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Introduction to Open Hole Logging

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Schlumberger
Wireline & Testing

May, 1996

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

May 1996

May 1996

May 1996

May 1996

May 1996

Schlumberger

Schlumberger

Schlumberger

Schlumberger

Schlumberger

Wireline & Testing

Wireline & Testing

Wireline & Testing

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Contents
A1.0 INTRODUCTION TO OPENHOLE LOG INTERPRETATION .................................. 1
A.1 USES OF LOGS ................................................................................................................................... 1

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY........................................................................................................ 2

A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION CONCEPTS ................................................................................... 4

A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE EQUATION............................ 5

A.5 DEFINITIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 7


a) Formation Porosity () ..................................................................................................................... 8
b) Formation Resistivity (R) ................................................................................................................. 8
c) Formation Factor (F) ........................................................................................................................ 8
d) Water Saturation: Sw ...................................................................................................................... 8
e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Shy) ......................................................................................................... 9
f) Clean Formations ............................................................................................................................. 9
g) Shaly Formations ............................................................................................................................. 9
h) Key Formulas ................................................................................................................................ 11
i) Key Symbols ................................................................................................................................... 11

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS ........................................................................................... 12

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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A1.0 Introduction to Openhole Log


Interpretation
A.1 USES OF LOGS
A set of logs run on a well will usually mean
different things to different people. Let us examine the questions askedand/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geophysicist:
Are the tops where you predicted?
Are the potential zones porous as you
have assumed from seismic data?
What does a synthetic seismic section
show?
The Geologist:
What depths are the formation tops?
Is the environment suitable for accumulation of hydrocarbons?
Is there evidence of hydrocarbons in this
well?
What type of hydrocarbons?
Are hydrocarbons present in commercial
quantities?
How good a well is it?
What are the reserves?
Could the formation be commercial in an
offset well?

The Drilling Engineer:


What is the hole volume for cementing?
Are there any keyseats or severe doglegs
in the well?
Where can you get a good packer seat for
testing?
Where is the best place to set a whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
How thick is the pay zone?
How homogeneous is the section?
What is the volume of hydrocarbons per
cubic meter?
Will the well pay-out?
How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
Where should the well be completed (in
what zone(s))?
What kind of production rate can be expected?
Will there be any water production?
How should the well be completed?
Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?
Will the well require any stimulation?
What kind of stimulation would be best?

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Log evaluation can be many things to many


people. As the answers are sought each individual will possibly use the available data in a
different manner. The common approach will
be in reading the logs and understanding the
various reactions produced by formation characteristics on our logging devices. The factors influencing log reading and the
information they provide are what we wish to
introduce to you in this course.
A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY
In order to better understand log responses,
we should first review the types of rocks that
are found in the boreholes.
Common sedimentary rocks are
sandstone, siltstone, shale, limestone,
dolomite and anhydrite
In general, sedimentary rocks are deposited
as either clastic sequences containing sandstone, siltstones and shales or carbonate sequences of limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and
shale. (Figure A1).
Clastic Deposition
Clastic rocks are formed from rock fragments and weathered particles of preexisting
rocks. These sediments are transported by
wind and water and are usually deposited in
rivers, lakes and oceans as relatively flat-lying
beds. Current and wave action later sorts the
sediments such that in high-energy environments coarse-grained sands are deposited and
in low energy environments fine-grained silts
and clays are deposited. The nature of the
deposition is such that crossbedding struc-

(05/96) A-2

tures, channel patterns and gradational rock


types are common. In areas of freshwater deposition coal beds may occur, indicating nonmarine conditions.
After deposition and with deeper burial of
the sequence, compaction occurs and the clastic grains can become cemented together to
form sedimentary rock.
Carbonate Deposition
Carbonate deposition occurs in marine conditions by the precipitation of limestone from
organisms as fine particles, shells or massive
growths. Limestones are deposited either as
flat-lying beds on the ocean floor or as
mounds or pinnacle reefs.
Barrier reef chains that grow in this manner
may form restricted ocean basins landward, in
which dolomite and anhydrite are precipitated
by the evaporation of seawater.
When limestones form near shore, there
may be mixing of limestone and eroded clastic material. In deeper ocean basins, limestone and shale mixtures are common.
After deposition, later burial may cause dolomitization of the limestone in which the actual composition of the rock is changed to
dolomite.
Because of their brittle nature compared
with other sediments, limestones tend to fracture with deformation, which increases permeability and helps in the dolomitization
process.

Figure A1: Clastic Deposition vs. Carbonate Deposition

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

In many parts of the world multiple sequences of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate sequences. Between each of the clastic
and carbonate groups, erosional inconformities
are common and the nature of deposition within each group is unique.
A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION
CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous
unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those that can be measured and are useful
will be considered in this course. They are
a.
b.

c.

porosity: the void space between


grains that is generally filled with
liquids or gases.
Sw = water saturation: the percentage
of the pore space filled with water (as
opposed to hydrocarbons or air).
R = resistivity: the resistance to electrical current flow presented by a unit
volume of rock.

d.

e.

RW = water resistivity: the electrical resistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
k = permeability: the ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.

Consider the following unit cubes (Figure


A2):
Cube A
If the porosity () is filled with water then,
by definition, the water saturation SW = 100%.
Cube B
If the porosity is 70% filled with water and
30% hydrocarbons, then, the water saturation
70
SW =

% = 70%
70 + 30

and hydrocarbons saturation

Cube A:
porosity = waterfilled
SW = 100%

Cube B:
porosity = hydrocarbons and
water in
SW = 70%

Figure A2

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Shy = 1 - Sw = 30%
Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
= Sw

The usefulness of resistivity logging rests on


the facts that
- water is a conductor (low resistivity)
- hydrocarbons and rocks are insulators
(high resistivity)
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A3):

For example: if = 20% and Sw = 70%, then


14% of the bulk volume is water and 70% of
the pore space is water filled.
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR
INTERPRETATIONTHE ARCHIE
EQUATION
In the previous section we introduced a
number of parameters used to evaluate rock
formations. If we could build on the effects of
resistivity in conjunction with the other parameters to develop a mathematical relationship,
we would have an extremely useful tool for
our work with potential hydrocarbon zones.

Cube C
The resistivity Rt of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (i.e. as Rw increases, Rt increases and vice versa).
Therefore: Rt Rw.

(1)

Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
Rt increases with decreasing porosity (i.e. as
decreases, Rt increases).

The remainder of this section is devoted to


developing such a formula.

Cube C
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 100%
- Sw = 100%

Cube D
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 100%

Cube E
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 70%

Figure A3

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Therefore: Rt 1/.

(2)

Rw
Ro

(5)

Cube E
Replace 30% of remaining porosity with
hydrocarbons. Resistivity Rt increases with
decreasing water saturation Sw (i.e. as Sw decreases, Rt increases).
Therefore: Rt 1/Sw.

(3)

By combining the above observations (1, 2


and 3), we can say
1
Rt Rw

Now, let F = constant of proportionality


defined as the formation factor.
Therefore: Ro = FRw
Ro
or F =

(6)
Rw

Returning to Equation 5 and introducing porosity as a variable, it is clear that

Now, let = 1, then Ro Rw .

Sw

1
F

or

Rw
Rt

(4)
Sw

To solve for the constants of proportionality


let us first limit the equation as follows:
Let Sw = 100% (i.e. there is no hydrocarbon present and the porosity is 100%
water filled).
Then, define Ro = Rt (ie: Ro is the wet resistivity of the formation for the condition Sw =
100%):

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This is intuitively obvious as the relationship between Ro and Rw is related to that particular unit cube of rock and its porosity
characteristics.
Through empirical measurements, it was determined that
a
F=

(7)

where
a = constant
m = cementation factor

The cementation factor m relates to the porosity type and how it will transmit electrical
current to the actual rock (also called tortuosity).

aRw
or S

n
w

(9)
Rt
m

Using the above equations


Recall Ro = FRw (Equation 6)
aRw
when Sw = 100%
m

Rt = Ro =
if Sw 100%, then
aRw

Rt

Sw

a) Formation Porosity ()
Defined as the fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids, where

or Rt Ro
Sw

pore volume

Ro
(8)
Rt
Through laboratory measurements, it was
found that this relationship (8) is dependent
on the saturation exponent n as
Ro
S

n
w

=
Rt
FRw

or Swn =

The remainder of this course is dedicated to


measuring, evaluating and using porosity and
resistivity to calculate water saturation and
hence hydrocarbons reserves using the concepts of this equation.
A.5 DEFINITIONS

or Sw

Equation 9 forms the Archie relationship


that is the basis for all conventional log interpretation techniques. Enhancements and refinements may be applied for the more
complicated rock types.

100%
total volume

When the pore space is intergranular it is


known as primary porosity. When the porosity is due to void space created after deposition, (e.g., vugs or fractures in carbonates),
the porosity is known as secondary porosity.
When shale is present, the pore space occupied by the water in the shale is included with
the pore space in the rock to give total porosity (T). If only the rock pore space is considered in a shaly formation, the pore space is
called effective porosity (e).

Rt

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

b) Formation Resistivity (R)


Defined as the resistance offered by a formation to the flow of electrical current. It is
expressed in ohm-meter2/meter.
We use several terms to describe formation
resistivity under various circumstances of fluid content.
Rt: Describes the resistivity of a formation undisturbed by the drilling
process.
Ro: Describes a special form of Rt. It
is the resistivity of a clean formation when all pore space is filled
with connate water (Rw).
Rw: Is the symbol for the resistivity of
formation (connate) water.

For Porosity
In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that
the relationship between formation factor and
porosity could be described by the formula
a
F=
m
where
a = empirical constant.
m = cementation factor.
Some recommended F and relationships
are
0.62
F=

(for sands)

2.15

0.81
F=

c) Formation Factor (F)


For Resistivity
An important relationship exists between
the resistivity of a fully water saturated formation and the resistivity of the contained water.
The ratio of these two values is called formation resistivity factor (or more commonly,
formation factor) where:
Ro
F=
Rw
F is a constant for the formation under consideration. The value of F for any particular
formation depends on:
- formation porosity
- pore distribution
- pore size
- pore structure.
(05/96) A-8

(for sands)
2

1
F=

(for carbonates)

Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Interpretation Chart book is based on several different F- relationships.
d) Water Saturation (Sw)
Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with water where
water filled pore volume
100%

sw =
total pore volume

e) Hydrocarbons Saturation (Shy)


Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with hydrocarbons where:

g) Shaly Formations
This describes formations where some of
the formation void space (porosity) is filled
with shale.

hydrocarbon-filled pore volume

Shale distribution is considered to be:


- Laminated: The formation is built up
of thin laminae of sand and shale.
- Dispersed: The shale particles are
dispersed in the pore space.
- Structural: The shale replaces matrix.

100%

Shy =
total pore volume
or

Shy = 1 Sw.

f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those
that are shale free.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity

This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:
0.62
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr =

2.15

0.81
or Fr =

0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr =

with appropriate cementation factor, m.

EXAMPLE: is 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor, m of 2 is appropriate


Therefore, from chart, Fr = 280.
Chart Por-1

Figure A4
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h) Key Formulas
FRw
Archies formula: S =
Rt
n
w

Formation Factor:
Ro
a. From deep resistivity

F =
Rw

where n is usually taken as 2

Rxo
b. From shallow resistivity

F =
Rmf
a

c. From porosity

F =
m

i) Key Symbols
BHT -

Sxo

di

Shc

hRIDPH
RIMPH
RSFL
Rm
Rmf
Rmc
Rw
Rwa
Rt
Ro
Rxo
Rsh
F

Sw

bottom hole temperature in degrees


Celsius
- average diameter of invaded zone
(Di)
bed thickness in meters
- resistivity from the deep phasor induction
- resistivity from the medium Phasor
induction
- resistivity from the Spherically Focused Log
- resistivity of the mud
- resistivity of the mud filtrate
- resistivity of the mudcake
- resistivity of the formation water
- apparent resistivity of the formation
water
- resistivity of the formation (uncontaminated zone)
- resistivity of the formation when
100% water filled
- resistivity of the flushed zone (close
to borehole)
- resistivity of the shales
- formation resistivity factor
- porosity in percent
- water saturation, percent of pore
space occupied by water in uncontaminated zone

K
SSP

PSP
k-

S
D
N
T
e
2
Vsh
Pe

water saturation, as above, in flushed


zone
- hydrocarbons saturation as percent of
pore space occupied by water
- coefficient in the sp formula
- static spontaneous potential - the
maximum possible for a particular
Rmf / Rw
- pseudostatic spontaneous potentialthe SP found in a thick shaly
sand
permeability in millidarcies
pore volume
porosity =
100%.
total volume
- sonic porosity
- density porosity
- neutron porosity
N + D
- total porosity
2
- effective porosity
- secondary porosity
- volume of shale
- photoelectric index

A complete list of symbols and subscripts is


included in Section J (Miscellaneous).

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS


a) Well logs provide a continuous graph of formation parameters versus depth.
Normal depth scales are
- 1:2401 m of log per 240 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 1 m, with heavy lines every 5
m, and heavier lines every 25 m
for ease of reading. Depths are
indicated every 25 m (Figures
A5 and A6).
- 1:6001 m of log per 600 m of
measured hole depth. Each line
is 5 m, with heavy lines every 25
m. Depths are indicated every 25
m (Figure A7).
- Other scales are available.
These include 1:1200, 1:120,
1:48 and 1:5.
- Log grids may be either logarithmic (resistivity logsFigure
A6) or linear (porosity logs
Figure A5).
b) If a caliper device is present or the log being
generated is a type of sonic log, event markers are placed on each side of the depth track
integrating the quantity of hole volume or
transit time recorded.
1. Integrated hole volumerequires caliper
device (Figure A5)
- placed on the left side of the
depth track
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
whereas large marks represent
3
1.0 m .
2. Integrated cement volumeRequires caliper device plus future casing size
- placed on the right side of the
depth track when space permits and if sonic not present
3
- small marks indicate 0.1 m
while large marks represent
3
1.0 m .
(05/96) A-12

3. Integrated transit timeRequires sonic


tool (Figure A5)
- placed on the right side of the
depth track
- small marks indicate 1 msec
whereas large marks represent
10 msec of time.
If the log is recorded using logging-whiledrilling methods, event markers on both sides
of the depth track (Figure A6) represent the
conversion from time-based sampling to a
depth-based presentation.
The markers
therefore indicate the number of data samples
per unit depth. In other words, the larger the
concentration of markers over a depth interval, the greater the number of data samples
used to make the log.
c) Logs also have headings and inserts.
- Log headings provide such information
as well depth, casing depth, mud params,
maximum temperature and other comments pertinent to the evaluation of log
data (Figures A8 and A9).
- Inserts provide such information as curve
scaling, coding, date/time of acquisition,
data curve first-reading points and constants pertinent to the logging run following the insert. Curve coding on the
log data indicates the deepest reading
primary measurement (long dashed) to
the shallowest reading primary measurement (solid) when two or more measurements are combined (Figure A10).

