APPLICATION, DESIGN AND RATING OF TRANSFORMERS CONTAINING HARMONIC CURRENTS

C.L. Ivey, PE, Fellow Member IEEE

AEG Westinghouse Industrial Automation Corp.
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

Sheldon P. Kennedy, PE, Member IEEE

Niagara Transformer Corp.
Buffalo, New York

Paper # PPIC - 90-35

Abstract: The use of semiconductor power converters as power

supplies for both AC and DC motors is steadily increasing. These
converters produce harmonic currents which affect other types of
electrical equipment. It is the purpose of this paper to explore the
effect o these currents on transformers used in such systems. It
will dejne the problem, provide guidelines for the design and
rating of new transformers as well as define how to derate akting
tramformers that, as a result of a retrofit, now are subject to
harmonic currents.

Ih

kqk1
I,/h

=
=
=
=
=

harmonic number
any integer
pulse number of circuit
fundamental current
harmonic current

where
h
k
9
I,
Ih

GENERATION OF HARMONIC CURRENTS

Therefore, for a six pulse converter, the per unit harmonic currents in the ac power supply would theoretically be:

That power converters produce harmonic currents in the ac

supply line has long been known. The generation of harmonic
currents is described in IEEE Std. 519-1981 [l]and is paraphrased in the following paragraphs. These principles are used
to determine the harmonic currents present in the transformer
examples which appear subsequently in this paper.

h
Ih

5
7
11 13
17
19 23
200 .143 .091 .077 .059 -053 ,043

25

These values apply for k = 1to 4. Because the harmonic currents are essentially zero for values of k above 4, it is customary only to analyze for k values up through 4. Rigorous treatment would require extending the range of k.

A power converter by definition changes electrical energy from

one form to another. This change is accomplished by periodic
switching in the conducting circuits of the converter. A threephase bridge converter as shown in Fi$ure 1, for example, connects the line voltage with the highest instantaneous value of
voltage to the load. The switches in the system can be either
diode rectifiers or thyristors ( hase controlled rectifiers).
Combinations of one odd anzone even numbered th ristor will
connect the ac source to the load. The resulting undrectional
voltage is made up of the tops of sinusoidal waves, each top
being sixty degrees wide. It is a dc voltage with superimposed
hi h frequency ripple. Harmonic analyses show that the ripple
v3tage consists of the supply voltage with a frequency of multiples of six times (6n) the fundamental frequency.

The square current waves are based on the assumption that the
line current will transfer instantaneously when the higher ac
voltage causes a diode to start conducting. In practice, there is
reactance in the circuit which will cause the current transfer to
be more gradual, reducing the slope of the leading and trailing
edges of the square waves making them appear tra ezoidal as
opposed to square which reduces the magnitude o&he ac current harmonics. The time to transfer current is called the commutating angle mu G.). Figure 2 shows this relationship.
The switching elements of a rectifier are diodes. They will
start conducting as soon as a voltage is applied in the forward
or current carrying direction. The switching elements of a
phase controlled rectifier or converter are thyristors. Thyristors not only need a forward voltage but also a firing pulse with
reference to the voltage crossover to begin conduction. Firing
delay influences the manner in which current is transferred
from phase to phase, and this also influences the ma nitude of
the current harmonics. The delay angle is called alpia (a) and
is also shown in Figure 2. The followng table shows the relationship of the theoretical values to typical values due the the
trapezoidal waves.

The dc load circuit and the dc load itself contain inductance

which will flatten the load current. In converter theory, for
convenience sake, the dc current is considered to be constant.
On this basis, the actual load then can be either a dc motor or
another thyristor bridge and ac motor. The dc link effectively
decouples the load from the source. The generation of harmonic currents is then not a function of the type of dc load but
only from converter operation. The line currents at the ac side
of the converter will be flat topped waves. Power, the product
of voltage and current, at the dc side contains harmonics due to
the harmonics in the voltage. Since no energy storage can take
place in the elements of a converter, the power balance of
input and output requires harmonics in the input power and
thus harmonic currents will flow in the supply lines.

h
5
7
11 13 17
19 23 25
Theory 1, 200 .143 .091 .077 -059 -053 .043 -040
Typical I,, .175 .111 .045 .029 .015 .010 .009 .008

Energy balance considerations show, and Fourier analysis of

the square waves confirms, that each 6n harmonic in the dc
voltage requires harmonic currents of frequencies of 6n+ 1and
6n-1 in the ac line. The magnitude of the harmonic current is
essentially inversely proportional to the harmonic number,
Expressed in equation form:

For the example which will be used in the discussion of transformer design, a 2500 Hp, 2100/3/60 volt 548.35 Ampere
motor will be powered by a load commutated inverter. An
isolation transformer will be used whose voltage ratio is 2300
to 2185 volts. From the previous tables the line side harmonic
currents will be:

19

-Harmonic Current
I,
15

I,

I,,
I,,

I,,
I,,
IZ3
I,

lower temperature rise, the IZRloss is generally a lower value

which affects the per unit values based on IZR losses. The next
important fact to note here is that these stray losses may onl
be broken down with the aid of the actual wnding design idormation. Even then manufacturers disagree on the exact methods to use in order to calculate these stray losses. This is very
crucial with respect to the actual breakdown of these losses in
the treatments of these data which follow. These other stra
losses are referred to as Posh Load loss can then expresseias:

548.35
95.96
60.87
24.68
15.90
8.23
5.48
4.94
4.39

P,, = I2R

+ PE, + Po,,

(Watts)

(Ea. 2)

With this basic understanding of the construction and losses

generated in a transformer, the effects of harmonic currents on
these various losses can be considered. The treatment of these
topics is simplified with the user in mind. Actual transformer
design with respect to these aspects is quite complex and goes
be ond the scope of this paper. This paper will discuss the
eff!xt of harmonics on simple two winding transformers
(Delta-Delta, Wye-Delta and Delta-Wye).

