C-7
EXAMPLE:
Sandstones
Limestones
Dolomites
SVma (ft/S)
18,000 - 19,500
21,000 - 23,000
23,000 - 26,000
tma (s/ft)
55.5 - 51.3
47.6 - 43.5
43.5 - 38.5
Por-3m
Figure C6
(05/96) C-8
SVma (m/s)
5486 - 5944
6400 - 7010
7010 - 7925
tma (s/m)
182 - 168
156 - 143
143 - 126
Fluid Type
The depth of investigation of the sonic is
shallow; therefore, most of the fluid seen by
the sonic will be mud filtrate.
Oil
Oil usually has no effect.
Water
There is usually no effect from water except
where the drilling fluid is salt saturated, and
then a different Vf should be used, usually 607
sec/m.
Gas
Residual gas causes tlog to read too high
when the formation is uncompacted. The gas
between the sand grains slows down the compressional wave resulting in a long t. In
compacted sands, the wave will travel from
one sand grain to another and the gas effect
will be reduced.
Compaction
The value of tlog will read too high in uncompacted sand formations. Compaction corrections can be made if the compaction factor
(Bcp) is known.
(05/96) C-9
(05/96) C-10
3 occur with respect to Litho-Density operation. These gamma rays may be thought of as
high-velocity particles that collide with the
electrons in the formation. At each collision, a
gamma ray loses some, but not all, of its energy to the electron and then continues with diminished energy. This type of interaction is
known as Compton scattering. The scattered
gamma rays reaching the detector, at a fixed
distance from the source, are counted as an
indication of formation density.
The number of Compton-scattering collisions is related directly to the number of electrons in the formation. Consequently, the response of the density tool is determined
essentially by the electron density (number of
electrons per cubic centimeter) of the formation. Electron density is related to the true
bulk density b, which, in turn, depends on the
density of the rock matrix material, formation
porosity and density of the fluids filling the
pores.
(low-energy GR)
(Z)
In addition to the bulk density measurement, the tool also measures the photoelectric
absorption index of the formation, Pe. Photelectric absorption can be related to lithology;
whereas the b measurement responds primarily to porosity and secondarily to rock matrix
and pore fluid, the Pe measurement responds
primarily to rock matrix (lithology) and secondarily to porosity and pore fluid.
At a finite distance from the source, such as
the far detector, the energy spectrum may look
as illustrated in Figure C9. The number of
gamma rays in the higher energy region (region of Compton scattering) is inversely related only to the electron density of the formation (i.e., an increase in the formation density
decreases the number of gamma rays). The
number of gamma rays in the lower energy
region (region of photoelectric effect) is inversely related to both the electron density
and the photoelectric absorption. By comparing the counts in these two regions, the photoelectric absorption index can be determined.
The gamma ray spectrum at the near detector is used only to correct the density measurement from the far detector for the effects
of mudcake and borehole rugosity.
7m
4.5 m
E (keV)
(05/96) C-12
ma
(1
ma b
D =
ma fl
where:
ma depends on lithology
b is measured by the density log
fl depends on fluid type in pore
volumes.
= 28.5%
Chart Por-5 (Figure C14) solves this equation graphically. For b = 2180 kg/m3 solving
for porosity using other matrix values gives:
ma = 2710 kg/m3
D = 31%
ma = 2870 kg/m3
D = 36.9%
(05/96) C-13
Formula
Actual
Density
a
(as seen by
tool)
Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Sylvite
Halite
SiO2
CaCO3
CaCO3MgCO3
CaSO4
KCI
NaCI
2654
2710
2870
2960
1984
2165
2648
2710
2876
2977
1863
2032
Compound
Formula
Actual
Density
a
(as seen by
tool)
Fresh Water
Salt Water
Oil
Gas
H2O
200,00ppm
n(CH2)
C1.1 H4.2
1000
1146
850
g
1000
1135
850
1.325 g-0188
Figure C12
(05/96) C-14
Figure C13
(05/96) C-15
Bulk density, b, as recorded with the FDC* or LDT density logs, is converted to porosity with this chart. To use,
bulk density, corrected for borehole size, is entered in abscissa; go to the appropriate reservoir rock type and read
porosity on the appropriate fluid density, f. scale in ordinate. (f is the density of the fluid saturating the rock immediately surrounding the borehole - usually mud filtrate.)