Figure A5: Linear Grid 1/240 Scale


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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Logarithmic Grid 1/240 Scale


Data Sample Event Markers for LWD Curves
Figure A6

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Figure A7: Linear Grid 1/600 Scale

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A8: Log Heading (page 1)


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Figure A9: Log Heading (page 2) and Log Tail

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure A10: Log Insert


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Contents

B1.0 THE RESISTIVITY OF THE FORMATION......................................................................................1


B1.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................1
B1.2 FORMATION WATER RESISTIVITY RW ..............................................................................3
B1.3 FORMATION RESISTIVITY MEASUREMENTS .................................................................3
Chart Gen-9: Resistivity of NaCl Solutions .....................................................................4
B1.4 TO SUMMARIZE ...................................................................................................................6
B1.5 THE DRILLING PROCESS AND PERMEABLE BEDS ........................................................5
Invasion Profiles ................................................................................................................5
Chart Gen-3: Symbols Used in Log Interpretation .........................................................6
B1.6 SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL (SP) CURVE ........................................................................8
Chart SP-1: Rweq Determination from ESSP (Clean Formations) ...................................13
Chart SP-2: Rw versus Rweq and Formation Temperature ............................................14

B2.0 MEASUREMENT OF RT BY INDUCTION PRINCIPLES .............................................................15


B2.1 INDUCTION LOGGING PRINCIPLES ................................................................................15
B2.2 SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG PRINCIPLES ................................................................16
B2.3 DUAL INDUCTION - SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG ......................................................17
B2.4 PHASOR INDUCTION SFL TOOL .....................................................................................23

B3.0 MEASUREMENT OF Rt BY LATEROLOG PRINCIPLES ...........................................................29


B3.1 DUAL LATEROLOG ..........................................................................................................29

B4.0 MEASUREMENT OF RXO BY MICRO-RESISTIVITY PRINCIPLES ............................................35


B4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................35
B4.2 MICROLOG ........................................................................................................................36
B4.3 MICRO - SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG ........................................................................38

B5.0 WORK SESSION ..........................................................................................................................41

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B1.0

The Resistivity of the


Formation

B1.1 INTRODUCTION
The resistivity of a formation is a key parameter in determining hydrocarbon saturation.
Electricity can pass through a formation only
because of the conductive water it contains.
With a few rare exceptions, such as metallic
sulfide and graphite, dry rock is a good electrical insulator. Moreover, perfectly dry rocks
are very seldom encountered. Therefore, subsurface formations have finite, measurable resistivities because of the water in their pores or
absorbed in their interstitial clay.
For the purposes of our discussions we will
divide substances into two general categories,
conductors or insulators.
Conductors are substances which pass electrical current e.g. water, shales, mud. Insulators
are substances which do not allow electrical
current flow e.g. hydrocarbons, or rock matrix.
The measured resistivity of a formation depends on:
- Resistivity of the formation water.
- Amount of water present.
- Pore structure geometry.
The resistivity (specific resistance) of a substance is the resistance measured between

opposite faces of a unit cube of that substance


at a specified temperature. The metre is the
unit of length and the ohm is the unit of electrical resistance. In abbreviated form, resistivity is
R = r A/L,
where
R is resistivity in ohm-metres,
r is resistance in ohms,
A is area in square metres,
and L is length in metres.
(See Figure B1)
The units of resistivity are ohm-metres
squared per metre, or simply ohm-metres (ohmm).
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity
and is expressed in mhos per metre. To avoid
decimal fractions, conductivity is usually expressed in millimhos per metre (mmho / m),
where 1000 mmho/m = 1 mho/m:
C = 1000 / R.
Formation resistivities are usually from 0.2 to
1000 ohm-m. Resistivities higher than 1000
ohm-m are uncommon in permeable formations
but are observed in impervious, very low porosity formations (e.g., evaporites).

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Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Figure B1: Principles of Resistance and Resistivity

(05/96) B-2

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B1.2

FORMATION WATER
RESISTIVITY RW
As previously indicated, formation matrices
are insulators; thus a formations ability to
conduct electricity is a function of the connate
water in the formation. Several factors must be
considered:
- the volume of the water (porosity)
- the pore space arrangement (type of porosity)
- the temperature of the formation
- the salinity of the water.
a) Water Salinity
As salinity increases, more ions are available
to conduct electricity so Rw (water resistivity)
decreases.
b) Water Temperature
As water temperature is raised, ionic mobility
increases and resistivity decreases. Chart Gen-9
(Figure B2) in the Log Interpretation Chart
Book, illustrates these relationships.
c) Water Volume
As water filled pore space in a rock is increased, resistivity decreases. If some water is
displaced by hydrocarbons (insulators), water
saturation decreases; resistivity increases.

B1.3

FORMATION RESISTIVITY
MEASUREMENTS
If we consider a formation whose pore space
contains only water, its true resistivity is called
Ro. We know that an important relationship
exists between formation resistivity and the resistivity of the saturating water - Rw. The ratio
of these two values, F, is called Formation Resistivity Factor, or more commonly Formation
Factor, which is a constant; where:
F = Ro / R w
For example, if the salinity of the connate
water increases, Rw will decrease. This will in
turn allow current to flow more easily through
the formation, thus lowering Ro and maintaining F at a constant value. This is what we
should expect as F is an inherent formation
characteristic.
Formation factor can be related to formation
porosity by the general formula:
F = a / m
where
a = constant
m = cementation factor

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Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Resistivity of NaCl Solutions

Chart GEN-9
Figure B2
(05/96) B-4

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B1.4 TO SUMMARIZE
1. Dry rock formation is an insulator.
2. Formations conduct current because of
water in the pore spaces.
3. Knowledge of water resistivity (Rw) is
essential for log interpretation.
4. Resistivity used rather than resistance.
5. Formation Resistivity Factor (F) is a
porosity related formation characteristic.
6. Relationships:
a. F = (Rt / Rw) = (Ro / Rw)
100% water saturated porous rock
b. F = a / m
7. Symbols:
Rw - resistivity of connate water.
Rt - true formation resistivity.
Rxo - resistivity of flushed zone.
a - a constant.
m - cementation factor.
B1.5

THE DRILLING PROCESS AND


PERMEABLE BEDS
Before proceeding to a discussion of methods of obtaining formation resistivity, let us
examine what happens to a permeable formation when it is penetrated by the drill bit. (Refer to Chart Gen-3 (Figure B3) in this section
or the Log Interpretation Chart Book.)
Under normal conditions the hydrostatic
head of the mud column is greater than formation pressure. This differential pressure forces
filtrate from the mud system into the formation pore spaces, leaving solid particles or mud
cake build up on the borehole wall. Eventually this impervious mud cake will seal off further invasion (unless it is removed by some
mechanical process e.g. removing the drill
bit).

Mud Cake thickness is symbolized by hmc.


Invasion Profiles:
1. Flushed Zone. Adjacent to the borehole the invasion process flushes out
the original water and some of the hydrocarbons (if any were present). The
resistivity of this zone is termed Rxo;
the water saturation is called Sxo
where:
FRmf
Sxo =
2

Rxo
(for clean formations only)
Plotting Rxo as a function of radial
depth into the formation yields Figure
B4.
2. Transition Zone. Further from the borehole the flushing action of the mud
filtrate may create a variety of situations. If the flushing proceeds as a
uniform front, we call this a step profile of invasion (Figure B5a). If the
intermingling of formation fluids is
very gradual, we would call this a
transition zone (Figure B5b). Sometimes in oil or gas bearing formations,
where the mobility of hydrocarbons is
greater than the connate water, the oil
or gas move out leaving an annular
zone filled with connate water (Figure
B5c). If Rmf > Rw, then the annular
zone will have a resistivity lower than
Rxo and Rt and may cause a pessimistic
saturation calculation.

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Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Symbols Used in Log Interpretation

Chart GEN-3

Figure B3

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3. True Unaffected Zone. This is the zone


which we wish to analyse - it is the
formation undisturbed by the drilling
process. Its resistivity is termed Rt,

water resistivity Rw, and water saturation Sw. Plotting Rxo, Ri and Rt as a
function of invasion:

Figure B4: Invasion Process

(a)

(b)

(c)

Figure B5

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Introduction to Open Hole Logging

B1.6

SPONTANEOUS POTENTIAL
(SP) CURVE

a) Introduction
The SP curve is a continuous recording (versus depth) of the difference in potential between a moveable electrode in the borehole
and a fixed (zero) potential surface electrode.
Units used are millivolts.
The SP was discovered quite by accident in
the very early days of electrical logging. In
some of the first test wells logged by Schlumberger using the point-by-point technique, it
was noted that a small natural potential was
present in the well even when the current
source was turned off. This spontaneous potential is due to a combination of two phenomena: an Electrokinetic potential usually
negligible, and an Electrochemical potential
composed of a membrane potential and a liquid-junction potential. The membrane potential is about five times bigger than the liquidjunction potential.

Figure B6: Electrokinetic Potential of SP

(05/96) B-8

b) Electrokinetic Potential
If a solution is forced, by differential pressure, to flow through a membrane, an electrical potential will appear across the membrane
(Figure B6). A similar situation occurs when
the mud filtrate flows through the mudcake
because of the differential pressure between
the mud column and the formation. This electrokinetic potential (Ekmc) is generally very
small.
In a very low permeability formation, where
the mudcake is only partially built up, this
electrokinetic potential may be as high as 20
mV. This situation is, however, very rare and
in general the total electrokinetic potential can
be neglected.
c) Electrochemical Potential
This potential is created by the contact of
two solutions of different salinity, either by a
direct contact or through a semi-permeable
membrane like shales.

Figure B7: Electrochemical membrane potential of SP

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

1) Membrane Potential
An ideal cationic membrane due to its physico-chemical composition is permeable to positive ions (cations) only. Shales are ideal
membranes as long as they are not too sandy or
too limy. In a borehole, a shale section usually
separates salty water (generally the connate water of the virgin zone) from a less salty liquid
(generally the mud) (Figure B7). There is migration of the positive ions (Na+) from the salty
water (formation) to the less salty water (mud).
When an equilibrium is reached:
- positive ions that have already crossed
the shale membrane exert a repelling
force on the positive ions in the mud.
- negative ions left behind in the formation exert an attractive force on the
positive ions which cannot travel any
more into the shale.

where:
amf and aw are the electro-chemical activities of mud filtrate and connate water.
2) Liquid Junction Potential
The liquid junction potential takes place at the
boundary between the flushed zone and the virgin zone. There is no shale separating the two
solutions. Anions as well as cations can transfer from one solution to the other (Figure B8)
because of the higher salinity of the formation
water, both cations Na+ and anions Cl- will migrate towards the mud filtrate. The Na+ ion is
comparatively large and drags 4.5 molecules of
water. The Cl- ion is smaller and drags only 2.5
molecules of water. Hence, the anion Cl- will
migrate more easily than the Na+ ions.

The difference of potential appearing between the two solutions is given by the formula:
Em = K Log

amf
aw

Figure B8: Electrochemical Liquid Junction Potential of SP

Figure B9: The SP Circuit Path

(05/96) B-9

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

The result is an increase of positive charges left


behind in the formation water. These positive
charges restrict the Cl- migration toward the
flushed zone. A difference of potential appears
at the boundary between the two solutions:
amf
Ej = K' Log
aw
d) The Spontaneous Potential or SP
The total potential of the whole chain is thus
the algebraic sum Em + Ej which is also called
the Static Spontaneous Potential or SSP. Electrokinetic potential is neglected. The SP is the
drop of potential measured across the current

lines in the borehole. Along its path the SSP


current has to force its way through a series of
resistances, both in the formation and in the
mud (Figure B9). This means that the total potential drop (which is equal to the SSP) is divided between the different formations and
mud in proportion to the resistances encountered by the current in each respective medium.
The SP, which is the measure of the potential
drop in the mud of the borehole, is only part of
the SSP. In general, it is a large portion because the electrical resistance offered by the
borehole is, in general, much greater than that
offered by the formations.

Figure B10: The SP Deflection and its R mf-Rw Dependency


(05/96) B-10

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

So, we can write:


SP SSP = (K + K') Log

amf
aw

The SP curve is generally presented in track


1, and usually recorded with resistivity surveys, assuming a conductive mud is in the borehole.
Opposite a permeable formation, the SP
curve shows excursions from the shale base
line. In thick, clean beds the SP deflection
tends to reach an essentially constant deflection defining a clean line.
The deflection may be either to the left (negative) or to the right (positive) depending
mostly on relative resistivity of the formation
water and of the mud filtrate (Figure B10).
The magnitude of SP deflections is always
measured from the shale line and for a clean,
water-bearing formation containing a dilute
sodium chloride solution, is given by:
SSP = -K log(Rmfe / Rwe)
K, a constant, depends on the temperature
and salt types in formation water. K = 71 @ 25
degrees Celsius for NaCl.