The example will show how to rate the transformer, how to

account for the extra losses caused by the harmonic currents
and how to determine a standard transformer which could be
utilized.
EFFECTS OF HARMONIC CURRENTS ON
TRANSFORMERS

EFFECTS O F HARMONIC CURRENTS ON NO-LOAD

LOSSES

To better understand how harmonic currents affect a power

transformer a basic understanding of the construction of a
standard two winding transformer is necessary. Generally, a
two winding transformer is wound with the low voltage winding
placed next to the core leg with the high voltage winding
wound over the low voltage winding. The windings are concentrically wound with either a rectangular or circular crosssection depending upon the type of core construction. Generally power transformers up to about 50 MVA are of the three
legged core form type of construction. The core and coils are
held together with core clamps or structures which may be
made of steel, non-ma netic materials or even insulating
materials. Liquid filleltransformers are generally placed into
steel tanks. Dry type transformers may be either open core
and coil construction or housed in metal enclosures.

No-load or core loss can be broken down into core eddy loss,
hysteresis loss and a very small winding excitation loss. These
core eddy losses are not the same as the winding eddy-current
losses. These losses are basically a function of the lamination
thickness, the qualities of the core steel used, operating frequency, and the distortion factor imparted to the steel during
cutting and stacking. These losses vary on a Watt per pound
basis. Due to different manufacturing processes these losses
vary from manufacturer to manufacturer.
The harmonics flowing in the load current may also create harmonic distortions in the voltage waveforms. The higher the
core induction the more pronounced these effects will be as
saturation increases. This will create increased losses in the
core. This will also increase the exciting current and sound
level. The presence of third-harmonic voltage which can
produce third-harmonic current will be greatly reduced if the
transformer is designed with a three-phase three-legged core
1131.

Losses in transformers may be categorized as either load

losses, no-load losses or total losses. No-load loss is the excitation or core loss of the transformer. Load loss is the impedance loss of the transformer. The sum of the no-load loss and
load loss is the total loss of the transformer. These losses are
measured in units of Watts. Losses can be expressed as:

A more important concern is with the use of variable frequency

output transformers. With these transformers the Volts per
Hertz may not be constant. Often this may increase the Volts
per Hertz to a level of 1.2 times normal. In very extreme
conditions the Volts er Hertz may vary even more dramatically. The result of tfis is a direct increase in the core
induction which may cause the transformer core to go into
saturation. This may be quite damaging to the transformer
resulting in increased exciting current, even to the level of
short-circuit type currents. Sound levels will increase dramatically and core overheating will result. Core saturation
may permanently affect the core hysteresis curve creating
higher operating core losses and exciting current even when
the core is not operated in saturation. If the core goes into
saturation, electromagnetic fields may leave the core causing
overheating in structural parts of tank or enclousre walls. This
may cause damage to the system as well as to the transformer
itself. On the other hand, the harmonic heating effects on the
core in the previously discussed cases is not generally
considered to be extremely damaeing as long as loss of life in
the insulation system is not experienced and core saturation is
not experienced.

The load loss of a transformer can be further broken down into

12Rloss and stray loss. PR loss is the calculated loss of the
transformer found by measuring the dc resistance of the windings and multiplying the current in amperes squared times this
dc resistance. Stray loss is calculated by subtracting out the
calculated PR losses from the measured load losses. The
remainder is stray loss. Importantly, this can be found from
direct measurements performed on the transformer. Stray loss
is further broken down into winding stray losses and other stray
losses. Winding stray losses consists of eddy-current losses and
circulating current losses between strands or parallel windings.
This is considered to be all winding eddy-current loss, P
Electromagnetic fields from the alternating current pro$&e a
voltage across the conductors. This causes an eddy-current to
flow in the windings. Other stray losses are due to losses in
structures other than the windings themselves. These losses
are located in core clamps, tank or enclosure walls, and in the
core as well. Figure 3 helps to demonstrate these
electromagnetic fields.

In order to properly assess the effects of harmonic load currents on a transformer core one needs to know the harmonic
load characteristics, the Volts per Hertz which is expected, and
the core design characteristics. If one does not expect the
Volts per Hertz to be a variable it may be possible to use a
standard power transformer core with a load containing harmonic currents. However, a note of caution is given that the
problems discussed above may occur in some transformers.

Generally eddy and stray losses are higher in transformers with

higher currents or higher impedance, all other things being
equal. Eddy-current and stray losses are usually a higher
percentage of the load loss in lower temperature rise units.
Eddy-current and stray loss decrease with temperature. Lower
temperature rise transformers generally have larger conductor
cross-sectional area which gives lower IZR losses. Due to the
20

Since most of the leaka e flux has a tendency to fringe inwardly toward the core leg, t f e inner winding of a transformer
generally has a tendency to have higher eddy-current loss than
the outer winding. The leakage flux cuts across the thickness
dimensions of the conductor in the windings. the eddy-current
loss is proportional to the square of the conductor thickness, in
general. However, conductor shape and winding configuration
also affects the eddy-current losses [7].

Many specifications require the transformer employed to be

capable of a level of 10 to 15 percent higher volts per hertz
capability than the taps and turns ratios allow. This allows for
some fluctuation in the volts per hertz.
EFFECTS OF HARMONIC CURRENTS ON STRAY
LOSSES

If either windin is wound with conductors of two heights in the

layers, it is high! recommended that these wires be transposed. This will reduce circulating currents to a great extent.
Even if the windine may perform satisfactorily under sinusoidal
conditions, dramatic increases in temperature rise due to the
increase in harmonic currents which affect eddy-current losses
are found [7].

As stated previously, stray losses occur in the core clamps,

structures and tank or enclosure walls. These other stray
losses, PQSL,are generally proportional to current raised to a
power sh htly less than 2. Skin effect, or the depth of penetration ofelectromagnetic flux into these magnetic parts varies
with the field strength. Therefore, as frequency increases, the
penetration depth decreases. When a transformer is subjected
to load consisting of harmonic load currents these stray losses
elevate the temperature of the metallic parts to levels above
the normal sinusoidal levels.

Eddy-current loss in windings is considered to be proportional

to the square of the electromagnetic field stren th. Rather
than use the square of the electromagnetic fielistrength, the
square of the load current is used which produces each harmonic since this quantity should be known whether design data
is known or not. Eddy-current loss is also considered to be
equivalent to the square of the ac frequency for each harmonic.
Actually due to the skin effect, electroma netic flux may not
totally penetrate conductors at very high kequencies. This
would be conservative, however, a power of 2 is used in the
calculations.