EXAMPLE: b = 2.31 Mg/m3 in limestone lithology
ma = 2.71 (limestone)
f = 1.1 (salt mud)
Therefore D = 25 pu
Por-5
Figure C14
(05/96) C-16
Pe
Typical Litho-Density responses for common minerals are presented in Figure C16.
The Pe measurement is used
1. alone as a matrix indicator (the lithology curve)
2. in combination with density b to analyze two-mineral matrices and determine porosity
t
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0
Figure C15: Photoelectric Absorption Index as a Function of Porosity and Fluid Content
(05/96) C-17
(05/96) C-18
(05/96) C-19
C3.5
Lithology
The correct ma must be known to get correct porosity.
Shale
The density of shale in sands can range from
2200 to 2650 but is usually close to 2650, the
same as sandstone. In shaly sands, the density
usually gives a good value of effective porosity regardless of the shale content. The shale
appears as matrix to the density tool.
b = f e + ma (1 e Vsh) + shVsh
collecting terms:
b = f e) + ma(1 e) + Vsh (sh ma)
if sh = ma , the last term is zero.
Fluid Type
The depth of investigation is quite shallow:
usually most of the formation fluid is flushed
away from the wellbore and the density tool
sees drilling fluid or filtrate in the pore space.
Hence, the values of f to use is that of the
drilling mud filtrate rather than the formation
water density.
Oil
Residual oil will make density porosities
slightly high, because oil is lighter than drilling mud filtrate.
(05/96) C-20
Water
Water density is proportional to the amount
of salt content. The value of f is selected in
the computer for porosity determination.
Gas
The f of gas is 100300 kg/m3. Porosity
determination in gas zones may be high if
there is residual gas near the borehole. Usually most of the gas is flushed and little effect is
seen on the density log.
Compaction
The density tool is unaffected by lack of
compaction.
Secondary Porosity
The density reads intercrystalline, vugular
and fractured porosity. The porosity measured
is therefore total porosity.
Borehole Effect
Density gives good values for smooth holes
up to 381 mm in diameter. The tool compensates for minor borehole rugosity, but a rough
hole causes the density to read too low densities (high porosities) because the skid-toformation contact is poor.
Mudcake
For normal mudcake thickness, there will be
no effect because the tool automatically compensates for mudcake.
However for a correction of 100 kg/m3
and greater (i.e., > 100 kg/m3), the tool
compensation may be insufficient and the b
no longer representative of the formation density. In this case, the density should obviously
not be used for porosity calculations.
C4.2 PRINCIPLE
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles,
each with a mass almost identical to the mass
of a hydrogen atom. High-energy (fast) neutrons are continuously emitted from a radioactive source in the sonde. These neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation materials
in what may be thought of as elastic billiardball collisions. With each collision, the neutron loses some of its energy.
The amount of energy lost per collision depends on the relative mass of the nucleus with
which the neutron collides. A greater energy
loss occurs when the neutron strikes a nucleus
of practically equal mass (i.e., a hydrogen
nucleus). Collisions with heavy nuclei do not
slow the neutron much. Thus, the slowing of
neutrons depends largely on the amount of
hydrogen in the formation.
Within a few microseconds, the neutrons
have been slowed by successive collisions to
thermal velocities, corresponding to energies
of about 0.025 eV. They then diffuse randomly, without losing more energy, until they are
captured by the nuclei of atoms such as chlorine, hydrogen or silicon.
The capturing nucleus becomes intensely
excited and emits a high-energy gamma ray of
capture.