In practice, the SP is affected by a number of


factors, all which tend to reduce its magnitude.
The maximum available SP in a thick, clean,
water-bearing zone is called Static Spontaneous Potential, or SSP (Figure B10).
The SP is reduced by the shale in a shaly
zone and the deflection is called the Pseudostatic Spontaneous Potential, or PSP.
The ratio of these two values, termed =
PSP/SSP is occasionally used as a shale indicator in sands. An approximation of the SSP
in a shaly sand is SSP = PSP / (1 - Vsh) where
the volume of shale (Vsh) is estimated from the
Gamma Ray deflection which will be discussed later.
e) Uses of SP
The SP can be used to:
- detect permeable beds (a qualitative
indication only).
- determine Rw, formation water resistivity.
- give an indication of zone shale content.
- indicate depositional environment.

(05/96) B-11

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

f) Factors Affecting the SP


- Bed Thickness*: SP decreases when
bed thickness decreases.
- Invasion*: Reduces SP
- Shaliness: Shale reduces SP
- Hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons in
slightly shaly formations will reduce
the SSP
- Mud Filtrate: The magnitude and direction of SP deflection from the shale
base line depends on relative resistivities of the mud filtrate and the formation water.
- Fresh Mud - negative SP (Figure 8).
Rmf > Rw
- Saline Mud - positive SP (Figure 8).
Rw > Rmf
Rw = Rmf - zero SP (Figure 8).

g) Solution of Rw from SP
Because of its dependence on Rmf and Rw, the
magnitude of SP deflection enables us to solve
for the Rw of the formation when Rmf is known.
This method, when applied in clean matrix, is
generally accurate.
1. From log heading, get Rmf at surface
temperature.
2. Convert Rmf to formation temperature
using chart Gen-9 (Figure B12).
3. Convert Rmf at formation temperature
to Rmfe using:
Rmfe = .85 x Rmf. (approximation)
If Rmf is below .03 ohm-metre or above
1.5 ohm-metre @ formation temperature, use chart SP-2 (Figure B12) to
get Rmfe.
4. Calculate static SP from log at zone of
interest.
5. Enter chart SP-1(Figure B11) with
static SP, formation temperature and
Rmfe to get Rwe at formation temperature.
6. Enter chart SP-2 (Figure B12) with Rwe
and formation temperature to get Rw.

- Pyrite in the formation produces a positive SP


* Corrosion Charts available to correct for these factors.

(05/96) B-12

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Rweq Determination from Essp


(CLEAN FORMATIONS)

SP-1
Figure B11
(05/96) B-13

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Rw versus Rweq and Formation Temperature

Gyp-base mud filtrates


EXAMPLE: Rweq = 0.025 m at 120oC. From chart, Rw = 0.031 m at 120oC
Special procedures for muds containing Ca or Mg in solution are discussed in Reference 3. Lime base muds
usually have a negligible amount of Ca in solution; they may be treated as regular mud types.

SP-2m
Figure B12
(05/96) B-14

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

B2.0

Measurement of Rt by
Induction Principles

We have two different types or classes of


tools designed for the two most common borehole environments:
1.

Non-Conductive Boreholes
- including Fresh Mud Systems, Invert
Mud Systems and Air-filled holes.
a. Dual Induction - SFL (No
longer in service)
b. Phasor Dual Induction - SFL
c. Array Induction Imager

2.

Conductive Boreholes
- including Saline to Salt Saturated Mud
Systems
a. Dual Laterolog

B2.1

INDUCTION LOGGING
PRINCIPLES
The induction logging tool was originally developed to measure formation resistivity in boreholes containing oil-base muds and in airdrilled boreholes. Electrode devices did not
work in these nonconductive muds, and attempts to use wall-scratcher electrodes were
unsatisfactory.

Experience soon demonstrated that the induction log had many advantages when used for
logging wells drilled with water-base muds.
Designed for deep investigation, induction logs
can be focused in order to minimize the influences of the borehole, the surrounding formations, and the invaded zone.
Principle
Todays induction tools have many transmitter and receiver coils. However, the principle
can be understood by considering a sonde with
only one transmitter coil and one receiver coil
(see Figure B13).
A high-frequency alternating current of constant intensity is sent through a transmitter coil.
The alternating magnetic field created induces
currents in the formation surrounding the borehole. These currents flow in circular ground
loops coaxial with the transmitter coil and
create, in turn, a magnetic field that induces a
voltage in the receiver coil.
Because the alternating current in the transmitter coil is of constant frequency and amplitude, the ground loop currents are directly proportional to the formation conductivity. The
voltage induced in the receiver coil is proportional to the ground loop currents and, therefore, to the conductivity of the formation.

(05/96) B-15

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

There is also a direct coupling between the


transmitter and receiver coils. The signal originating from this coupling is eliminated electronically.
The induction tool works best when the borehole fluid is an insulator - even air or gas.
The tool also works well when the borehole
contains conductive mud unless the mud is too
salty, the formations are too resistive, or the
borehole diameter is too large.

B2.2

SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG


PRINCIPLES
The SFL device measures the resistivity of
the formation near the borehole and provides
the relatively shallow investigation required to
evaluate the effects of invasion on deeper resistivity measurements. It is the short-spacing
device used in the Phasor Induction - SFL tool.
The SFL system differs from previous focused electrode devices. Whereas systems attempt to focus the current into planar discs, the
SFL system establishes essentially constant
potential shells around the current electrode.

Figure B13: Basic two-coil induction log system

(05/96) B-16

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

The SFL device is able to preserve the spherical potential distribution in the formation over
a wide range of wellbore variables, even when
a conductive borehole is present. To accomplish this, the SFL device is composed of two
separate, and more or less independent, current
systems (Figure B14). The bucking current
system serves to plug the borehole and establish the equipotential spheres. The io survey
current system causes an independent survey
current to flow through the volume of investigation; the intensity of this current is proportional to formation conductivity.

The first sphere is about 9 inches away from


the survey current electrode; the other is about
50 inches away. A constant potential of 2.5
mV is maintained between these two spherical
surfaces. Since the volume of formation between these two surfaces is constant (electrode
spacing is fixed) and the voltage drop is constant (2.5 mV), the resistivity of this volume of
formation can be determined by measuring the
current flow.
B2.3

DUAL INDUCTION SPHERICALLY FOCUSED LOG


This is the most basic of induction devices
and was the reference resistivity induction device for 20 plus years until its retirement in
1990. The tool supplies three focused resistivity curves: two Induction and a shallow investigating Spherically Focused Curve plus the
Spontaneous Potential. Each curve has a different depth of investigation (Figure B15).
Spherically Focused Log - a shallow
reading device affected mainly by the
flushed (Rxo) zone. (Radial Distance
30 cm.)

Figure B14: Electrode array of SFL tool


and schematic representation of surveying
current (io) lines (dashed) and focusing
curent (io) lines (solid).

The SFL device consists of current-emitting


electrodes, current-return electrodes, and
measure electrodes. Two equipotential spheres
about the tools current source are established.

Medium Induction (ILM) - depending on the invasion diameter and profile the ILM may be influenced by
Rxo or Rt zones ... or both. (Radial
Distance 60-80 cm.)
Deep Induction (ILD) - is mostly affected by Rt, unless invasion is very
deep.
Either or both induction
curves may be influenced if an annulus is present. (Radial Distance 1.21.5 m.)

(05/96) B-17

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Figure B15
(05/96) B-18

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

a) Log Presentation
a. Logarithmic: A 1:240 scale is presented with resistivity curves on a logarithmic scale. This is the preferred
presentation for log analysis. (Figure
B15)
b. Log-Lin: Here the 1:600 scale
presents two resistivity curves, the
SFL (averaged) and the ILD on the linear resistivity scale. Also included is
the equivalent ILD conductivity
curve. This presentation is primarily
for correlation purposes. Both presentations are recorded simultaneously.
b) Tool Characteristics and Applications
1. The Dual Induction SFL is most effective when used in holes drilled
with moderately conductive mud, e.g.
where Rmf / Rw > 2.5 .
2. Vertical Focusing is good, reliable
values of Rt may be obtained where
bed thickness is > 4.0 metres.
3. Since this tool actually measures formation conductivity and converts the
values to resistivity, results are most
accurate in zones of low resistivity.
4. The recording of three curves which
investigate different amounts of formation volume enable us to study invasion profiles, and where invasion is
deep, make correction to obtain Rt.
5. Since the two Induction devices produce their signals by inducing a magnetic field in the formation, they can
be run in air drilled wells or wells
drilled with non-conductive mud.
(The SFL requires a conductive mud
path to the formation and cannot be
presented). A Gamma Ray curve is
usually recorded in place of the SP.

Correction Charts are available for the


influence of:
- borehole (diameter and mud resistivity).
- bed thickness
- invasion
c) Limitations
1. The logging of large diameter holes
drilled with saline mud should be
avoided, particularly in high resistivity formations. Large borehole signals
will add to the formation signals producing anomalously low apparent resistivities.
2. In zones of high resistivity (low conductivity), e.g. in excess of 250 ohmm, errors in measurement can occur.
The above problems can sometimes be minimized by a system of downhole calibration
checks. A thick zero porosity zone, e.g. limestone, or anhydrite for this purpose. Thus if difficulties in producing a good DIL are expected,
it is often advantageous to run a porosity - caliper log before the DIL. (It should also be noted
that these changes were only made to DIL Logs
and noted in the remarks section of the log
heading).
d) Log Responses (Figure B16)
For wells drilled with fresh muds (Rmf/Rw >
2.5, Rxo/Rt>2.5) the following general conclusions can be reached by log inspection:
- When SFL = ILM = ILD; Rt = ILD,
this indicates zero or very shallow invasion.
- When SFL > ILM = ILD; Rt = ILD,
this indicates moderate invasion.
- When SFL > ILM > ILD; and if Rxo =
SFL, then Rt < ILD, this indicates
deep invasion.
(05/96) B-19

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

When SFL = ILM > ILD, and if Rxo = SFL we


must use chart Rint-2c (Figure B17) to obtain
Rt. This response indicates very deep invasion.
In general, the closer the medium curve is to
the SFL, the deeper the invasion. The result of
correcting for invasion is to obtain an Rt which
is lower than ILD. Hence, by using ILD without correction, you will obtain an optimistic Sw.
e) Summary
Benefits:
1. Dual Induction SFL can most effectively be used in holes filled with
moderately conductive mud, nonconductive mud, and air drilled holes.
2. Vertical focusing is good and gives
reliable values of Rt, for beds thicker
than three metres.

(05/96) B-20

3. It measures low resistivities (less than


ten ohm-metres) accurately.
4. Recording of three focused resistivity
logs, which investigate different volumes of formation enables us to
study invasion profile, and good Rt
values in the case of deep invasion.
Correction charts are available for:
- Borehole
- Bed thickness
- Invasion
Disadvantages:
1. Not reliable for resistivities > 250
ohm-m (use a Dual Laterolog)
2. Large hole and saline mud results in
large borehole signals which give an
unusually low apparent resistivity.
(use DLL in this case).

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Figure B16

(05/96) B-21

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

DIL* Dual Induction - SFL* Spherically Focused Log


ID - IM - SFL

Rint-2c
Figure B17
(05/96) B-22

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

B2.4 PHASOR INDUCTION SFL TOOL


The Phasor Induction SFL tool (Figure B18)
uses a conventional Dual Induction-SFL array
to record resistivity data at three depths of investigation (see Chart B1 ). In addition to the
usual in-phase (R-signal) induction measurements, the tool makes a high-quality measurement of the induction quadrature signal
(X-signals). These measurements are combined with new advances in signal processing
to provide an induction log with thin-bed resolution down to 60 cm (2'). Full correction for
such environmental distortions such as shoulder effect and borehole effect are also performed.

Central to this development is a nonlinear


deconvolution technique that corrects the induction log in real time for shoulder effect and
improves the thin-bed resolution over the full
range of formation conductivities. This algorithm, called Phasor Processing, requires the
use of the induction quadrature signals, or Xsignals, which measure the nonlinearity directly. Phasor Processing corrects for shoulder
effect and provides thin-bed resolution
through Enhanced Processing down to 60 cm
in many cases.

Since its introduction in the early 1960s, the


Dual Induction tool has evolved into the primary logging service for openhole formation
evaluation in fresh and oil-based muds. Previous tools have, however, produced logs with
response limitations. These limitations have
usually required tedious hand correction. In
extreme cases tool response limitations have
produced features on logs that were mistaken
for geological features. Although the distortions of the formation resistivity caused by
resolution effect and shoulder effect are fully
predictable from electromagnetic theory, automatic correction algorithms were not successful before now because of the nonlinearity
of the R-signal measurement, which was the
only measurement made in the older tools.
New developments in electronics technology,
work on computing the response of the induction tool in realistic formation models, and
modern signal processing theory have combined to allow the development of a newer
tool which is able to overcome the limitations
of previous tools.

Figure B18: Schematic of the


Phasor Induction SFL tool

(05/96) B-23

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

By adding borehole geometry measurements


in the same tool string, borehole effect can also be corrected in real time. With these environmental effects removed, a real-time inversion of the data into a three-parameter
invasion model can be done at the wellsite.
The Phasor Induction design provides several additional advantages over existing tools.
These include improvements in the calibration
system, sonde error stability, SFL response,
and a reduction of signal and cable noise.
Each of these improvements contributes toward providing more accurate formation resistivity measurements over a wider range of resistivity and borehole conditions.
a) Phasor Tool Description and Features
The Phasor Induction SFL tool can be combined with other cable telemetry tools. Measurements returned to the surface include deep
(ID) and medium (IM) R-signals, ID and IM
X-signals, SFL voltage and current, SFL focus
current, spontaneous potential (SP), SP-toArmor voltage, and array temperature. All
measurements except SP are digitized downhole with high-resolution analog-to-digital
converters, and all measure channels are recalibrated every 15 cm (6 inches) during logging.
The operating frequency of the induction arrays is selectable at 10 kHz, 20 kHz, or 40
kHz, with a default frequency of 20 kHz. The
tool also provides measurements of important
analog signals and continuous monitoring of
digital signals as an aid to failure detection and
analysis. Depths of investigation and vertical
resolution of the measurements are listed.