In extreme cases, tanks and enclosures ma increase in temperature to levels which will blister the paint gom the exterior
surfaces. Heated parts in contact with the insulation system
may decrease insulation life. In liquid filled transformers,
overheated metallic parts may produce combustible gasses
which could lead to a failure. Fortunately, these generally are
only the extreme cases and the increased heating due to the
stray loss is not generally felt to be detrimental to transformer
o eration as long as localized heating does not cause any of the
alove to occur. Of course, the increased losses due to the
effects of the harmonics on the stray losses will increase the
overall losses of the transformer. The overall transformer loss
must be maintained within its insulation system's thermal
limits.

The effect of the increased eddy-current losses produced by

harmonic load current is to produce heat which must be dissipated by the transformer. The eddy current losses are the most
affected area of the loss which must be considered. It is felt
that this is the most critical area of concern with respect to the
increased losses produced by harmonic load currents. The
increased eddy-current losses are produced in the current
carrying conductors of the windings and leads. It also has the
effect of increasin the temperature rise of the transformer
hot-spot which is t%e most limiting factor in transformer
thermal design.

In general, dry type transformers of equivalent ratings to liquid

filled transformers will have somewhat lower stray losses. This
is due to the greater electrical clearances required in dry type
transformers. This lessens the electromagnetic field strength in
structural parts surrounding the core and coils. Offsetting this
are the better heat transfoer characteristics of liquid versus air.
This maintains the hot-spot tem eratures of liquid filled transformers at lower temperatures tian equivalent dry type
transformers.

EFFECT OF HARMONIC CURRENTS ON FR LOSSES

If the rms value of load current is maintained with the addition
of harmonic currents, the FR losses will be unaffected from
normal sinusoidal operation. These losses do not become
affected by harmomcs. However, if the rms value of the load
current is increased due to the harmonic currents, then of
course the PR losses will increase with the square of the
change in current level. Note that if the RMS value of load
current is maintained with the addition of harmonic currents,
the fundamental component is reduced which is the real work
producing component of power. If the fundamental component is maintained while harmonic currents are increased, the
RMS value of load current must increase.

EFFECT OF HARMONIC CURRENTS ON EDDYC U R R E N T S

To elaborate on the generation of eddy-current losses in windings, electromagnetic flux generates a voltage across each conductor in the winding which causes an eddy-current to flow in
the winding. The leakage flux in the windings flows across
axially up through the coils and then bends radially across the
windings. The leakage flux has its highest concentration on the
interface between the two windings and decreases as progress
is away from the barrier between the low and high voltage
windings. This concentrates the electromagnetic fields which
produce the eddy-current at the ends of the windin s. This will
fenerally be the greatest in the hot-spot region of tRe winding.
t has been assumed that the maximum eddy-current loss density is about 400% of the average eddy-current loss density for
that winding.

EFFECT OF HARMONIC CURRENTS ON

TEMPERATURE RISE
All of the effects of harmonic currents discussed so far have
had the end result of increasing the losses in the transformer.
These increased losses will obviously increase the temperature
rise of the transformer from its sinusoidal value. In general,
these losses will have the same effect on a transformer as
increasing the loading by 10% to 15%. This would be similar
to increasing the temperature rise based on sinusoidal losses
approximately 10" for liquid filled units and 30" to 35" for dry
type transformers. These are obviously general "rule of thumb
values and are given only for demonstration purposes. Actual
calculations may yield values greater or less than these and
must be calculated on a case b case basis. The above generalizations apply only to average Lsses. Increases in losses and
loading based on the hottest-spot winding area yield more
dramatic effects.

The leakage flux component from the inner low voltage windings generally has its greatest attraction to the core leg due to
its lower reluctance return path. The high voltage winding will
enerally divide its leakage flux component with part of it
eing attracted inwardly toward the core and the remainder
attracted to the core clamps and structural parts, tank or
enclosure walls, or the high reluctance non-magnetic return
paths surrounding the coils which are either air in the case of
dry type transformers or dielectric fluid in the case of liquid
filled transformers.

21

HOW TO COMPENSATE FOR THESE EFFECTS IN NEW

DESIGNS
A. How To Rate The Unit
The rating of a rectifier transformer should be based on a rectanplar wave shape with zero commutation angle. The kVA
ratin is based on the 60 Hz sine wave whose rms current is
equaf to the rms current of the square wave based on the maximum rms value of the dc current.

B. Design Example For 2500 HDDrive

Using the values of harmonic current levels developed earlier,
the rating of the transformer is checked for the load as specified. To determine the current rating of the transformer in
question, sum the squared values of each harmonic current.
Taking the square root of this summation will give the rms
value of the current for the transformer as follows:
HARMONIC:

HARMONIC
CURRENT

HARMONIC
CURRENT

1
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
25

548.35
95.96
60.87
24.68
15.90
8.23
5.48
4.94
4.39

300687.72
9208.32
3705.16
609.10
252.81
67.73
30.03
24.40
19.27

Summation
Square Root of Summation

314556.34
560.85 Amps

This will ive the approximate value of current for the transformer. 8nly values of k from 1through 4 have been included. A completely rigorous treatment would increase the rms
current value about 2.23% more. This would give a net rms
current value of 573.34 Amps.
For the design example for the sample 2500 Hp drive system,
assume that the line voltage is found to be 2185 Volts with a
maximum rms current rating of 573.34 Amperes. The calculated transformer kVA will then be:
Rated kVA = (Line Voltage) x (RMS Line Amps) x J3/(1000)
= 2185 V x 573.34 x 43 / (1000)
= 2170 kVA
The ASA Standard for Pool-Cathode Mercury Arc Rectifier
Transformers, (37.18 [lo], is now out of print. This standard
established lower limits of temperature rise for rectifier transformers. This was done to compensate for the higher losses
experienced under harmonic conditions. IEEE Standard
C34.3, "Practices and Requirements for Thyristor Converters
for Motor Drives" [12], has filled the gap resulting from the
expiration of (37.18. However, temperature rises were relaxed
and no allowance is really given for the additional harmonic
losses. A new document, "Practices and Requirements for
Semiconductor Power Rectifier Transformers", C57.18.10 [ 111,
to replace the e ired (257.18 is now in the process of being
relax the temperature limits of the old
written. It will
standard. In order for a rectifier transformer to operate
without overheating, it must be designed to operate at lower
temperature limits than the existing standards would indicate.
The transformer manufacturer must therefore desi n additional cooling capabilities into the transformer to handfe these
harmonics.