(09.95) C-
22
sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) tools (in limited use) and the CNL tool series, which
includes the compensated neutron and DNL*
Dual-Energy Neutron Log. The current tools
use americium-beryllium (AmBe) sources to
provide neutrons with initial energies of several million electron volts.
1) SNP
- detects epithermal neutrons
- utilizes a skid mounted single detector
- can be run in open hole only, either
liquid-filled or empty
- most corrections are automatically applied during logging
- limited availability.
(05/96) C-23
2) CNL tool
detects thermal neutrons
- The CNL tool uses a two-detector system that depth and resolution matches
each count rate before the ratio is
computed. The ratio value is then
converted to porosity on a linear scale
(Figure C20), based on the matrix selected for the computation (limestone,
sandstone or dolomite).
- Conversion from one porosity assumption to another can be done using Chart Por-13b (Figure C22). Por13b converts curves labelled "NPHI"
that are not environmentally corrected
and also converts for curves labelled
"TNPH" and "NPOR," which are environmentally corrected.
- The CNL tool is especially designed
for use in combination with other devices.
- The CNL tool can be run in liquidfilled holes, either open or cased, but
not empty holes (i.e., air- or gas-filled
holes.)
3) DNL tool
detects thermal and epithermal neutrons
- The DNL tool incorporates two epithermal neutron detectors in addition
to the two thermal neutron detectors.
Two separate porosity measurements
are obtained, one from each pair of
detectors.
- Improves the response to gas and enhances interpretation in the presence
of thermal neutron absorbers.
- In shaly formations containing a large
number of thermal neutron absorbers,
the porosity measured by the epithermal detectors reads lower and agrees
(05/96) C-24
Lithology
A single known matrix must be present to
accurately determine porosities. Large errors
can occur if the matrix selection is incorrect.
Shale
The presence of hydrogen in chemically
bound water causes the CNL/DNL tool to
read high porosities in shales or shaly formations.
Fluid Type
Water: Fresh water has no effects. Saline
water has a reduced hydrogen content and the
CNL/DNL tool will read low porosity; the
correction is in the chart book.
Liquid Hydrocarbons: If the hydrogen content is close to that of water, there is little or
no effect.
Gas: If the hydrogen concentration is low,
the CNL/DNL tool reads low porosity.
Compaction
All neutron logs are unaffected by compaction.
Figure: C20
(05/96) C-25
Secondary Porosity
All neutron equipment measures total porosity (including primary and secondary).
Borehole Effect
The effects of rough hole are minimized by
a large depth of investigation obtained by the
use of a high-yield source and the twodetector system.
When run in combination with the density
tool, an automatic caliper correction system is
accurate to [356 mm]. Normally there is zero
standoff correction.
(05/96) C-26
Mudcake
Corrections for mudcake, fluid (mud and
formation) salinity, mud weight, pressure and
temperature are in Charts Por-14(a) and 14(b),
in the Log Interpretation Chart Book, but are
not discussed in this course.
The average net correction is usually between one and three porosity units. Hence, for
calculations by hand, the correction is usually
not done.
When the SNP or CNL log is recorded in limestone porosity units, this chart is used to find porosity in sandstones or
dolomites. For the SNP log, first correct for mudcake thickness. (Chart Por-15 is used for SNP mudcake
corrections.)
For the CNL log, simply enter the chart in abscissa with the apparent limestone neutron porosity; go to the appropriate
matrix line, and read true porosity on the ordinate. (Chart Por-14 is used for CNL environmental
corrections.)
EXAMPLE: Sandstone bed
Giving, hmc = 1/4 in.
SNP = 13 pu (apparent limestone porosity)
SNP = 11 pu (corrected for mudcake)
Bit Size = 77/8 in.
And, SNP (sandstone) = 14 pu
SNP caliper = 75/8 in.