(05/96) B-24

b) Log Presentation
The same presentation format is used for
both generations of induction tools. The two
logs can be identified by the following differences (Figure B19):
1. Deep Induction (IDPH) - the log inserts use the IDPH acronym to identify Phasor processing.
2. Medium Induction (IMPH) - the log
inserts use the IMPH acronym to
identify Phasor processing.
3. There is a hash mark up the right side
of the depth track.
c) Tool Characteristics, Improvements,
and Applications
1. Phasor Induction - SFL can be most
effectively used in holes filled with
moderately conductive mud, nonconductive mud, and air drilled
holes.
2. Vertical focusing is good and gives
reliable values of Rt for beds thicker
than 2.5 metres with no shoulder bed
corrections required.
3. Measures low resistivities accurately.
4. Recording of three focused resistivity
logs, which investigate different volumes of formation.
5. Reliable for resistivities up to 1000
ohm-m versus 250 ohm-m with normal Induction tool.
6. Gives accurate readings in boreholes
up to 66 cm in diameter (Rt/Rm <
1000).
7. Operates at varying transmitter frequencies to improve signal to noise
ratios.
8. Uses digital transmission techniques
to improve accuracy of calibration
and measurement.

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Correction charts are available for:


- Borehole
- Bed thickness
- Invasion (Chart Rint-11a)

Phasor Induction - SFL


Median Depth of Investigation
1.
Above 100 ohm-m ID
homogeneous for- IM
mation
SFL

Metres

Feet/Inches

1.58
0.79
0.41

62 inches
31 inches
16 inches

1.22
0.66
041

48 inches
26 inches
16 inches

2.
At 0.1 ohm-m ho- ID
mogeneous forma- IM
tion
SFL

Phasor Induction - SFL


Vertical Resolution
Vertical resolution
bed thickness for full
Rt determination no invasion

IDPH
IMPH
IDER*
IMER
IDVR#
IMVR
SFL

2.46
1.85
0.92
0.92
0.61
0.61
0.61

8 feet
6 feet
3 feet
3 feet
2 feet
2 feet
2 feet

* ER - Enhanced Resolution Phasor


# VR - Very Enhanced Resolution Phasor
Chart B1

(05/96) B-25

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Figure B19
(05/96) B-26

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Phasor* Dual Induction-SFL Spherically Focused Log


ID Phasor - IM Phasor - SFL

These charts (Rint-11) apply to the Phasor Induction tool when operated at a frequency of 20 kHz. Similar charts
(not presented here) are available for tool operation at 10 kHz and 40 kHz.
The 20 kHz charts do provide, however, reasonable approximations of R xo/Rt and Rt/RIDPH for tool operation at 10
kHz and 40 kHz when only moderately deep invasion exists (less than 100 inches).
All Phasor* Induction invasion correction charts are applicable to Enhanced Resolution Logging (ERL*) and Enhanced Resolution Analysis (ERA*) presentation.

Rint-11a
Figure B20
(05/96) B-27

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

(05/96) B-28

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Schlumberger

B3.0

Measurement of Rt
by Laterolog Principles

B3.1 DUAL LATEROLOG


Broadly speaking, borehole fluids during
drilling operations are broken into conductive
and nonconductive categories. Each poses its
particular challenges in measuring formation
resistivities. The Dual Laterolog is a current
emitting electrode device that performs best in
saline muds (i.e. where Rt/Rm >>> 100, Rmf /Rw
< 2.5). It is designed to extract Rt by measuring
resistivity with several arrays having different
depths of investigation.

a) Description and Features


This resulted in the development of the Dual
Laterolog-MicroSFL tool with simultaneous
recordings. Figure B21 illustrates the focussing used by the deep laterolog device (left) and
by the shallow laterolog device (right). Both
use the same electrodes and have the same
current-beam thickness, but have different focussing to provide their different depth of investigation characteristics.

Measurements responding to three appropriately chosen depths of investigation usually


approximate the invasion profile well enough
to determine Rt.
For best interpretation accuracy, such a
combination system should have certain desirable features:
- Borehole effects should be small
and/or correctable.
- Vertical resolutions should be similar.
- Radial investigations should be well
distributed; i.e., one reading as deep
as practical, one reading very shallow, and the third reading in between.
Figure B21: Dual Laterolog
Deep and Shallow Current Patterns

(05/96) B-29

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

The DLL tool has a response range of 0.2 to


40,000 ohm-m, which is a much wider range
than covered by previous laterolog devices.
To achieve accuracy at both high and low resistivities a constant-power measuring system
is employed. In this system both measure current (io) and measure voltage (Vo) are varied
and measured, but the product of the two, (i.e.,
power) Voio, is held constant.
The deep laterolog measurement (LLD) of
the DLL tool has a deeper depth of investigation than previous laterolog tools and extends
the range of formation conditions in which
reliable determinations of Rt are possible.
To achieve this, very long guard electrodes
are needed; the distance between the extreme
ends of the guard electrodes of the DLL-Rxo
tool is approximately 8.5 metres (28 feet).
The nominal beam thickness of 60 cm (2 feet),
however, insures good vertical resolution.
Radial investigation is 1.2 to 1.5 metres (4-5
feet).

b) Log Presentation
The DLL-MSFL presentation is very
similar to the Phasor Induction. Differences include expanded resistivity
scale (0.2-200,000 ohm-m) and the
addition of Gamma Ray and Caliper
(if MSFL is used). See log in Figure
B23.
c) Tool Characteristics and
Applications
1. The Dual Laterolog performs most
effectively in saline mud (high Rt/Rm
ratios) or where Rmf/Rw < 2.5. (Figure
B22)
2. The tool has an excellent resistivity
range; by utilizing a unique design,
resistivity resolution from 0.2 to
40,000 ohm-m is possible.

The shallow laterolog measurement (LSS)


has the same vertical resolution as the deep
laterolog device 60 cm (2 feet), but it responds
more strongly to that region around the borehole normally affected by invasion. It uses a
type of focusing called pseudolaterolog,
wherein the focusing current is returned to
nearby electrodes instead of to a remote electrode. This causes the measure current to diverge more quickly once it has entered the
formations, thus producing a relatively shallow depth of investigation of 50 to 60 centimetres (20 to 24 inches).
Figure B22: Preferred ranges of applications of
Induction logs and Laterologs

(05/96) B- 30

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Figure B23

(05/96) B-31

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

3. Vertical resolution is excellent, Rt


can be obtained in beds as thin as 60
cm (2 feet).
4. The LLd has very little borehole effect in large holes.
5. When combined with an Rxo measurement, the LLd, LLs curves may
be used to study invasion profiles
and compute a more accurate Rt. See
Chart Rint-9 (Figure B24).
6. Assuming borehole conditions are
suitable, the separation of the LLS,
LLD curves may be used to give
quick look indications of hydrocarbons; particularly in salt mud. In salt
muds Rxo/Rt will be less than one so
the better the zone, the greater the
separation between LLs and Lld.

(05/96) B- 32

d) Limitations
1. The tools should not be used in fresh
muds (Rmf/Rw > 2.5.)
2. The tools requires good centralization to minimize borehole influence
on the LLs.
3. If invasion is deep, a good value of
Rxo (e.g. from a Micro-Spherically
Focused Log) is required to correct
LLd for invasion influence to obtain
an accurate value of Rt.
Correction Charts are available for the influence of:
- borehole (diameter and mud resistivity).
- invasion. (Chart Rint-9b)
- bed thickness.

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Dual Laterolog -Rxo Device


DLT-D/E LLD - LLS - Rxo Device

Rint-9b
Figure B24
(05/96) B-33

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

B4.0

Measurement of Rxo by
Micro-resistivity Principles

B4.1 INTRODUCTION
As has been mentioned, a measurement of
flushed zone resistivity, Rxo, is an important
input when attempting to define invasion diameter. Since the flushed zone may only extend a few centimetres from the borehole, a
shallow reading device is required. Such tools
are the Microlog, Microlaterolog, Proximity
log and the Micro-Spherically Focused Log.
All are pad type devices which are pressed
against the borehole wall to make their measurements.
Today, the Microlog and Micro-Spherically
Focused Log are completely combinable with
all main logging services. The Microlaterolog
and Proximity log have been discontinued due
to their limitations in design, hence explanations of their measurements are not provided.
Another service, the Electromagnetic Propagation Tool, also provides an excellent Rxo measurement. This service is an advanced device
and will not be discussed in this book. For
more information, refer to Schlumberger Log
Interpretation Applications/Principles.

To measure Rxo, the tool must have a very


shallow depth of investigation. Since the reading should be affected by the borehole as little
as possible, a sidewall-pad tool is used.
Currents from the electrodes on the pad must
pass through the mudcake to reach the flushed
zone. Therefore, microresistivity readings are
affected by mudcake; the effect depends on
mudcake resistivity, Rmc, and thickness hmc.
Moreover, mudcakes can be anisotropic, with
mudcake resistivity parallel to the borehole
wall less than that across the mudcake. Mudcake anisotropy increases the mudcake effect
on microresistivity readings so that the effective, or electrical, mudcake thickness is greater
than that indicated by the caliper.

(05/96) B-35

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

B4.2 MICROLOG
With the microlog tool, two short-spaced
devices with different depths of investigation
provide resistivity measurements of a very
small volume of mudcake and formation immediately adjoining the borehole.
Comparison of the two curves readily identifies mudcake, which indicates invaded and,
therefore, permeable formations.
a) Principle
The rubber microlog pad is pressed against
the borehole wall by arms and springs (Figure
B25). The face of the pad has three small inline electrodes spaced 1 inch (2.5 centimetres)
apart. With these electrodes a 1 by 1 inch microinverse (R1"x1") and a 2 inch (5.1 centimetres) micronormal (R2") measurement are recorded simultaneously. The currents emitted
from these electrodes are totally unfocused
and hence flow by the path of least resistance
(Figure B26).

Figure B25: Microlog

(05/96) B-36

As drilling fluid filters into the permeable


formations, mud solids accumulate on the hole
wall and form a mudcake. Usually, the resistivity of the mudcake is slightly greater than
the resistivity of the mud and considerably
lower than the resistivity of the invaded zone
near the borehole.
The 2 inch micronormal device has a greater
depth of investigation than the microinverse. It
is, therefore, less influenced by the mudcake
and reads a higher resistivity, which produces
positive curve separation. In the presence of
low-resistivity mudcake, both devices measure
moderate resistivities, usually ranging from 2
to 10 times Rm.
In impervious formations, the two curves
read similarly or exhibit some negative separation. Here the resistivities are usually much
greater than in permeable formations. (See
Figure B27 - Microlog).

Figure B26: Microlog ML

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

Figure B27
(05/96) B-37

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Under favourable circumstances the microlog can be used to obtain Rxo but it is generally
considered a good qualitative indicator of
permeability, rather than an Rxo measurement.

This eliminates the need for a separate logging


run to obtain Rxo information. See Figure B23
for a log example of MSFL with Dual Laterolog.

b) Microlog Limitations
- Rxo/Rmc must be less than about 15.
- Mudcake thickness < 1.2 cm
- Depth of Flushing > 10 cm, otherwise the microlog readings are affected by Rt.

The second improvement is in the tools response to shallow Rxo zones in the presence of
mudcake. The chief limitation of the Microlaterolog measurement was its sensitivity to
mudcakes. When mudcake thickness exceeded
about 3/8 inch, the log readings were severely
influenced at high Rxo/Rmc contrasts. The Proximity log, on the other hand, was relatively
insensitive to mudcakes, but it required an invaded zone diameter of about 100 cm in order
to provide direct approximations of Rxo.

B4.3 MICRO - SPHERICALLY


FOCUSED LOG
The MicroSFL is a pad-mounted spherically
focused logging device that has replaced the
Microlaterolog and Proximity tools. It has two
distinct advantages over the other Rxo devices.
The first is its combinability with other logging tools, including the Phasor Induction, the
Array Induction, and Dual Laterolog tools.

The solution was found in a adaptation of


the principle of spherical focusing in a sidewall-pad device. By careful selection of electrode spacings and bucking-current controls,
the MicroSFL measurement was designed for
minimum mudcake effect without any undue
increase in the depth of investigation. Figure
B28 illustrates, schematically, the current patterns (left) and the electrode arrangement
(right) of the MicroSFL tool.
By forcing the measure current to flow directly into the formation, the effect of mudcake resistivity on the tool response is minimized; yet, the tool still has a very shallow
depth of investigation.

Figure B28: Current Distribution of MicroSFL


device (left) and Electrode Arragement (right)

(05/96) B-38

Synthetic microlog curves can also be computed from MicroSFL parameters. Since the
measure current sees mostly the flushed zone
and the bucking current sees primarily the
mudcake, it is possible to mathematically derive micronormal and microinverse curves.

Schlumberger
Schlumberger

a) MicroSFL Limitations
- depth of flushing > 12 cm.
- mud cake thickness < 1.2 cm.
- radial investigation 10 cm.
b) MicroSFL Applications
- Identification of permeable zones.
- An excellent value of Rxo from the
MSFL provides a quick look over-lay
technique for comparison with an Rt
curve after being normalized in a
100% Sw zone. After normalization
when curves separate, moved hydrocarbon is indicated.
- Sw determination using Rxo and Rt
values provide an independent lithology-free check on other methods. It
should be noted that the use of this
system in fresh muds where deep invasion is present, should be approached with caution.

An Rxo measurement is another method of


finding Rw when a wet zone is available. F is
found from Rxo and Rmf; Ro is found by obtaining RLLD and RLLS from the logs and then
correcting for borehole and invasion. The Rw =
Ro/F can be solved for.
Also, knowing F, can be calculated. Remember the reason for finding Rw is to allow
you to solve for Sw2 = FRw/Rt in a possible pay
zone elsewhere in the well.
Correction charts are available for the influences of:
- Mudcake (Chart Rxo-3) (Figure B29).