30

The standards ignore the differences in sine wave test results

and the actual losses under harmonic conditions. Loss measurements based on the standards are based only on the sinusoidal values obtained based on nameplate ratings. Therefore,
a sinusoidal loss temperature rise test performed on a rectifier
transformer must yield lower temperature rise limits than those
specified as the rated values based on the modem standards.
The harmonic currents given previously assume the normal
harmonic operating conditions to be expected. In attempts to
reduce power line pollution and improve power factor, higher
than expected harmonic currents have been introduced into
power systems. Power factor correction capacitors, wave traps,
and system impedances may all have dramatic effects on harmonic currents [ 11, [2]. On site harmonic analysis for complex
circuits may be necessary to determine the harmonic content of
the transformer load current. Once the harmonics are calculated or measured the losses in transformer windings and load
limits may be calculated. However, in order for a transformer
manufacturer to adequately design a rectifier transformer he
must be supplied with the harmonic spectrum to which the unit
will be subjected. Lacking this he can only assume ideal conditions which may lead to overheating problems even when normal harmonic conditions have been taken into account. m
s
demonstrates some of the obvious advantaees found in Durcha s h a coordinated svstem Dackage as opD6sed to assembling
all of the components individually.
"IEEE Recommended Practice for Establishing Transformer
Capability When Supplying Nonsinusoidal Load Currents",
ANSI/IEEE C57.110 [3], was recently produced in order to
give pidance to the application of transformers subjected to
nonsinusoidal load currents having a harmonic factor exceeding 0.05 per unit. Harmonic factor is defined as the ratios of
the effective value of all harmonics to the effective value of the
fundamental [161. However, the scope of this recommended
practice explicitly excluded rectifier transformers and specific
purpose transformers. This seems to be a contradiction at first
glance. However, the recommended practice takes a rather
conservative approach. It is assumed that a rectifier transformer has been designed specifically to accommodate these
harmonic currents and other conditions discussed above.
Therefore, derating of the unit is unnecessary. The unit has
been designed to operate at lower operating temperatures and
the windin hot-spot has been lowered to establish the capability to handfe the harmonic currents. Also, (37.110 treats all
eddy and stray losses the same. This is a more conservative
approach than considering the eddy losses alone as winding
losses and other stray losses to be less damaging. However, to
remain consistent with (37.110 its method is used in estimating
harmonic losses in a transformer designed s ecially for rectifier
duty. This also helps to offset the neglect o!giving
any additional loss consideration to the core loss in the transformer
cooling system.
Assume that the rectifier transformer designed for the sample
2500 Hp drive described has the following loss data:
2170 kVA Transformer Loss Data
Core Loss
I*R Loss
Eddy and Stray Loss
Total Load Loss

3500 w
15000 w
2250 W
17250 W

1.00 pu
0.15 pu
1.15 pu

Total Transformer Loss 20750 W

Also, shown above are the per unit values of the winding losses
using the PR losses as a base. In applying the methods shown
in C57.110 to estimate losses under the harmonic loading
given, the rms current value of the transformer, 573.34 Amps,
is used to establish per unit values of harmonic currents. The
effects on the eddy and stray losses are first estimated. The
harmonic order is designated by the letter, h. The total loss

actual losses may not be loaded in correct proportion in the

windings. Despite these facts, this is a reasonable method.

that the transformer would be subject to is then calculated.

The results are listed in Table 1.

Within limits it should be acceptable to use a factor to the 0.8

power [8] to find a derate factor in terms of temperature rise if
only rated sinusoidal losses are used to develop a safe temperature rise by test. If a 65C rise, liquid filled transformer is used,
it must limit liquid rise by the total losses, and winding rise
based on the load losses or

TABLE 1
Effects Of Harmonics On Eddv And Stray Losses
(1.0pu = 573.34)
h
1
5
7
11
13
17

Ihi4%)
95.96
60.87
24.68
15.90
8.23
5.48
4.94
4.39

Ih(PU)
0.957
0.168
0.106
0.043
0.028
0.015
0.010
0.009
0.008

'dl$y

h2
1

Sinusoidal Oil Rise = (20750 / 25045)O.s x 65 = 5592C

Sinusoidal Winding Rise = (17250 / 21545)0.8 x 65 = 54.41"C

'h@]ih2

0.725
0.588
0.242
0.132
0.067
0.036
0.043
0.044

A similar approach to a dry type transformer with the same

losses is used. Liquid rise is not considered, but the treatment
of the windin rise would be similar. Assume that the transformer is a 1gb"C rise unit. Then the derate factor for the
losses is based on the winding losses as above but applied to a
different temperature rise, or

2.793

Note that the total value of Ih2 does not quite equal the expected value of 1.000, because only values of k from 1throu h 4
were included. Also, the harmonic content of all other kequencies other than those shown above have been ignored. In
reality there are small contributions of harmonic current from
each frequency. A completely rigorous treatment would
increase the harmonic current content slightly by a value of
approximately 2 percent. This adds a per umt squared value of
approximately 0.04.

This yields results which are near the "rule of thumb" values of
temperature limitation given earlier in this paper. Of course
these are approximate results and cannot be considered to be
exact values of pass or fail criteria. However, if the sinusoidal
rated current test values are within these limits one should probably consider that the transformer will perform satisfactorily.
Also, keep in mind that a rather conservative approach has
been assumed. More involved approaches are sometimes used
in separate eddy-current and stray losses and analyze their
individual effects. Also, there are loading guides established
which may yield more accurate results than the simplified method given above [21], [22], and [23]. These methods are
beyond the scope of this paper.