This chart can also be used to find apparent limestone porosity (needed for entering the various CP-crossplot charts) if
the SNP or CNL recording is in sandstone or dolomite porosity units. This chart should be used for CNL values labeled
NPHIit should not be used for CNL values labeled TNPH or NPOR.
Por-13a
Figure C21
(05/96) C-27
*Mark of Schlumberger
Por-13b
Figure C22
(05/96) C-28
N + D
T =
(05/96) C-29
Figure C23: Porosity Comparison between the LDT, CNT and SLT
(05/96) C-30
C6.0 GR Log
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The GR log is a measurement of the natural
radioactivity of the formations. In sedimentary
formations the log normally reflects the shale
content of the formations. This is because the
radioactive elements tend to concentrate in
clays and shales. Clean formations usually
have a very low level of radioactivity, unless
radioactive contaminant such as volcanic ash
or granite wash is present or the formation
waters contain dissolved radioactive salts.
"Clean"
Formation
Sands
Limestones
Dolomites
GR Reading
15 to 30 API
10 to 20 API
8 to 15 API
(05/96) C-31
In passing through matter, gamma rays experience successive Compton-scattering collisions with atoms of the formation material,
losing energy with each collision. After the
gamma ray has lost enough energy, it is absorbed, by means of the photoelectric effect,
by an atom of the formation. Thus, natural
gamma rays are gradually absorbed and their
energies degraded (reduced) as they pass
through the formation. The rate of absorption
varies with formation density. Two formations with the same amount of radioactive ma-
(05/96) C-32
terial per unit volume, but with different densities, will show different radioactivity levels;
the less dense formations will appear slightly
more radioactive. (Figure C25).
GR uses:
1. definition of shale beds
2. indicator of shale content
3. detection of radioactive and nonradioactive minerals
4. identification of formation tops.
6.3
Figure C26: Potassium, Thorium and Uranium Response Curves (NAl Crystal Detector)
(05/96) C-34
Figure C27
(05/96) C-35
Applications:
- identification of radioactive sands that
may be misinterpreted as shales
- identification of different types of
shales/clays (see Figure C28)
- depth correlation (same as GR)
- complex lithology analysis.
(05/96) C-36
No. of
Arms
Phasing of the
Arms (Degrees)
Sonic tool
120
Microlog tool
Micro-SFL tool
(option A)
Micro-SFL tool
(option B)
90
Density tool
Dipmeters
90
Borehole Geometry
tool
90
Dual Axis
180
Caliper tool
Maximum Diameter
Remarks
3 arms coupled
1 reading
1 arm
1 reading
1 arm
1 reading
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 paired readings
1 arm
1 reading
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 independent readings
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 independent readings
2 arms coupled
1 reading
Figure C29: Caliper Specifications for Different Devices Stated on the Logs
(09/95) C-
38
(05/96) C-39
(05/96) C-41
(05/96) C-42
(05/96) C-43
600 m
a. RILD
b. Rt
c. t
d. S
e. D
f. N
2. Using the sonic log of Figure C34, calculate the sonic porosity at 586 m.
tf = 620 sec/m
tma = 182 sec/m
t - tma
s =
=
tf - tma
t - tma)
s =
=
t
s Wyllie Time-Average =
s Field Observation =
(05/96) C-44
3a. On the CNTLitho-Density log of Figure C35, what effect is seen at 1941 to 1946 m?
(05/96) C-45
Figure C32
(05/96) C-46
Figure C33
(05/96) C-47
Figure C34
(05/96) C-48
Figure C35
(05/96) C-49
Contents
D1.0 BASIC QUICKLOOK INTERPRETATION .............................................................................................. 1
D1.1 QUICKLOOK METHODS ................................................................................................................... 1
D1.2 METHOD ONE: OVERLAY TECHNIQUE .......................................................................................... 1
D1.3 METHOD TWO: RWA TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................... 2
D1.4 METHOD THREE: DIRECT METHOD OF CALCULATING WATER
SATURATION FOR CLEAN ZONES ................................................................................................ 5
D2.0 WORK SESSION ..................................................................................................................................... 9
(05/96)
(05/96)
QUICKLOOK METHODS
constant Rw
thick, homogenous formation
continuous clean lithology
clean-water-bearing zone
moderate invasion and of step profile.