(05/96) B-39

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

MicroSFL* Mudcake Correction


For Hole Diameter of 8 in. or 200 mm

Example:

RMLL = 9.0 ohm-m


Rmc = 0.15 ohm-m at formation temperature
hmc = 9.5 mm
giving
RMLL/Rmc = 9.0/0.15 = 60
Therefore, RMLLcor/RMLL = 2
and
RMLLcor = 2(9.0) = 18 ohm-m

Rxo-3
Figure B29
(05/96) B-40

Contents
C1.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS ............................................................................................................... 1
C2.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE BHC SONIC TOOL.......................................................... 3
C2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 3
C2.2 POROSITY DETERMINATION .......................................................................................................... 4
C2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC INTERPRETATION: ....................................................................... 7
C3.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE LITHO-DENSITY TOOL ................................................. 11
C3.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 11
C3.2 PRINCIPLE....................................................................................................................................... 11
C3.3 POROSITY FROM A DENSITY LOG ............................................................................................... 13
C3.4 LITHOLOGY FROM THE PE MEASUREMENT ............................................................................... 17
C3.5 FACTORS AFFECTING DENSITY LOG:......................................................................................... 20
C4.0 POROSITY MEASUREMENTS FROM THE COMPENSATED NEUTRON TOOL .............................. 21
C4.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 21
C4.2 PRINCIPLE ....................................................................................................................................... 21
C4.3 FACTORS AFFECTING CNL LOGS ................................................................................................ 23
C5.0 TOTAL POROSITY DETERMINATION ................................................................................................ 29
C6.0 GR LOG ................................................................................................................................................. 31
C6.1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................. 31
C6.2 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS ................................................................................................... 31
C6.3 NATURAL GAMMA RAY SPECTROMETRY TOOL ........................................................................ 34
C7.0 BOREHOLE GEOMETRY BY CALIPER MEASUREMENT ................................................................. 37
C7.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ................................................................................................................ 37
Single-Arm Caliper Configuration .......................................................................................................... 40
Two-Arm Caliper Configurations ............................................................................................................ 40
Three-Arm Caliper Configurations ......................................................................................................... 41
Four-Arm Caliper Configuration ............................................................................................................. 41
C8.0 WORK SESSION ................................................................................................................................... 43

(05/96)

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96)

C1.0

Porosity Measurements

C1.1 INTRODUCTION
Total porosity may consist of primary and
secondary porosity. Effective porosity is the
total porosity after the shale correction is applied. Rock porosity can be obtained from the
sonic log, density log or neutron log. For all
these devices, the tool response is affected by
the formation porosity, fluid and matrix. If the
fluid and matrix effects are known or can be
determined, the tool response can be determined and related to porosity. Therefore,
these devices are usually referred to as porosity logs.

For example, the formula for a density log


measurement including all these variables
can be written as
be Sw f +e(1 Sw) hy + Vshsh +
(1 e Vsh) ma.
Solving for porosity in this case would not
be easy because there are several unknowns
and only one measurement. However, when
we compare other porosity and log measurements, we can solve for these unknowns.

All three logging techniques respond to the


characteristics of the rock immediately adjacent to the borehole. Their depth of investigation is shallowonly a few centimeters or
lessand therefore generally within the
flushed zone.
As well as porosity, the logs are affected by
- volume and nature (lithology) of matrix material
- amount and nature of pore space contents (pore geometry, water, hydrocarbons)
- volume and nature of shales.

(05/96) C-1

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-2

C2.0 Porosity Measurements


from the BHC Sonic Tool
C2.1 INTRODUCTION
In its simplest form, a sonic tool consists of
a transmitter that emits a sound pulse and a
receiver that picks up and records the pulse as
it passes the receiver.

The computer also integrates the transit time


readings to obtain total traveltimes (see Figures C1 and C2).

The sound emanated from the transmitter


impinges on the borehole wall. This establishes compressional and shear waves within the
formation, surface waves along the borehole
wall and guided waves within the fluid column.
The sonic log is simply a recording versus
depth of the time, tcomp, required for a compressional sound wave to traverse 1 m of formation. Known as the interval transit time,
transit time, t or slowness, tcomp is the reciprocal of the velocity of the sound wave. (For
the remainder of this document, tcomp is known
as t.) The interval transit time for a given
formation depends upon its lithology and porosity. This dependence upon porosity, when
the lithology is known, makes the sonic log
useful as a porosity log. Integrated sonic transit times are also helpful in interpreting seismic records. The sonic log can be run simultaneously with many other services.
The borehole-compensated (BHC) tool transmitters are pulsed alternately, and t values
are read on alternate pairs of receivers. The t
values from the two sets of receivers are averaged automatically by a computer at the surface for borehole compensation.

Figure C1: Schematic of BHC sonde, showing


ray paths for the two transmitter-receiver sets.
Averaging the two t measurements cancels errors from the sonde tilt and hole-size charges.
(05/96) C-3

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Sometimes the first arrival, although strong


enough to trigger the receiver nearer the
transmitter, may be too weak by the time it
reaches the far receiver to trigger it. Instead,
the far receiver may be triggered by a different, later arrival in the sonic wave train, and
the travel time measured on this pulse cycle
will then be too large. When this occurs, the
sonic curve shows an abrupt, large excursion
towards a higher t value; this is known as
cycle skipping. Such skipping is more likely
to occur when the signal is strongly attenuated
by unconsolidated formations, formation fractures, gas saturation, aerated muds or rugose
or enlarged borehole sections.

The sonic log is run with t presented on a


linear scale in tracks 2 and 3 with a choice of
two scales:
500100 and 300100 sec/m.
A three-arm caliper curve representing the
average borehole diameter and a gamma ray
(GR) curve are recorded simultaneously in
track 1 (See Figure C3).
The gamma ray curve measures the natural
radioactivity of potassium, uranium and thorium in the formation and is usually representative of the amount of shale present. This
is because radioactive elements tend to concentrate in clays and shales. Later, we will use
the GR to compute volume of shale (Vsh).
C2.2 POROSITY DETERMINATION
a) Wyllie Time-Average Equation
After numerous laboratory determinations,
M.R.J. Wyllie proposed, for clean and consolidated formations with uniformly distributed
small pores, a linear time-average or
weighted-average relationship between porosity and transit time (see Figure C4):
tLOG = tf + (1 )tma

(C1)

tLOG tma
or

(C2)
tf tma

Figure C2: BHC SonicGR tool distances

(05/96) C-4

where
tLOG is the reading on the sonic log in

sec/m
tma is the transit time of the matrix material

Figure C3 : Borehole-Compensated Sonic Log


(05/96) C-5

Introduction to Openhole Logging

tf is the transit time of the saturating fluid (about 620 sec/m for freshwater mud systems)

is the porosity or volume occupied by


pores

is the volume of the matrix.


Typical Values:
Sand
tmatrix
Lime
tmatrix
Dolomite tmatrix
Anydrite tmatrix

= 182 sec/m
= 156 sec/m
= 143 sec/m
= 164 sec/m

When the formations are not sufficiently


compacted, the observed t values are greater
than those that correspond to the porosity according to the time-average formula, but the
versus t relationship is still approximately linear. In these cases, an empirical correction
factor, Cp, is applied to Equation 2 to give a
corrected porosity, SVcor (Equation 3):

t - tma
SVcor =

tf - tma

(C3)
CP

The value of Cp is given approximately by


dividing the sonic velocity in nearby shale
beds by 328. However, the compaction correction factor is best determined by comparing SV, as obtained from Equations 1 and 2,
with the true porosity obtained from another
source.
b) Raymer-Hunt
Over the 25 years since acoustic velocity
well logging was introduced, deficiencies
have been noted in the transform of transit
time t to porosity .
Based on extensive field observations of
transit times versus porosity, the new empirical Raymer-Hunt transform was derived. The
new transform equation is too complicated to
be presented in this course. An approximation
of the transform is given in Equation C4 and
the exact transform is presented in the chart
books as the red lines on all sonic charts.
tLOG - tma
sv = C

(C4)
tLOG

Figure C4: Components of the Wyllie


Time-Average Equation

(05/96) C-6

The value of the constant C has a range of


0.625 to 0.7 depending upon the investigator.
Chart Por-3m (Figure C6) uses 0.7 for C: this
was the value originally proposed. However,
more recent transit time-to-porosity comparisons indicate that a value of 0.67 is more appropriate.

For the case of a gas-saturated reservoir rock,


C becomes 0.6. It should be used when the
rock investigated by the sonic tool contains an
appreciable amount of hydrocarbon in the
gassy (vapor) phase. Because of the shallow
depth of investigation, this condition normally
exists only in higher porosity sandstones
(greater than 30%).
From the example sonic log (Figure C3) at
593 m we read 352 sec/m. Given tma =182
sec/m we can solve for :
Wyllie:

Raymer-Hunt (approximation):
5(352 - 182)
=

30%
8(352)

Chart Por-3m (Figure C6) solves this equation graphically. Enter tlog of 352 sec/m on
abscissa and project upward until the appropriate tma line is reached (Vma= 5500 m/sec).
If different values of Vma are used, we get different values of .
With a tlog = 250sec/m we would get

352 - 182
=
39%
620 - 182

Vma
Vma
(m/sec)

tma
( sec/m)

Sandstone

5486

182

Vma (m/sec)
Range of
Values
54865944

Limestone

6400

156

64007010

Dolomites

7010

143

70107925

Anhydrite

6096

164

6100

Salt

4572

219

4566

Casing (iron)

5334

187

5348

Fluid Transit Time: V1 = 1615 m/sec


tf = 620 microsec/m for fresh muds
= microsec/m for salt muds

Figure C5: Chart showing values used for common


reservoir rocks

Sandstone (5500 m/sec)


Limestone (6400 m/sec)
Dolomite (7010 m/sec)

Wyllie
F

RaymerHunt
F

16%
21%
26%

18.5%
24%
28.5%

C 2.3 FACTORS AFFECTING SONIC


INTERPRETATION
Lithology
Lithology must be known to obtain the correct Vma. An incorrect choice of Vma will produce erroneous calculations.
Shale
Shale content generally causes t to read
too high for a porosity calculation because of
the bound water in the shale. The sonic reads
primary porosity, which may be affected by
shale.

(05/96) C-7

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Porosity Evaluation from Sonic


Svf = 1615 m/s

EXAMPLE:

t = 76 s/ft (249 s/m)


SVma = 19,500 ft/s (5950 m/s) - Sandstone
Thus, = 18% (by either weighted average or empirical transform)

Sandstones
Limestones
Dolomites

SVma (ft/S)
18,000 - 19,500
21,000 - 23,000
23,000 - 26,000

tma (s/ft)
55.5 - 51.3
47.6 - 43.5
43.5 - 38.5

Por-3m
Figure C6
(05/96) C-8

SVma (m/s)
5486 - 5944
6400 - 7010
7010 - 7925

tma (s/m)
182 - 168
156 - 143
143 - 126

Fluid Type
The depth of investigation of the sonic is
shallow; therefore, most of the fluid seen by
the sonic will be mud filtrate.
Oil
Oil usually has no effect.
Water
There is usually no effect from water except
where the drilling fluid is salt saturated, and
then a different Vf should be used, usually 607
sec/m.
Gas
Residual gas causes tlog to read too high
when the formation is uncompacted. The gas
between the sand grains slows down the compressional wave resulting in a long t. In
compacted sands, the wave will travel from
one sand grain to another and the gas effect
will be reduced.
Compaction
The value of tlog will read too high in uncompacted sand formations. Compaction corrections can be made if the compaction factor
(Bcp) is known.

An approximate Bcp is obtained from the


surrounding shales (Bcp = tsh/328). Bcp can
also be obtained by comparing the porosity
obtained from another source (core, density
log, neutron log, computed log porosity) to
that obtained from the sonic log in a clean water zone. (For example, if the neutron log in a
clean water zone reads 20% and the sonic log
reads 25%, then Bcp = 25%/20% = 1.25.)
Secondary Porosity
The sonic generally ignores secondary porosity. For example, in vugular porosity, the
traveltime through the formation matrix is
faster than the time through fluid in the vugs,
because tf is about 3 to 4 times the value of
tma.
Borehole Effect
The compensated sonic is unaffected by
changing hole size except in the case of extremely rough, large holes where the formation signal is severely affected by the noise of
the mud signal and formation damage.
Mudcake
Mudcake has no effect on the BHC sonic
because the traveltime through the mudcake is
compensated.

(05/96) C-9

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-10

C3.0 Porosity Measurements from the


Litho-Density Tool
C3.1 INTRODUCTION
Litho-Density logs are primarily used for
porosity and lithology measurements. Other
uses include the identification of minerals in
evaporite deposits, detection of gas, determination of hydrocarbon density, evaluation of
shaly sands and complex lithologies, determination of oil-shale yield and calculation of
overburden pressure and rock mechanical
properties.
C3.2 PRINCIPLE
A radioactive source, applied to the borehole wall in a shielded sidewall skid (Figure
C7), emits medium-energy gamma rays (662
keV) into the formation.

3 occur with respect to Litho-Density operation. These gamma rays may be thought of as
high-velocity particles that collide with the
electrons in the formation. At each collision, a
gamma ray loses some, but not all, of its energy to the electron and then continues with diminished energy. This type of interaction is
known as Compton scattering. The scattered
gamma rays reaching the detector, at a fixed
distance from the source, are counted as an
indication of formation density.
The number of Compton-scattering collisions is related directly to the number of electrons in the formation. Consequently, the response of the density tool is determined
essentially by the electron density (number of
electrons per cubic centimeter) of the formation. Electron density is related to the true
bulk density b, which, in turn, depends on the
density of the rock matrix material, formation
porosity and density of the fluids filling the
pores.

(GR energy > 1.02 MeV)


(over entire GR energy range)
(e)

Figure C7: Schematic Drawing of the Dual Spacing


Litho-Density Logging Device

Classical GR interactions by energy level


are shown in Figure C8. Because of the medium-energy GR emission, only points 2 and

(low-energy GR)
(Z)

Figure C8: Classical GR Matter Interactions


by Energy Level
(05/96) C-11

Introduction to Openhole Logging

In addition to the bulk density measurement, the tool also measures the photoelectric
absorption index of the formation, Pe. Photelectric absorption can be related to lithology;
whereas the b measurement responds primarily to porosity and secondarily to rock matrix
and pore fluid, the Pe measurement responds
primarily to rock matrix (lithology) and secondarily to porosity and pore fluid.
At a finite distance from the source, such as
the far detector, the energy spectrum may look
as illustrated in Figure C9. The number of
gamma rays in the higher energy region (region of Compton scattering) is inversely related only to the electron density of the formation (i.e., an increase in the formation density
decreases the number of gamma rays). The
number of gamma rays in the lower energy
region (region of photoelectric effect) is inversely related to both the electron density
and the photoelectric absorption. By comparing the counts in these two regions, the photoelectric absorption index can be determined.