Correcting the 4th and 6th columns by dividing the totals by

0.96026 gives a total of 2.909 in the last column. Note that the
harmonics have increased the total eddy and stray losses by a
factor of 2.909 times the original sinusoidal values [6].

It should be evident from these calculations that it is critical to

keep the eddy and stray losses as low as possible in a transformer designed for rectifier duty as these are the losses which
are amplified by the harmonic currents.

19
-_

23
25

0.029
0.012
0.002
0.00078
0.00023
0.00010
0.00008
0.00007

25
49
121
169
289
361
529
625

0.96026

Summation

Sinusoidal Winding Rise = (17250/21545)0.8x 150 = 12556C

PLL(PU) = 1.00 t 0.15 x 2.909 = 1.43635 PU

This com ares to the 1.15 pu value from the ori inal losses for
this transrormer, or approximately 1.249 times tke sinusoidal
load losses. This is equivalent to about 1.12 times the sinusoidal kVA load of the transformer. A comparison of the sinusoidal and harmonic losses are shown in the following Table:

A. Use of IEEE Recommended Practice C57.110 1986

IEEE Standard (37.110 has been discussed to some extent.
The main thrust of this work is the application to transformers
subject to harmonic loads. Whether by original system design
or not, standard power transformers subjected to nonsinusoidal
load currents having harmonic factor exceeding 0.05 percent
er unit are found. Typically the application engineer does not
Eave access to design data which would 've him the eddy-current and stray loss percentage of the loa&oss. Therefore, the
previous treatment cannot be applied directly. It must be
assumed that the power transformer had not been designed
with a winding hottest-spot reduction to allow for harmonic
current. Therefore, the hottest-spot limitation must be used as
the basis of loading.

2170 kVA Transformer

Sinusoidal Loss

Harmonic Loss

3500 W

3500 W

I*R Loss
Eddy and Stray Loss
Total.Load Loss

= 15000 W
= 2250 W
= 17250 W

15000 W
6545 W
21545 W

Total Transformer Loss

= 20750 W

25045 W

Core Loss

How then might the application engineer derate the transformer in order to reduce the possibility of overheating. Section 5.4
of C57.110 addresses this subject. A similar approach to that
already developed is used. Eddy-current losses are assigned to
each winding recognizing that the low voltage winding generates the majority of the eddy-current losses. All stray losses are
treated as thou h they were eddy-current losses in the windings
themselves. A i s is a conservative approach since the breakdown of the eddy-current and stray losses are not known. Calculations are used on the maximum eddy-current loss density
which is assumed to be in the hottest-spot region of the low
voltage winding and is assumed to be 400% of the average
eddy-current loss density for that windin . Note that these
treatments are more severe than a transformers specifically
designed for rectifier service.

The net effect in the design of the rectifier transformer is that

it must be able to cool the total transformer loss of 25045 W.
In addition, the windings must be able to handle the additional
loss of 21545 W rather than the sinusoidal losses of 17250W.
This re uires that the windings hot spot be lowered enough for
sinusoiial losses to accommodate these higher losses. To simulate these losses for a temperature rise test the windings could
be loaded to a loss level equal to the 21545 W shown previously. This would be approximately correct, but not entirely
adequate. The losses may not be developed in the same areas
of the transformer as they are under actual harmonic loading.
The actual higher frequencies are not present either. The
23

B. Example Of Same 2500 Hp Drive

The division of eddy-current loss between the windings is

assumed by (37.110 to be as follows:

Assume that the drive discussed before is going to be installed

on a system that has an existing 3000kVA transformer. The
transformer will be assumed to have the same voltage ratings
as were planned for the drive. Certified test data is available
which can be used to calculate the derating factor to be applied
to the drive.

a. 60% in the inner winding and 40% in the outer winding for
all transformers having a maximum self-cooled rating of
less than 1000 Amperes, regardless of turns ratio.
b. 60% in the inner winding and 40% in the outer winding for
all transformers have a turns ratio of 4:l or less.

3000 kVA three-phase transformer rated 65C OA

c. 70% in the inner windings and 30% in the outer winding

for all transformers having a turns ratio greater than 4:l
and also having one or more windings wth a maximum
self-cooled rating greater than 1000 Amperes.

Hieh voltaee winding

2300 Volts delta

Three-phase Series Resistance = 0.05555 Ohms @ 85C

Now that the precepts are established, how is the loss information obtained? One can usually obtain a certified test report
for the transformer in question from the manufacturer.
Lacking this information, the transformer must be tested in
accordance with the transformer test codes ANSI/IEEE
(257.12.90[17],and ASNI/IEEE (37.12.91 [MI.The stray loss
component of the load loss is found by subtracting the I2R loss
of the transformer from the measured load loss wth all values
corrected to rated temperature.

Low voltaee winding

2185 Volts wye

Three-phase Series Resistance = 0.01650Ohms @ 85C
Core Loss = 6220 Watts
Load Loss = 24043 Watts @ 85C
Total Loss = 30263 Watts
Calculating the resistance values and line currents yields the
following results:

By Equation 9 of C57.110 then,

PEG, = PLL- K[(11.R)2R, + (I,-R)'R~] WATTS

(Ea.3)
R, = 0.012344 Ohms
R, = 0.011000 Ohms

where
K = 1for single-phase transformers
K = 1.5 for three-phase transformers [IS1

12-R =

792.70Amps

PE,, can now be calculated from the previously developed

equation as follows:

Typically for three-phase transformers the test results give the

resistance of the three phases in series. R, and R, are
calculated as follows:
Delta winding:
Wye winding:

11-R = 753.07Amps

PE,

RIor R,

= 219 of three-phase resistance

R, or R, = 2/3 of three-phase resistance

= 24043 L5[.(753.05)2(0.012344) t (792.70)2(0.011000)]

= 24043 1.5[7000.5 + 6912.11;
= 24043 20869
= 3174 Watts

The transformer turns ratios is less than 4:l and the current is
also less than 1000 Amperes. Therefore, the low voltage maximum eddy-current loss can be calculated in per unit values.