D1.2
METHOD ONE:
OVERLAY TECHNIQUE
(05/96) D-1
Rt
Rwa =
F
This value will represent Rw for the formation if the assumption that all zones are wet is
correct.
If the zones are not all at Sw = 100%, the
value of Rwa will vary depending upon the actual Sw of the formation.
If we select the minimum value of Rwa and
call it Rw, then we can make a comparison of
all calculated Rwa values against this Rwa (minimum) value through substitution into Archie's equation as follows:
FRw
Given S
2
w
2
w
Rt
FRw
If Sw = 100%, then
=
m Rt
Rt
Rt
Rwa =
Assume: Sw = 100%
FRw
then
or conversely, Rt = FRwa
=1
Rt
Rt
Substituting Rwa
for Rt yields
(minimum)
FRwa(minimum)
S
2
w
FRwa
Rwa(minimum)
or S
2
w
=
Rwa
(05/96) D-2
(05/96) D-3
Figure D1
(05/96) D-4
D1.4
n
w
PSP
=
Rt
aRw
=
SSP =
1-Vsh
where Vsh is from the GR.
d. Water Catalog: This is a summary of
DSTs and produced water samples.
Some countries have logging societies
that publish these catalogs.
F - Formation Factor
Formation factor may be obtained for Rxo
measurements (e.g., Micro-SFL Focused Log,
electromagnetic
propagation
resistivity
[EPR]).
mRt
By calculating suitable input parameters
we can solve these equations for water
saturation in shale-free zones.
Rw - Formation Water Resistivity
An accurate knowledge of Rw is essential but
often difficult to obtain. Rw values can be obtained from:
a. Production Water Samples: samples
should be collected prior to any chemical treatment; measure resistivity and
temperature of the sample.
b. Drillstem Tests (DSTs): if possible,
collect three samples, at top, middle
and bottom of the tool. Measure all
three resistivities and record temperatures. The sample with the lowest
value should be most representative
of Rw.
c. SP Log: if necessary, bed thickness
corrections, etc., should be made prior
to calculating Rw. (When shale is
present, the SSP may be estimated by
PSP).
Rxo
F =
Sxo2
Rmf
- Porosity
Porosity may be obtained from neutron,
density, sonic or a combination of these devices.
Rt - True Resistivity
True resistivity may be obtained from ILD,
IDPH or LLD; any borehole and invasion corrections should be applied to the raw readings
to obtain Rt.
Chart Sw-1a (Figure D2) is a convenient method of solving this formula. However, note
that the F versus relationship used is F =
1/2.
If any other relationship is used, F must be
calculated before entering the chart.
Remember, knowledge of formation water
resistivity is essential for making an accurate
interpretation.
(05/96) D-5
Saturation Determination
(Clean Formations - Humble Relationship)
R0
=
Rt
FrRw
Rt
It should be used in clean (nonshaly) formations only. If R0 (resistivity when 100% water saturated) is known, a straight
line from the known R0 value through the measured Rt value gives saturation, Sw. If R0 is known, it may be determined by connecting the formation water resistivity, Rw, with the formation resistivity factor, FR, or
porosity,
Example:
Rw =
=
Rt =
Thus, Sw
(05/96) D-6
Saturation Determination
(Clean Formations - m = 2)
R0
=
Rt
FrRw
Rt
It should be used in clean (nonshaly) formations only. If R0 (resistivity when 100% water saturated) is known, a straight
line from the known R0 value through the measured Rt value gives saturation, Sw. If R0 is known, it may be determined by connecting the formation water resistivity, Rw, with the formation resistivity factor, FR, or
porosity,
Example:
Rw =
=
Rt =
Thus, Sw
Chart Sw-1b
Figure D3
(05/96) D-7
(05/96) D-8
Contents
(05/96)
(05/96)
E1.0
Shaly Formations
E1.1 INTRODUCTION
Shales are one of the most important common constituents of rocks in log analysis.