The gamma ray spectrum at the near detector is used only to correct the density measurement from the far detector for the effects
of mudcake and borehole rugosity.

7m
4.5 m

E (keV)

Figure C10: Basic SGT- CNT- LDT


Tool Configuration
Figure C9: Variations in Spectrum forFormation
with Constant Density but Different Z

(05/96) C-12

This can be written as

ma

(1

Figure C11: Components of Density


Porosity Calculation

C 3.3 POROSITY FROM A DENSITY


For a clean formation of known matrix density ma, with a porosity that contains a fluid
of average density f,, the formation bulk density b, will be (Figure C11):
b = f + (1 ) ma (clean wet zone)
where:
b is the measured bulk density (from Litho-Density tool)
ma is the density of the matrix
f is the density of the fluid
is the percent volume of pore space
(1 ) is the percent volume of matrix.

ma b

D =
ma fl

where:
ma depends on lithology
b is measured by the density log
fl depends on fluid type in pore
volumes.

LOGequation for b can be proven matheThe


matically, unlike the sonic equation, which is
an empirical relationship. Values of b are
used for common reservoir rocks (zero porosity) (Figure C12).
From the example Litho-Density log (Figure
C13) at 593 m we read b = 2180 kg/m3. Given f = 1000 kg/m3, ma = 2650 kg/m3, we can
solve for D:
D =

= 28.5%

Chart Por-5 (Figure C14) solves this equation graphically. For b = 2180 kg/m3 solving
for porosity using other matrix values gives:
ma = 2710 kg/m3

D = 31%

ma = 2870 kg/m3

D = 36.9%

(05/96) C-13

Introduction to Openhole Logging

b Values for Common Reservoir Rocks and Fluids


Compound

Formula

Actual
Density

a
(as seen by
tool)

Quartz
Calcite
Dolomite
Anhydrite
Sylvite
Halite

SiO2
CaCO3
CaCO3MgCO3
CaSO4
KCI
NaCI

2654
2710
2870
2960
1984
2165

2648
2710
2876
2977
1863
2032

Compound

Formula

Actual
Density

a
(as seen by
tool)

Fresh Water
Salt Water
Oil
Gas

H2O
200,00ppm
n(CH2)
C1.1 H4.2

1000
1146
850
g

1000
1135
850
1.325 g-0188

Figure C12

(05/96) C-14

Figure C13

(05/96) C-15

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Formation Density Log Determination of Porosity

Bulk density, b, as recorded with the FDC* or LDT density logs, is converted to porosity with this chart. To use,
bulk density, corrected for borehole size, is entered in abscissa; go to the appropriate reservoir rock type and read
porosity on the appropriate fluid density, f. scale in ordinate. (f is the density of the fluid saturating the rock immediately surrounding the borehole - usually mud filtrate.)
EXAMPLE: b = 2.31 Mg/m3 in limestone lithology
ma = 2.71 (limestone)
f = 1.1 (salt mud)
Therefore D = 25 pu

Por-5
Figure C14
(05/96) C-16

C3.4 LITHOLOGY FROM Pe


MEASUREMENT
The Pe curve is a good matrix indicator. It is
slightly influenced by formation porosity and
the presence of gas, but responds mainly to
lithology (Figure C15). Hence, a safe interpretation of matrix lithology can be made for
simple lithologies (one-mineral matrix). In
conjunction with other log data, more complex mineral combinations can be analyzed.

Pe

Typical Litho-Density responses for common minerals are presented in Figure C16.
The Pe measurement is used
1. alone as a matrix indicator (the lithology curve)
2. in combination with density b to analyze two-mineral matrices and determine porosity

t
0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

Figure C15: Photoelectric Absorption Index as a Function of Porosity and Fluid Content

(05/96) C-17

Introduction to Openhole Logging

3. In combination with the density and


neutron to analyse more complex lithologies (solutions to three-mineral
matrices and porosity).
A direct benefit from the more accurate description of the matrix is a more reliable distinction between gas and oil.
In this section of the course, we use the Pe
curve as a matrix indicator in simple lithologies. Using Pe for more advanced applications

(complex lithology identification and heavy


mineral-detection) is covered in Section H,
Porosity in Complex Lithologies.
Examples of the direct use of the Pe curve
for lithology identification are shown in Figure C17. In the case of an anhydrite, Pe is
equal to that of limestone. Anhydrite is positively identified by the bulk density or density
porosity values.

Figure C16: Typical Litho-Density Responses for Common Sedimentary Rocks

(05/96) C-18

Figure C17: Lithology Identification with the CNT, Litho-Density and Pe

(05/96) C-19

Introduction to Openhole Logging

C3.5

FACTORS AFFECTING THE


DENSITY LOG

Lithology
The correct ma must be known to get correct porosity.
Shale
The density of shale in sands can range from
2200 to 2650 but is usually close to 2650, the
same as sandstone. In shaly sands, the density
usually gives a good value of effective porosity regardless of the shale content. The shale
appears as matrix to the density tool.
b = f e + ma (1 e Vsh) + shVsh
collecting terms:
b = f e) + ma(1 e) + Vsh (sh ma)
if sh = ma , the last term is zero.
Fluid Type
The depth of investigation is quite shallow:
usually most of the formation fluid is flushed
away from the wellbore and the density tool
sees drilling fluid or filtrate in the pore space.
Hence, the values of f to use is that of the
drilling mud filtrate rather than the formation
water density.
Oil
Residual oil will make density porosities
slightly high, because oil is lighter than drilling mud filtrate.

(05/96) C-20

Water
Water density is proportional to the amount
of salt content. The value of f is selected in
the computer for porosity determination.
Gas
The f of gas is 100300 kg/m3. Porosity
determination in gas zones may be high if
there is residual gas near the borehole. Usually most of the gas is flushed and little effect is
seen on the density log.
Compaction
The density tool is unaffected by lack of
compaction.
Secondary Porosity
The density reads intercrystalline, vugular
and fractured porosity. The porosity measured
is therefore total porosity.
Borehole Effect
Density gives good values for smooth holes
up to 381 mm in diameter. The tool compensates for minor borehole rugosity, but a rough
hole causes the density to read too low densities (high porosities) because the skid-toformation contact is poor.
Mudcake
For normal mudcake thickness, there will be
no effect because the tool automatically compensates for mudcake.
However for a correction of 100 kg/m3
and greater (i.e., > 100 kg/m3), the tool
compensation may be insufficient and the b
no longer representative of the formation density. In this case, the density should obviously
not be used for porosity calculations.

Introduction to Openhole Logging

C4.0 Porosity Measurements from the


Compensated Neutron Tool
C4.1 INTRODUCTION
Neutron logs are used principally for the delineation of porous formations and determination of their porosity. They respond primarily
to the amount of hydrogen in the formation.
Thus, in clean formations that have pores
filled with water or oil, the neutron log reflects the amount of liquid-filled porosity.
Gas zones can often be identified by comparing the neutron log with another porosity
log or a core analysis. A combination of the
neutron log with one or more other porosity
logs yields even more accurate porosity values
and lithology identificationeven an evaluation of shale content.

C4.2 PRINCIPLE
Neutrons are electrically neutral particles,
each with a mass almost identical to the mass
of a hydrogen atom. High-energy (fast) neutrons are continuously emitted from a radioactive source in the sonde. These neutrons collide with the nuclei of the formation materials
in what may be thought of as elastic billiardball collisions. With each collision, the neutron loses some of its energy.
The amount of energy lost per collision depends on the relative mass of the nucleus with
which the neutron collides. A greater energy
loss occurs when the neutron strikes a nucleus
of practically equal mass (i.e., a hydrogen
nucleus). Collisions with heavy nuclei do not
slow the neutron much. Thus, the slowing of
neutrons depends largely on the amount of
hydrogen in the formation.
Within a few microseconds, the neutrons
have been slowed by successive collisions to
thermal velocities, corresponding to energies
of about 0.025 eV. They then diffuse randomly, without losing more energy, until they are
captured by the nuclei of atoms such as chlorine, hydrogen or silicon.
The capturing nucleus becomes intensely
excited and emits a high-energy gamma ray of
capture.

Figure C18: Schematic Drawing of the Dual


Spacing Compensated Neutron Tool

(09.95) C-

22

When the hydrogen concentration of the


material surrounding the neutron source is
large, most of the neutrons are slowed and
captured within a short distance of the source.
On the contrary, if the hydrogen concentration
is small, the neutrons travel farther from the
source before being captured. Accordingly,
the counting rate at the detector increases for
decreased hydrogen concentrations and vice
versa. Thus, the neutron tool responds to the
hydrogen index of the formation. The hydrogen index is a measurement of the amount of
hydrogen per unit volume of formation (HI of
water = 1).
Neutron logging tools include the GNT
(Figure C19) tools series (no longer in use),

sidewall neutron porosity (SNP) tools (in limited use) and the CNL tool series, which
includes the compensated neutron and DNL*
Dual-Energy Neutron Log. The current tools
use americium-beryllium (AmBe) sources to
provide neutrons with initial energies of several million electron volts.
1) SNP
- detects epithermal neutrons
- utilizes a skid mounted single detector
- can be run in open hole only, either
liquid-filled or empty
- most corrections are automatically applied during logging
- limited availability.

Figure C19: Neutron Energy Travel History

(05/96) C-23

Introduction to Openhole Logging

2) CNL tool
detects thermal neutrons
- The CNL tool uses a two-detector system that depth and resolution matches
each count rate before the ratio is
computed. The ratio value is then
converted to porosity on a linear scale
(Figure C20), based on the matrix selected for the computation (limestone,
sandstone or dolomite).
- Conversion from one porosity assumption to another can be done using Chart Por-13b (Figure C22). Por13b converts curves labelled "NPHI"
that are not environmentally corrected
and also converts for curves labelled
"TNPH" and "NPOR," which are environmentally corrected.
- The CNL tool is especially designed
for use in combination with other devices.
- The CNL tool can be run in liquidfilled holes, either open or cased, but
not empty holes (i.e., air- or gas-filled
holes.)
3) DNL tool
detects thermal and epithermal neutrons
- The DNL tool incorporates two epithermal neutron detectors in addition
to the two thermal neutron detectors.
Two separate porosity measurements
are obtained, one from each pair of
detectors.
- Improves the response to gas and enhances interpretation in the presence
of thermal neutron absorbers.
- In shaly formations containing a large
number of thermal neutron absorbers,
the porosity measured by the epithermal detectors reads lower and agrees

(05/96) C-24

more closely with density-derived porosity.


- As with the CNL tool, the DNL tool is
especially designed for use in combination with other devices. In addition,
the DNL tool can be run in liquidfilled holes, air/gas-filled holes (epithermal porosity only) and open or
cased holes.
C4.3

FACTORS AFFECTING CNL


LOGS

Lithology
A single known matrix must be present to
accurately determine porosities. Large errors
can occur if the matrix selection is incorrect.
Shale
The presence of hydrogen in chemically
bound water causes the CNL/DNL tool to
read high porosities in shales or shaly formations.
Fluid Type
Water: Fresh water has no effects. Saline
water has a reduced hydrogen content and the
CNL/DNL tool will read low porosity; the
correction is in the chart book.
Liquid Hydrocarbons: If the hydrogen content is close to that of water, there is little or
no effect.
Gas: If the hydrogen concentration is low,
the CNL/DNL tool reads low porosity.
Compaction
All neutron logs are unaffected by compaction.

Figure: C20
(05/96) C-25

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Secondary Porosity
All neutron equipment measures total porosity (including primary and secondary).
Borehole Effect
The effects of rough hole are minimized by
a large depth of investigation obtained by the
use of a high-yield source and the twodetector system.
When run in combination with the density
tool, an automatic caliper correction system is
accurate to [356 mm]. Normally there is zero
standoff correction.

(05/96) C-26

Mudcake
Corrections for mudcake, fluid (mud and
formation) salinity, mud weight, pressure and
temperature are in Charts Por-14(a) and 14(b),
in the Log Interpretation Chart Book, but are
not discussed in this course.
The average net correction is usually between one and three porosity units. Hence, for
calculations by hand, the correction is usually
not done.

Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves


Sidewall Neutron Porosity (SNP), Compensated Neutron Log (CNL*)

When the SNP or CNL log is recorded in limestone porosity units, this chart is used to find porosity in sandstones or
dolomites. For the SNP log, first correct for mudcake thickness. (Chart Por-15 is used for SNP mudcake
corrections.)
For the CNL log, simply enter the chart in abscissa with the apparent limestone neutron porosity; go to the appropriate
matrix line, and read true porosity on the ordinate. (Chart Por-14 is used for CNL environmental
corrections.)
EXAMPLE: Sandstone bed
Giving, hmc = 1/4 in.
SNP = 13 pu (apparent limestone porosity)
SNP = 11 pu (corrected for mudcake)
Bit Size = 77/8 in.
And, SNP (sandstone) = 14 pu
SNP caliper = 75/8 in.
This chart can also be used to find apparent limestone porosity (needed for entering the various CP-crossplot charts) if
the SNP or CNL recording is in sandstone or dolomite porosity units. This chart should be used for CNL values labeled
NPHIit should not be used for CNL values labeled TNPH or NPOR.