The low voltage winding eddy-current loss may be calculated as

either 0.6P
,,
Watts or 0.7PEGR Watts, depending on the
transformer turns ratios and current rating. The low voltage
winding eddy-current loss per unit of its PR loss will be either

A table similar to Table 1is developed as Table 2,however,

792.70Amperes is the base for the per unit values.
or

TABLE 2
pBC-R(Pu)

0.7 PE---, Watts

pu

(EQ.5)

K(12.R)2R2 Watts

1h(Pu)2h2

1 .6918 .4785
5 .1211 .0147
7 .0768 .0059
11 .0312 .0010
13 .0201 .0004
17 . O W .00011
19 .0069 .00005
23 .0063 .00004
25 -0056 .00003

Since the maximum eddy-current loss density is assumed to be

400% of the average value.

or

Summation SO073
Using the above information we can use the methods developed in (257.110to develop a derating factor in order to safely
load the transformer.

1
25
49
121
169
289
361
529
625

fh

fh2

.4785 1.000 1.0000

.3675 .175 .0306
.2891 .111 .0123
.1210 .045 .0020
.0683 .029 .0008
.0318 .015 .0002
.OM1 .010 .0001
.0212 .009 .00008
.OM8 .008 .00006
1.4143

fh2h2

1.0000
.7650
.6027
.2420
.1352
.0578
.0361
.0423
.0375

1.04614 2.9186

The load losses are calculated on a per unit basis. This will be
based on the local loss density.
PLL(pu) = 0.50073
24

+ 0.7347 (1.4143) = 1.53982~~

obviously be easier to purchase a coordinated system. It would

also be more aDDroDriate to Durchase a transformer specificall
designed for rechfier dutv. Ii mav not be Dossible to Procure ay
so-called standard transformer which meets the considerations
iven above. The actual design of a rectifier transformer seeks
f o minimize the effects of the harmonics and make a more efficient system in terms of losses. The correct voltage ratios can
also be specified in the design. The transformer manufacturer
is responsible for the proper operation of the transformer only
if he is given all of the necessarycharacteristicsof the harmonic
spectrum. Standard transformers designed according to
C57.12.00 and (37.12.01 specifically exclude rectifier service.
Therefore, the manufacturer is not responsible for any problems resulting from the use of a standard transformer as a
rectifier transformer.

The maximum permissible nonsinusoidal load current with the

harmonic composition su plied that this transformer may
safely carry from Eq. 8 o?C57.110-1986 is calculated.
IMx(pu) = { 1.7347/[1 t (2.9186/1.04614)(0.7347)]}~= 0.754
= 0.754(792.70) = 597.70 Amperes
then I,,
and the maximum permissible kVA load of this harmonic content which this transformer can be subjected to is
kV&

= 0.754(3000kVA) = 2263 kVA

This is just slightly more than the 2170 kVA rectifier transformer rating calculated in Section 3. This transformer may
only be able to handle another 100 kVA or so of sinusoidal
load. This helps to demonstrate the dramatic affects of harmonic heating on power transformers. Of course the approach
is conservative which is meant to develop what will hopefully
be safe loading practices with some margin of safety.

Having said all of this, and with all of the caveats considered,
overriding circumstances, such as the need for a transformer
when a rectifier transformer fails, sometimes compels one to
make a decision out of necessity. Long deliveries of new transformers sometimes Mould mean the complete shutdown of a
plant process which may be unacceptable and extremely costly.
Even if the standard replacement transformer would be damaged over a period of time, it may be more economical to sacrifice a $30,000 transformer than to lose $3,000,000worth of production. If the replacement transformer can operate until a
proper rectifier transformer is delivered, it may be the most
practical solution.

However, the point should be well taken that the unexpected

may occur. One would probably have expected that a 2500
kVA transformer would have been adequate for the purpose.
The treatment of the hottest-spot as a loading limitation creates a much greater derating factor than expected.
HOW TO SELECT A STANDARD TRANSFORMER

B. Derating

A. Calculation Of Reauired Namedate Rating

A similar approach as shown in (257.110 can be used to derate

the standard transformer. Not knowing what size transformer
may be required as a standard rating, an approximate design is
made based on the harmonic content. Use the harmonic spectrum data developed previously to first determine harmom
content and determine the rating of a properly designed
rectifier transformer.

The last ossibility considered is how an application engineer

might segct a standard transformer and derate the unit to
carry a nonsinusoidal load current. This is not a recommended
practice.
Most often the drive circuit is ungrounded. It is possible to
find voltages present in the circuit up to 2.4 times as high as
rated voltage [8]. This can cause failures in transformer windings to ground as this would exceed standard insulation levels.
If the application engineer is to consider this possibility, he
must specify a BIL level equivalent to a winding with about 2.5
times as high a voltage class for the winding connected to the
drive circuit.

Next data is acquired on the per unit total stray loss of transformers in the range expected to be procurred. This should be
available from manufacturers. Either Equation 6 or Equation
7 is used, as appropriate to determine Max PEC-R in per unit
values.
IMx(pu) is calculated. The rated kVA calculated is divided by
the value of I-(pu).
This will give the standard kVA rating
required.

He must also consider that the core may saturate under harmonic currents as discussed earlier. It would robably be
advisable to try to specify a standard voltage E r both windings
which is about 10% higher than required.
Other components not discussed so far often affected by harmonic currents are coil leads and tap changers which have
been known to overheat when subjected to nonsinusoidal
currents.

C. Example - same 2500 Hp drive

Usin the data already developed for the drive, a standard
ratettransformer is satisfied which will be able to be used in
conjunction with the 2500 Hp drive.

The application engineer should still use the methods of

(37.110 to derate the standard transformer. It is not possible
to make a completely generalized estimation of er unit eddycurrent values. Specifics must be known about tEe winding
designs. If all design practices are consistent it is generally
found that the total stray losses expressed as per unit values of
the 12Rlosses increases relative to the kVA size. Figure 4
shows the per unit total stray losses for a series of consistently
designed standard designs. At the low end of the spectrum
(500 kVA) total stray losses are found to be less than 0.05 per
unit. At the U per limits of the spectrum the values of total
stray loss are Pound to be about 0.25 pu (10000 kVA). If a new
transformer is being purchased, information must be obtained
from the manufacturer regarding his estimated per unit total
stray losses in order to evaluate the transformer. The
estimated harmonic contents of the drive system in order to
perform the analysis must also be known.