Aside from their effects on porosity and permeability, this importance stems from their
electrical properties, which have a great influence on the determination of fluid saturations.
Archie's water saturation equation relating
formation resistivity to water saturation, assumes that formation water is the only electrically conductive material in the formation.
The presence of another conductive material
(e.g., shale) requires changes to either Archie's equation or the model relating resistivity
to water saturation. As well, the presence of
clay in the formation complicates the concept
of porosity. The water associated with the
clays can represent a significant amount of
porosity. However, this porosity is not available as a potential reservoir for hydrocarbons.
To this point, we have dealt with tool responses from our porosity devices that yield
total porosity T. At this time we have to introduce a new term, effective porosity, e,
which is that portion of the formation porosity
available to contain and produce fluids.
The presence of shale in formations generally affects the response of the logging devices.
In our discussions we usually speak of shaly
sands; however, the presence of shale in carbonates can often be treated in a similar manner.
As briefly mentioned before, we categorize
the distribution of shaly material in formations in three possible ways (see Figure E1):
1) Laminar Shale: occurs when shale exists in the form of laminae or thin layers between thin layers of sand. The
shale streaks do not actually influence
the effective porosity of the sand layers in the formation; however, as the
bulk volume of shale increases, the
overall formation porosity decreases.
The presence of the shale may have
considerable influence on the logging
tool responses.
2) Structural Shale: is defined as the
type of shale that exists as grains or
nodules in the formation matrix. It is
considered to have properties similar
to laminar shale.
(05/96) E-1
(05/96) E-2
E1.2
POROSITY IN SHALY
FORMATIONS
When a sand contains shale we cannot obtain an accurate value of effective porosity
from one porosity log. The responses of the
density and neutron logs to shale content in
sands is considered to be the same as in nearby bedded shales, no matter what model of
shale distribution is considered. On the other
hand, sonic logs have quite a different response between laminated-structural and dispersed shales.
a) Density Logs
- When shale and sand matrix densities
are close to each other, the density log
is least affected by shale and reads
close to the effective porosity.
- When the shale matrix density is less
than 2650 kg/m3 the density log in
shaly sands will record porosities
higher than the effective porosity.
- When shale matrix density is greater
than 2650 kg/m3, the density log in
the shaly sands will record porosities
lower then the effective porosity.
- The relationship for liquid-filled shaly
sands can be written as
c) Sonic Logs
- Sonic traveltime in shales rises because of the fluid content of the
shales; hence, sonic porosities in shaly formations are always higher than
the effective porosity. To further enable sonic porosity determination, we
must also know what shale model is
present, and also whether a compaction correction is necessary.
- In compacted formations with shales
present, a general sonic relationship
may be written as
(05/96) E-3
E1.3
EVALUATION OF
SHALE VOLUME (Vsh)
Basic methods of shale (clay) volume calculation use the following indicators:
- Gamma ray
- NGS tool
- Spontaneous potential
- N versus D crossplot
N versus S crossplot
a) Gamma Ray
If the radioactivity of the shale content is
constant and if no other mineral in the formation is radioactive, the gamma ray reading
may be expressed as a function of clay content.
The formula can be written as
GRzone GRclean
Vsh =
GRshale GRclean
(05/96) E-4
c) Chart Calculation
The linear equations in (a) and (b) of this
section are good first estimates of shale volume. Chart Vsh-1 (Figure E2) allows us to
correct for the non-linear relationship between
Vsh and the GR deflection denoted as x. Line
(1) is generally used, yielding good interpretation results.
(05/96) E-5
(05/96) E-6