Por-13a
Figure C21
(05/96) C-27

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Neutron Porosity Equivalence Curves


Compensated Neutron Log (CNL*)

*Mark of Schlumberger

Por-13b
Figure C22
(05/96) C-28

C5.0 Total Porosity Determination


We have seen that porosity measurements
are inferred from measurements of bulk density, hydrogen index and acoustic traveltimes.
We have also seen that each measurement
provides the necessary input to calculate porosity under the following conditions:
Porosity type is intergranular, not fractured or secondary (vuggy, moldic,
etc.).
Matrix type is known and constant.
Rock is clean, (i.e., no shale present).
Porosity is filled with fluid.
Violations of any of these conditions will
cause the different porosity measurements to
disagree in one fashion or another. This can
be used to determine lithology, primary and
secondary porosity and gas vs. liquid content.
The question to be answered here is: Which
porosity measurement should be used?
In a sand-shale sequence, for initial computations,

a) if D is available, use TOTAL = D


b) if N and t are available, use TOTAL
= S with compaction corrections
applied.
In a carbonate, for initial computations
(limestone matrix),
a) if N and D are available in sandstone
and limestone units, then use TOTAL:

N + D
T =

b) if only t is available, use TOTAL:



T = S + estimate VUGS.
If gas is present in the reservoir, additional
corrections to N and D must be applied, as
discussed in Section F.
Porosity calculations in complex lithologies shall
are discussed in Section H.

(05/96) C-29

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure C23: Porosity Comparison between the LDT, CNT and SLT
(05/96) C-30

C6.0 GR Log
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The GR log is a measurement of the natural
radioactivity of the formations. In sedimentary
formations the log normally reflects the shale
content of the formations. This is because the
radioactive elements tend to concentrate in
clays and shales. Clean formations usually
have a very low level of radioactivity, unless
radioactive contaminant such as volcanic ash
or granite wash is present or the formation
waters contain dissolved radioactive salts.
"Clean"
Formation
Sands
Limestones
Dolomites

radioactive elements of the uranium and thorium series.


Each of these elements emits gamma rays,
the number and energies of which are distinctive for each element. Figure C24 shows the
energies of the emitted gamma rays: potassium (K40) emits gamma rays of a single energy at 1.46 MeV, whereas the uranium and
thorium series emit gamma rays of various
energies.

GR Reading
15 to 30 API
10 to 20 API
8 to 15 API

The GR log can be recorded in cased wells,


which makes it very useful as a correlation
curve in completion and workover operations.
It is frequently used to complement the SP log
and as a substitute for the SP curve in wells
drilled with salt mud, air or oil-base muds. In
each case, it is useful for the location of shales
and nonshaly beds and, most importantly, for
general correlation.
6.2 PROPERTIES OF GAMMA RAYS
Gamma rays are bursts of high-energy electromagnetic waves that are emitted spontaneously by some radioactive elements. Nearly
all the gamma radiation that occurs in the
earth is emitted by the radioactive potassium
isotope of atomic weight 40 (K40) and by the

Figure C24: Gamma Ray Emission Spectra


of Radioactive Minerals

(05/96) C-31

Introduction to Openhole Logging

In passing through matter, gamma rays experience successive Compton-scattering collisions with atoms of the formation material,
losing energy with each collision. After the
gamma ray has lost enough energy, it is absorbed, by means of the photoelectric effect,
by an atom of the formation. Thus, natural
gamma rays are gradually absorbed and their
energies degraded (reduced) as they pass
through the formation. The rate of absorption
varies with formation density. Two formations with the same amount of radioactive ma-

(05/96) C-32

terial per unit volume, but with different densities, will show different radioactivity levels;
the less dense formations will appear slightly
more radioactive. (Figure C25).
GR uses:
1. definition of shale beds
2. indicator of shale content
3. detection of radioactive and nonradioactive minerals
4. identification of formation tops.

Figure C25: Relative GR Response for Various Rocks/Formations


(05/96) C-33

Introduction to Openhole Logging

6.3

NGS NATURAL GAMMA RAY


SPECTROMETRY TOOL
Like the GR log, the NGS Natural Gamma
Ray Spectrometry tool measures the natural
radioactivity of the formations. Unlike the GR
log, which measures only the total radioactivity, this log measures both the number of
gamma rays and the energy level of each and
permits the determination of the concentrations of radioactive potassium, thorium and
uranium in the formation rocks (Figure C27).
Physical Principle
Most of the gamma ray radiation in the earth
originates from the decay of three radioactive
isotopes: potassium (K40), uranium 238 (U238)
and thorium 232 (Th232).
Potassium-40 decays directly to the stable
argon-40 with the emission of a 1.46-MeV
gamma ray. However, uranium-238 and thorium-232 decay sequentially through a long

sequence of various daughter isotopes before


arriving at stable lead isotopes. As a result,
gamma rays of many different energies are
emitted and fairly complex energy spectra are
obtained, as Figure C26 shows. The characteristic peaks in the thorium series at 2.62 MeV
are caused by the decay of thallium-208 and
bismuth-214 respectively.
It is generally assumed that formations are
in secular equilibrium; that is, the daughter
isotopes decay at the same rate as they are
produced from the parent isotope. This means
that the relative proportions of parent and
daughter elements in a particular series remain fairly constant; so, by looking at the
gamma ray population in a particular part of
the spectrum it is possible to infer the population at any other point. In this way, the
amount of parent isotope present can be determined.

Figure C26: Potassium, Thorium and Uranium Response Curves (NAl Crystal Detector)
(05/96) C-34

Figure C27
(05/96) C-35

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Once the parent isotope population is


known, the amount of nonradioactive isotope
can also be found. The ratio of potassium-40
to total potassium is stable and constant on
the earth, whereas, apart from thorium-232,
the thorium isotopes are rare and so can be
neglected. The relative proportions of the uranium isotopes depend somewhat on their environment, and there is also a gradual change
because of their different half-lives; at
present, the ratio of uranium-238 to uranium235 is about 137.

Applications:
- identification of radioactive sands that
may be misinterpreted as shales
- identification of different types of
shales/clays (see Figure C28)
- depth correlation (same as GR)
- complex lithology analysis.

Figure C28: Classification of Radioactive Minerals as a Function of the Th and K Values

(05/96) C-36

Introduction to Openhole Logging

C7.0 Borehole Geometry


by Caliper Measure
C7.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The hole diameter is usually recorded in
conjunction with the following surveys:
- Sonic logs (BHC versions, ASI Array
Seismic Imager, DSI Dipole Shear
Sonic Imager)
- Microresistivity logs (microlog, Micro-SFL, EPT Electromagnetic Propagation logs)
- Litho-Density logs
- Dipmeter logs (Dual Dipmeter Formation MicroScanner, FMI Formation
MicroImager tools)
- Borehole geometry log

The readings given by different calipers in


the same hole may be different depending on
the caliper design and the hole cross section.
Figure C29 shows the characteristics of the
different calipers:

No. of
Arms

Phasing of the
Arms (Degrees)

Sonic tool

120

16 in. [406 mm]

Microlog tool

20 in. [508 mm]

Micro-SFL tool
(option A)

16 in. [406 mm]

Micro-SFL tool
(option B)

90

22 in. [558 mm]

Density tool

Short Arm 16 in. [406 mm]


Long Arm 21 in. [533 mm]

Dipmeters

90

FMS/FMI 22 in. [558 mm]

Borehole Geometry
tool

90

Standard 30 in. [762 mm]


Special 40 in. [1016 mm]

Dual Axis

180

16 in. [406 mm]

Caliper tool

Maximum Diameter

Remarks
3 arms coupled
1 reading
1 arm
1 reading
1 arm
1 reading
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 paired readings
1 arm
1 reading
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 independent readings
4 arms coupled 2 2
2 independent readings
2 arms coupled
1 reading

Figure C29: Caliper Specifications for Different Devices Stated on the Logs

(09/95) C-

38

1) Mudcake is a good reason to have different calipers reading different values:


- If the arm of the caliper is the
blade type, it will cut into the cake
and this arm will ignore the thickness of the mudcake.
- If the arm is of the pad type, it will
skid over the cake and the mudcake thickness will be taken into
account.
2. Assuming no mudcake, the readings
of different calipers in a perfectly
round hole will be identical.
But holes are not always round. In
clearly ovalized holes, two- three- and
four-arm calipers will read different
hole diameter values, mostly because
of the way these arms are coupled together.
If the logging tool is fairly free to rotate inside the hole:
-Two-arm calipers will ride using the
larger diameter of the hole.
-Four-arm calipers will ride with one
pair of coupled arms using the
larger diameter of the hole.
3) In deviated wells, calipers may partially collapse under their own weight
and give readings that are too low.
The following example (Figure C30)
shows different calipers in an ovalized hole:

- The sonic caliper (three arms


linked together) shows an average
hole diameter.
-The density caliper (one arm) is applied on the wall with strength. Its
back-up arm will cut into the mudcake. If no small-axis hardware is
used, it will orient itself to read the
largest diameter. If small-axis
hardware is used, the LithoDensity tool tracks the smoother,
short axis of the hole (if ovality exists).
-The microlog caliper (one arm) will
probably orient itself to read the
larger diameter. Its pad will skid
on any mudcake. This is the case
in the upper part and lower part of
this section.
- Most calipers are designed to
record accurate hole diameters in
cylindrical boreholes. When boreholes are noncylindrical and depending on caliper configurations,
a tool string will orient itself in
some preferential direction. This
can effect both caliper readings
and log responses.
Using Figure C31, consider the caliper
responses in a 200- 400-mm oval
borehole for the various caliper types,
configurations and preferred tool
orientations. 100 m of 200- 400mm hole has a volume of 6.28m3.

(05/96) C-39

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure C30: Comparison of Various Caliper Responses


(05/96) C-40

Single-Arm Caliper Configuration:


records one borehole diameter = 400
mm
calculated 100 m hole volume = 12.57
m3 (+100% error)
tool examples:
- Litho-Density log
(No short-axis hardware)
- MicroSFL tool (option A)
- EPT Electromagnetic Propagation tool.
Two-Arm Caliper Configurations:
a. Unidirectional
records one borehole diameter = 400
mm
calculated 100 m hole volume = 12.57
m3 (+100% error)
tool example:
- MicroSFL tool (option B).

b. Bidirectional Long Axis


records one borehole diameter = 195
mm
records a second diameter = 195 mm
calculated 100 m hole volume = 2.9
m3 ( 53%).

c. Bi-directional Short Axis


Records one borehole diameter = 273
mm
Records a second diameter = 273 mm
Calculated 100m hole volume =
5.85m3 (7%).
Figure C31: Caliper Responses Under
Various Hole Conditions

(05/96) C-41

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96) C-42

Three-Arm Caliper Configurations:


a. Centered
records one borehole diameter = 260
mm
calculated 100 m hole volume =
5.31m3 (15%)
tool example:
- sonic log.
b. 90- Degree Offset
records one axis diameter = 200 mm
records a second diameter = 382 mm
calculated 100m hole volume = 6.00
m3 (4%)
tool examples:
- CNL Compensated Neutron
log
- Litho-Density log (short-axis
hardware applied).
Four-Arm Caliper Configuration:
records one-axis diameter = 200 mm
records a second diameter = 400 mm
calculated 100-m hole volume = 6.28
m3 (0%)
tool examples:
- borehole geometry log
- Dual-Dipmeter tool
- Formation MicroScanner
- FMI Formation MicroImager.

Figure C31 (Continued)

(05/96) C-43

Introduction to Openhole Logging

C8.0 Work Session


1a. For the example logs of Figures C32 C34, calculate the following:
(Formation = Sandstone)
581 m

600 m

a. RILD
b. Rt
c. t
d. S
e. D
f. N

2. Using the sonic log of Figure C34, calculate the sonic porosity at 586 m.
tf = 620 sec/m
tma = 182 sec/m
t - tma
s =

=
tf - tma
t - tma)

s =

=
t

b. Using Chart Por-3m (Figure C6)

s Wyllie Time-Average =
s Field Observation =
(05/96) C-44

3a. On the CNTLitho-Density log of Figure C35, what effect is seen at 1941 to 1946 m?

b. Using the Pe, what is the lithology in this zone?

c. Convert the log readings (N and D) to equivalent sandstone values.

d. Explain the effect identified in question 3a.

(05/96) C-45

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure C32
(05/96) C-46

Figure C33
(05/96) C-47

Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure C34
(05/96) C-48

Figure C35
(05/96) C-49

Contents
D1.0 BASIC QUICKLOOK INTERPRETATION .............................................................................................. 1
D1.1 QUICKLOOK METHODS ................................................................................................................... 1
D1.2 METHOD ONE: OVERLAY TECHNIQUE .......................................................................................... 1
D1.3 METHOD TWO: RWA TECHNIQUE ................................................................................................... 2
D1.4 METHOD THREE: DIRECT METHOD OF CALCULATING WATER
SATURATION FOR CLEAN ZONES ................................................................................................ 5
D2.0 WORK SESSION ..................................................................................................................................... 9

(05/96)

Introduction to Openhole Logging

(05/96)

D1.0 Basic Quicklook Interpretation


D1.1

QUICKLOOK METHODS

Quicklook methods of log interpretation can


be classified as those used to identify possible
producing intervals, usually at the wellsite.
The requirements are to locate permeable
beds, calculate bed thicknesses, porosities and
saturations of hydrocarbon zones and predict
producibility. These generally simplified
techniques are not intended as a substitute for
more comprehensive methods of interpretations.
The methods covered here are
1) overlay technique
2) Rwa
3) direct method of calculating Sw.
A note of caution, though, because there are
some assumptions that should be considered
when using quicklook techniques. The zone
should have
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

constant Rw
thick, homogenous formation
continuous clean lithology
clean-water-bearing zone
moderate invasion and of step profile.

D1.2

METHOD ONE:
OVERLAY TECHNIQUE

a. Define the clean zones (no clay) on


the log with the GR and SP.
b. Find a clean, 100%-wet zone on the
log: this should have a good SP deflection, low GR, good porosity and
low resistivity.
c. In the clean, wet zone found in Step
(b), overlay the sonic t on the deep
resistivity curve. (If no sonic is available use density porosity.)
d. Keeping the logs parallel and in the
same relative position, trace the deep
resistivity curve on the sonic log for
the zones found in Step (a).
e. Any zone where there is high resistivity relative to sonic porosity (t) has
hydrocarbon and should be evaluated
further.
f. Use the same 100%-wet zone found
in Step (b), and overlay the sonic t
on the neutron porosity curve.
g. Trace the neutron porosity curve on
the sonic log for the clean zones defined in Step (a). Make sure the neutron and sonic log stay parallel and in
the same relative position.