The rated kVA of a rectifier transformer for this drive was

calculated. The summation values of the harmonic spectrum is
also calculated.
kVAMmD = 2170 kVA
Summation of Ih(pu)2 = 1.00
Summation of Ih(pu)2h2 = 2.909
Figure 4 is used to estimate the expected per unit eddy and
stray loss that might be expected for this example. It is estimated that a 3000 kVA transformer for this drive may be
needed. The chart shows that an expected value of 0.15 pu for
the typical 3000 kVA. The PR losses of the individual wndings are not available to make a proper calculation of losses
based on Equation 6. As a first approximation, estimate that

All of these factors place a great deal a responsibility on the

application engineer in specifymg the equipment. It would
25

system also gives increased cooling capability. Again a note of

caution here though as lower temperature rise units frequently
have higher per unit eddy and stray loss components of load
loss. This means that the effects of the harmonic currents may
be even more severe than anticipated. In any case, the methods of C57.110 should be employed to make an estimation of
the effects of the harmonic currents on the transformer
selected.

the low voltage 12Rlosses are equally shared between the high
voltage and low voltage winding. A value of 0.5 pu in Equation
6 is used in place of Watts value in the denominator. A value
of 0.15 pu is used in place of the value of PEC.RWatts:
2.4(0.15)

Max PEGR (PI

0.5

0.72

then
TWO AND THREE WINDING CONSIDERATIONS

PLLR(Pu) = 1.00 t 0.72 = 1.72

There are several advantages in system performance if a 12

pulse system is used instead of a 6 pulse system

and
PLL(pu) = 1.00 + 0.72(2.909) = 3.095

1. Total input power may be decreased.

2. The ripple is reduced.
3. Distortion of the alternating line current is reduced.

Calculate the estimation of Iw(pu).

I-(pu)

= { 1.72 / [l t (2.909/1)(0.72)]}M = 0.746

The disadvantages relate to the additional costs annually present with the increased complexity.

Using Equation 8 the standard value of kVA which may be

required is calculated.
2170 kVA
kV&ANDARD

0.746

First examine the input power decrease. Assume that a Circuit

3 1 transformer instead of the Circuit 23 transformer discussed
in the examples is used. This of course require completely different thyristor circuits. Examining the thyristor converter
circuit properties in C34.4 it is seen that dc winding kVA ratings are equal for the same dc load. However, the Circuit 23
transformer requires 1.035 times as much primary kVA or
input power. Note that there is unequal primary and total
secondary kVA.

2909kVA

This would verify that a 3000 kVA transformer would appear

to be adequate for the application. However, the higher
requirements of the secondary must be taken into account. In
the design example, multiply the 2185 V winding times 2.5 to
calculate the standard voltage class required.

Fourier analysis shows that the harmonic values occur at

2185 Volts x 2.5 = 5462.5 Volts

h = kq+1

This slightly exceeds a 5 kV class winding. Therefore a BIL

rating which would be appropriate for the 8.7 kV class and type
of transformer to be utilized (dry or liquid filled) is specified.
However, it may be possible to justify a 5kV class transformer
since the voltage class is only slightly over 5kV.

and now q equals 12 instead of 6. This means that the first harmonic current does not occur until the 11th harmonic. The
Sth, 7th, 11th and 19th harmonics are essentially eliminated.
This will reduce the total harmonic current impact which will
lower the losses which the transformer will see. Removing the
lines relating to these harmonics from the previous tables
yields the following results:

One might also want to try to obtain a slightly higher rated

volta e on both windings, but one that would keep approximatefy the correct turns ratio. This would lessen the possibility
of over-exciting the core. Using the factor of lo%,

I,(pu) = 0.91926
I,(pu)'h2 = 1.48

HV Winding = 2300 Volts x 1.1 = 2530Volts

LV Winding = 2185 Volts x 1.1 = 2403.5 Volts

Correcting the values as a function of h as was done earlier by

dividing the values above by 0.91926, a value of I (pu)2h*equal
to 1.61 is obtained. This gives new results to the barmonic
manipulations.

These ratings may be used if possible. In this particular case,

one might be only able to obtain a rating of 2400 Volts Delta
primary to 2300 Volts Wye secondary. The high voltage taps
may also be useful in obtaining the proper low voltage ratin .
Obtainin the exact voltage ratios required often is quite dikicult. Voftage adjustment through taps on the transformer or
by adjusting the drive may be necessary. Note also that whatever value the voltage rating is used here will also increase the
kVA rating. This consideration may be unnecessary if the core
is not adversely affected by the harmonic currents.

Primary kVA - 2170 kVA / 1.035 = 2097 kVA

Total Secondary kVA = 2170 kVA
Assuming the same 0.15 per unit value of eddy-current and
stray losses, the following results are obtained:
P,,(PU)

2909 kVA (24000/23000) = 3036 kVA

1.00 + 0.15 x 1.48

1.222 PU

Comparing this to the sinusoidal value of P

= 1.15, it is
seen that the total load losses are increaseckkay by a factor of
1.063 times the sinusoidal losses. This is similar to a load
increase of 1.03 times the sinusoidal kVA of the transformer.

This would still be close enough to utilize a 3000 kVA transformer since the approach is conservative.
The next step would be to try to procure a standard transformer which would most closely match these characteristics.
Once one was located the approximations would have to be
refined using the data from the actual transformer to be more
assured that the unit will operate properly with the drive.

If a standard rated kVA transformer is derated based on this

information, it is found that,
Imx (pu) = (1.72

/ [l + (1.48/1)(0.72)]}"

0.9125

and based on the secondary kVA,

Another consideration to be made is the possibility of selecting

lower temperature rise transformers with upgraded thermal
insulation. For instance, selecting a 55C rise liquid filled
transformer with a 120Cinsulation system, or perhaps a 115C
rise or 80C rise dry type transformer with a 200C insulation

2170 kVA
kVbAliDARD

26

0.9125

2378kVA

S. Cre az, "Eddy Current Losses in Rectifier

Trans!rmers",
Trans. IEEE (PAS), Vol, PAS-89, No. 7,
Sept./Oct. 1970.