(05/96) D-1

Introduction to Openhole Logging

h. In the hydrocarbon zones defined in


Step (e), where the neutron porosity
decreases and the sonic t increases
the zone is gas bearing. All other hydrocarbon zones contain oil.
i. On the density porosity log define a
cutoff value of porosity based on test
and production experience for the
area.
j. When the density porosity is above
this value, the zone will produce fluid. Below the cutoff value, no production will occur.
D1.3 METHOD TWO:
Rwa TECHNIQUE
This technique assumes that all zones are
100% wet, estimates a value for Rw, and subsequently studies the anomalies to the first
assumption.

Rt
Rwa =
F
This value will represent Rw for the formation if the assumption that all zones are wet is
correct.
If the zones are not all at Sw = 100%, the
value of Rwa will vary depending upon the actual Sw of the formation.
If we select the minimum value of Rwa and
call it Rw, then we can make a comparison of
all calculated Rwa values against this Rwa (minimum) value through substitution into Archie's equation as follows:
FRw
Given S

2
w

Consider Archie's equation:


aRw
S

2
w

Rt
FRw

If Sw = 100%, then

=
m Rt

Rt

Rt
Rwa =

Assume: Sw = 100%

FRw
then

or conversely, Rt = FRwa

=1
Rt
Rt

Rearrange to solve for Rw: Rw =


F
Because we assume that all zones have Sw =
100%, we state

Substituting Rwa
for Rt yields

(minimum)

FRwa(minimum)
S

2
w

FRwa
Rwa(minimum)
or S

2
w

=
Rwa

(05/96) D-2

for Rw, and FRwa

Hence, we can compare the minimum Rwa


value against all other Rwa values calculated
and compute Sw.
To work effectively, this technique requires
that we in fact have a zone at Sw = 100% and
that Rt or vary through the zones to be evaluated.
Procedure for Rwa Analysis:
Problem: Find: Sw given a resistivity log,
plus either a sonic, neutron or density log.
Solution: This interpretation method is
generally suited to sands, where porosity
plus resistivity logs are available (refer
to Nomograph in Figure D1).
- Logs must be zoned so that the formations to be evaluated have reasonably
consistent matrix and Rw values.
- Calculate a series of Rwa values in permeable zones. Check the Rwa values (see
later comments).
- When Rwa 3Rw, investigate the zone
for possible hydrocarbon presence, because Sw < 58% where Rwa > 3Rw.
- If Rw is known, Sw may be calculated by
Sw2 = Rw/Rwa.
- If Rw is unknown, choose a minimum Rwa
value Rw. Several points should be examined to establish a suitable Rw value
(i.e., anomalously low Rw values should
be avoided, because they may be due to
calcareous streaks or other matrix influences, etc.).

- The general rule for indicating zones of


potential hydrocarbons is when Rwa 3Rw
(approximate Sw = 58%). When Rmf > Rw, such
an Rwa calculation may be due to the influence
of invasion on the Rt device in a water sand.
To help resolve this problem, an apparent
mud filtrate resistivity value (Rmfa) may be
computed using a shallow investigation resistivity reading e.g., Micro-SFL, SFL tool and
AT-10.
R(shallow device)
Rmfa =
F
Quality Checks on Rwa Values:
Assuming that Rw< Rmf:
1. If Rmfa Rwa Rw, invasion is shallow
and Rwa is correct. The zone is water
bearing.
2. If Rmfa Rmf, there is probably some
residual hydrocarbon saturation in the
flushed zone. This would confirm a
hydrocarbon indication on the Rwa
curve.
3. If Rmfa Rmf and Rw Rwa Rmf, deep
invasion may have occurred. Check
favorable Rwa indications further.
- Having checked Rwa values
and selected an Rw value, proceed to calculate Sw for all
zones where Rwa 3Rw (Sw2 =
Rw/Rwa).
Limitations
Limitations of this technique are similar to
those for crossplots. The influence of invasion, shale, gas and matrix changes for each
device should be recognized.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Figure D1
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D1.4

All water saturation calculations are based


on one form or other of Archie's saturation
formula, where:
FRw
S

n
w

PSP

METHOD THREE: DIRECT


METHOD OF CALCULATING
WATER SATURATION FOR
CLEAN ZONES

=
Rt
aRw
=

SSP =
1-Vsh
where Vsh is from the GR.
d. Water Catalog: This is a summary of
DSTs and produced water samples.
Some countries have logging societies
that publish these catalogs.
F - Formation Factor
Formation factor may be obtained for Rxo
measurements (e.g., Micro-SFL Focused Log,
electromagnetic
propagation
resistivity
[EPR]).

mRt
By calculating suitable input parameters
we can solve these equations for water
saturation in shale-free zones.
Rw - Formation Water Resistivity
An accurate knowledge of Rw is essential but
often difficult to obtain. Rw values can be obtained from:
a. Production Water Samples: samples
should be collected prior to any chemical treatment; measure resistivity and
temperature of the sample.
b. Drillstem Tests (DSTs): if possible,
collect three samples, at top, middle
and bottom of the tool. Measure all
three resistivities and record temperatures. The sample with the lowest
value should be most representative
of Rw.
c. SP Log: if necessary, bed thickness
corrections, etc., should be made prior
to calculating Rw. (When shale is
present, the SSP may be estimated by
PSP).

Rxo
F =

Sxo2
Rmf

- Porosity
Porosity may be obtained from neutron,
density, sonic or a combination of these devices.
Rt - True Resistivity
True resistivity may be obtained from ILD,
IDPH or LLD; any borehole and invasion corrections should be applied to the raw readings
to obtain Rt.
Chart Sw-1a (Figure D2) is a convenient method of solving this formula. However, note
that the F versus relationship used is F =
1/2.
If any other relationship is used, F must be
calculated before entering the chart.
Remember, knowledge of formation water
resistivity is essential for making an accurate
interpretation.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

Saturation Determination
(Clean Formations - Humble Relationship)

This nomograph solves the Archie water saturation equation Sw =

R0
=
Rt

FrRw
Rt

It should be used in clean (nonshaly) formations only. If R0 (resistivity when 100% water saturated) is known, a straight
line from the known R0 value through the measured Rt value gives saturation, Sw. If R0 is known, it may be determined by connecting the formation water resistivity, Rw, with the formation resistivity factor, FR, or
porosity,
Example:

Rw =
=
Rt =
Thus, Sw

0.05 .m at formation temperature


20% (FR = 20)
10 .m
= 31.6%
Chart Sw-1a
Figure D2

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Saturation Determination
(Clean Formations - m = 2)

This nomograph solves the Archie water saturation equation Sw =

R0
=
Rt

FrRw
Rt

It should be used in clean (nonshaly) formations only. If R0 (resistivity when 100% water saturated) is known, a straight
line from the known R0 value through the measured Rt value gives saturation, Sw. If R0 is known, it may be determined by connecting the formation water resistivity, Rw, with the formation resistivity factor, FR, or
porosity,
Example:

Rw =
=
Rt =
Thus, Sw

0.05 .m at formation temperature


20% (FR = 20)
10 .m
= 31.6%

Chart Sw-1b
Figure D3
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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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Contents

E1.0 SHALY FORMATIONS ............................................................................................................................ 1


E1.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................ 1
E1.2 POROSITY IN SHALY FORMATIONS ............................................................................................... 3
E1.3 EVALUATION OF SHALE VOLUME (VSH) ......................................................................................... 4

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E1.0

Shaly Formations

E1.1 INTRODUCTION
Shales are one of the most important common constituents of rocks in log analysis.
Aside from their effects on porosity and permeability, this importance stems from their
electrical properties, which have a great influence on the determination of fluid saturations.
Archie's water saturation equation relating
formation resistivity to water saturation, assumes that formation water is the only electrically conductive material in the formation.
The presence of another conductive material
(e.g., shale) requires changes to either Archie's equation or the model relating resistivity
to water saturation. As well, the presence of
clay in the formation complicates the concept
of porosity. The water associated with the
clays can represent a significant amount of
porosity. However, this porosity is not available as a potential reservoir for hydrocarbons.
To this point, we have dealt with tool responses from our porosity devices that yield
total porosity T. At this time we have to introduce a new term, effective porosity, e,
which is that portion of the formation porosity
available to contain and produce fluids.

The presence of shale in formations generally affects the response of the logging devices.
In our discussions we usually speak of shaly
sands; however, the presence of shale in carbonates can often be treated in a similar manner.
As briefly mentioned before, we categorize
the distribution of shaly material in formations in three possible ways (see Figure E1):
1) Laminar Shale: occurs when shale exists in the form of laminae or thin layers between thin layers of sand. The
shale streaks do not actually influence
the effective porosity of the sand layers in the formation; however, as the
bulk volume of shale increases, the
overall formation porosity decreases.
The presence of the shale may have
considerable influence on the logging
tool responses.
2) Structural Shale: is defined as the
type of shale that exists as grains or
nodules in the formation matrix. It is
considered to have properties similar
to laminar shale.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

3) Dispersed Shale: occurs where the


shaly material is dispersed through
the sand to occupy part of the intergranular space. Dispersed shale reduces the pore space available for fluid accumulation and also reduces
formation permeability.
The evaluation of shaly sands requires that
we assume some distribution model. With the
advent of computers we can analyze formations on the basis of sedimentation principles.
Here we determine the silt and wet clay content of the shale; the former is a maximum
near the main sand body (high-energy deposition) and the wet clay becomes predominant

as distance from the main sand body increases


(low-energy deposition).
When shales consist of wet clay and silt, the
bulk volume fractions may be expressed as:
Vsh = Vsilt + Vclay
Another commonly used expression is
the silt index (Isilt) where
Isilt = Vsilt/Vsh
also
Vclay = Vsh (I Isilt).

Figure E1: Forms of Shale Classified by Manner of Distribution in the Formation


Pictoral Representations Above, Volumetric Representations Below

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E1.2

POROSITY IN SHALY
FORMATIONS
When a sand contains shale we cannot obtain an accurate value of effective porosity
from one porosity log. The responses of the
density and neutron logs to shale content in
sands is considered to be the same as in nearby bedded shales, no matter what model of
shale distribution is considered. On the other
hand, sonic logs have quite a different response between laminated-structural and dispersed shales.

b) Neutron (CNL/SNP) Logs


- Neutron tools respond to the amount
of hydrogen in the formation. Because
shales contain bound water, the porosity recorded by neutron devices in
shaly sands is always higher than the
effective porosity.

a) Density Logs
- When shale and sand matrix densities
are close to each other, the density log
is least affected by shale and reads
close to the effective porosity.
- When the shale matrix density is less
than 2650 kg/m3 the density log in
shaly sands will record porosities
higher than the effective porosity.
- When shale matrix density is greater
than 2650 kg/m3, the density log in
the shaly sands will record porosities
lower then the effective porosity.
- The relationship for liquid-filled shaly
sands can be written as

c) Sonic Logs
- Sonic traveltime in shales rises because of the fluid content of the
shales; hence, sonic porosities in shaly formations are always higher than
the effective porosity. To further enable sonic porosity determination, we
must also know what shale model is
present, and also whether a compaction correction is necessary.
- In compacted formations with shales
present, a general sonic relationship
may be written as

b = fe +ma (1 - e Vsh) + sh Vsh


or
b = (1 e)ma + ef
+ Vsh(sh ma)

- In liquid-filled shaly sands, the neutron relationships may be written as


N = e + Vsh(Nsh )

tlog = e Vsh)tma + (Vlam +


Vstr)tsh
+ e Vdis)tf
- In uncompacted zones, sonic porosities derived from this relationship
must also be corrected downward for
the lack of compaction.

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

E1.3

EVALUATION OF
SHALE VOLUME (Vsh)
Basic methods of shale (clay) volume calculation use the following indicators:
- Gamma ray
- NGS tool
- Spontaneous potential
- N versus D crossplot
N versus S crossplot
a) Gamma Ray
If the radioactivity of the shale content is
constant and if no other mineral in the formation is radioactive, the gamma ray reading
may be expressed as a function of clay content.
The formula can be written as
GRzone GRclean
Vsh =
GRshale GRclean

b) NGS Natural Gamma Ray


Spectrometry Tool
By using only thorium and potassium components of the gamma ray signal, the radioactive uranium element not associated with
shales will be eliminated. The same method is
then applied to the NGS as that for a regular
gamma ray.
CGRzone - CGRclean
Vsh =
CGRshale - CGRclean
These formulae will not hold true for zones
that contain radioactive matrix materials or
radioactive waters (e.g., granite wash sands).
Similarly, this method will not hold true
where nonradioactive shales occur.
Some typical values for formations are
- Clean Sandstone: GR = 1530 API
- Clean Carbonates
- Dolomite: GR = 1020 API
- Limestone: GR = 815 A.P.I.
- Shallow Cretaceous Shale: GR =
100140 API
Strictly speaking, all GR values should be
corrected for borehole effect and formation
density. However, this approximation is
usually satisfactory.

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c) Chart Calculation
The linear equations in (a) and (b) of this
section are good first estimates of shale volume. Chart Vsh-1 (Figure E2) allows us to
correct for the non-linear relationship between
Vsh and the GR deflection denoted as x. Line
(1) is generally used, yielding good interpretation results.

d) Spontaneous Potential (SP)


In waterbearing sands of low to moderate
resistivity, the ratio of SSP (static SP) to PSP
(pseudostatic SP) is indicative of clay content,
where
= PSP/SSP and Vsh = 1 -
If hydrocarbons are present, will be decreased because of the further reduction of
PSP by the hydrocarbons. Also, when using
this method to calculate Vsh, suitable bed
thickness must be present to obtain PSP and
SSP.

Figure E2: Chart Vsh- 1: Shale Model Correction

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Introduction to Openhole Logging

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