Therefore, a standard 2500 kVA transformer could be used

instead of a 3000 kVA transformer. This shows the drastic
reduction in harmonic heating rather dramatically. Unfortunately, three winding transformers like this are quite uncommon, so there is little chance a standard rated unit like this can
be purchased.

"POOLCATHODE MERCURY ARC RECTIFIER

TRANSFORMERS," ANSI STANDARD C57.18-1964,
Reaffirmed 1971 (Out of Print).

However, the important factors are that a more loss efficient

s stem will be probable, fewer harmonic currents will flow
through the rest of the distribution system, and a better waveform with less ripple will be achieved. If it is possible to absorb
the additional cost for the system, all other features seem to be
quite desirable.

"PRACTICESAND REQUIREMENTS FOR

SEMICONDUCTOR POWER RECTIFIER
TRANSFORMERS, C57.18.10 /D6
"IEEE STANDARD PRACTICES AND
REQUIREMENTS FOR THYRISTOR
CONVERTERS FOR MOTOR DRIVES,
ANSI/IEEE STD 444-1973, C34.3

CONCLUSIONS

Bean, Chackan, Moore and Wentz, "Transformers for

the Electric Power Indust , Westinghouse Electric
Corporation, McGraw Hir1959.

Transformers subject to harmonic currents from SCR circuits

have higher losses due to the increased eddy-current and stray
losses resulting from the high frequency components of the
current. With the aid of (37.110 these losses can be estimated
if the eddy-current and stray loss components of the load losses
are known under sinusoidal conditions and the harmonic spectrum of the load currents. With this information standard kVA
transformers subject to harmonic currents using hottest-spot
loading as a criteria can be derated. Since this increases the
losses considered by a factor of 4, the transformer is essentially
derated by a factor twice as high as would be used if average
loss density were used as a criteria. Using transformers
designed with low eddy-current losses and/or circuits designed
to decrease the harmonic content of the load currents will
greatly minimize the effects of harmonic current on
transformers.

"GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR LIQUIDIMMERSED DISTRIBUTION, POWER, AND

REGULATING TRANSFORMERS, ANSI/IEEE
C57.12.00- 1987.
"GENERAL REQUIREMENTS FOR DRY-TYPE
DISTRIBUTION AND POWER TRANSFORMERS,
ANSI/IEEE (257.12.01-1979.
"TERMINOLOGY FOR POWER AND
DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS, ANSI/IEEE
(37.12.80-1978.
"TEST CODE FOR LIQUID-IMMERSED
DISTRIBUTION, POWER AND REGULATING
TRANSFORMERS AND GUIDE FOR SHORTCIRCUIT TESTING OF DISTRIBUTIONAND
POWER TRNASFORMERS, ANSI/IEEE C57.12.90.

REFERENCES:
IEEE GUIDE FOR HARMONIC CONTROL AND
REACTIVE COMPENSATION OF STATIC POWER
CONVERTERS, IEEE Std 519-1981

"TEST CODE FOR DRY-TYPE DISTRIBUTION

AND POWER TRANSFORMERS, ANSI/IEEE
(257.12.91.

C.K. Duffey and R.S. Stratford, "Update of Harmonic

Standard IEEE-519, IEEE Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electric
Power Systems", in 1988 PETROLEUM AND
CHEMICAL INDUSTRY TECHNICAL
CONFERENCE RECORD, pp 249-255.

J. S. Schaefer, "Rectifier Circuits: Theory and Design",

John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965.
L. Blume et al, "Transformer Engineering", John Wiley
and Sons, Inc.

IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR

ESTABLISHING TRANSFORMER CAPABILITY
WHEN SUPPLYING NONSINUSOIDAL LOAD
CURRENTS, ANSIIIEEE C57.1 10-1986

"GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OILIMMERSED OVERHEAD AND PAD-MOUNTED

DISTRIBUTION TRANSFORMERS RATED 500
kVA AND LESS WITH 65C OR 55C AVERAGE
WINDING RISE, ANSI/IEEE (37.91-1981.

IEEE RECOMMENDED PRACTICE FOR

EFFICIENCY DETERMINATION OF
ALTERNATING-CURRENTADJUSTABLE SPEED
DRIVES, PART I--LOAD COMMUTATED
INVERTER SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR DRIVES,
ANSI/IEEE Std 995-1987

"GUIDE FOR LOADING MINERAL-OIL

IMMERSED POWER TRANSFORMERS UP TO
AND INCLUDING 100 MVA WITH 55C OR 65C
WINDING RISE, ANSI/IEEE C57.92- 1981.

IEEE STANDARD PRACTICES AND

REQUIREMENTS FOR GENERAL PURPOSE
THYRISTOR DC DRIVES, IEEE Std 597-1983

"GUIDE FOR LOADING DRY-TYPE

DISTRIBUTION AND POWER TRANSFORMERS,
ANSI/IEEE (257.96-1989.

A.O. Kline, "Transformersin SCR Converter Circuits",

Trans. IEEE (PAS), 1989
I. Kerszenbaum, A. Mazur, M. Mistry, and J. Frank
"SpecifyingDry-Type Distribution Transformers for
Solid State Applications", Conference Record,
Industrial and Commerical Power Systems Technical
Conference, 1988.
R. Quirt, "Voltages to Ground in Load Commutated
Inverters", Trans. IEEE (PAS), Vol, PAS-89, No. 7 (Out
of Print).
27

fi
H2

HI

AC WINDING

RI

R2

R3

INSTANTANEOUS
DC VOLTS
+ TO

Figure 1

28

ut

I RECTIFYING

1
I

1
I

INVERTING

II

Figure 2

29

15000
10000

5000

7 3000
??L
2000

CLL:

w
z

5 1000
U

500

300
200

FIG 4

WINDING PER UNIT EDDY-CURRENT AND STRAYLOSS

30

CURE
[CLAMP

J
7
STEEL

FIG 3
ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELD PRODUCED BY
LOAD CURRENT I N A TRANSFORMER
31