PPL EXAM

What are the eligibility

requirements for a private pilot
(airplane) certificate? (14 CFR
61.103)

a. 17 years of age
b. Read, speak, write, understand
english.
c. Hold at least 3rd class medical
cerfificate.
d. Received required ground and flight
training endorsements.
e. Meet the applicable aeronatical
experience requirements.
f. Passed the required knowledge and
practical tests.

What privileges and limitations

apply to a private pilot? (14 CFR
61.113)

No person who holds a private pilot

certificate may act as a pilot-incommand of an airctaft that is carrying
passengers or property for
compensation or hire.
a. may act as PIC in connection with
business if it is incidental
b. may not pay less that pro rata share
of expenses with passengers
c. my act as PIC of A/C used in
passenger-carrying for charitable
organizations
d. may be reimbursed for search and
locations operations
c. may demonstrate A/C in flight to
buyer if pilot is a salesman and has @
least 200 hours logged time
f. may act as PIC of A/C towing glider if
they meet requirements of 61.69 (100
hrs pic in sm cat+class,logbook
endorsement and proper
training,currency requirments)

To act as PIC, or required flight

crewmember, what must a pilot
have in their possesion or ready
available in the A/C?

a. valid pilot certificate

b. photo identification
c. current medical certificate

What is the definition of a highperformance airplane, and

requirement to act as PIC of one?

More than 200HP

a. received and logged ground and
flight training and found proficient
b. received endorsement in logbook
from auth instructor

Other than High-perf and complex,

what other types of A/C require
specific training and
endorsements?

High Altitude Airplane pressurized a/c that has a service

ceiling above 25000 feet msl.
Tailwheel Airplane

What is a complex airplane, and

what are the req to act as PIC?

A complex airplane has retractable

gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch
propeller. You must have:
a. received and logged ground and
flight training and found proficient
b. received endorsement in logbook

With respect to certification,

privelges, and limitations of airmen;
define Category, Class, and Type.

Category - broad classifiction of aircraft

(airplane, rotorcraft, glider)
Class - a classification of aircraft within
a category having similar operating
characteristics (single-engine land,
multi-engine land)
Type - a specific make and basic
model of aircraft including
modifications that do not change its
hadling or flight characteristics (DC-9,
B-737, Cessna 152).

Requirements to remain current as

a private pilot.

a. flight review and logbook

endorsement every 24 months by

authorized instructor.
b. to carry passengers - must have
made in last 90 days:
1. three takeoffs and landings as sole
manipulator of the controls of same
category class and type (if type rating
is req)
2. tailwheel must be to full stop
3. night ops (1 hr after sunset to 1 hour
before sunrise) must be to full stop in
same cat, class and type (if type is
req).
*may be accomplished with approved
flight sim
What medical certificate is required
for private pilot and how long is it
valid?

3rd Class Medical

a. 36 months under 40
b. 24 months over 40

If a pilot changes his permanent

mailing address and fails to notify
the FAA, how long may the pilot
continue to excercise the privileges
of his pilot certificate.

30 days after the date of the move.

What documents are required on

board an aircraft prior to flight? (14
CFR 91.203, 91.9)

A - Airworthiness Certificate
R - Registration Certificate
O - Owner's manual/op limit
W - Weight and balance data

How can a pilot determine if his

A/C is equipped with a Mode C
transponder?

Current weight and balance equipment

list for A/C.

When will an aircraft registration

certificate expire?

a. A/C is registered in foreign country.

b. Registration of A/C is canceled at
the written request of the holder of the

certificate.
c. A/C is totally destroyed
d. Ownership transferred
e. Holder loses US citizenship
f. Thirty days since death of certificate
holder.
Who is responsible for ensuring
A/C is maintained in an airworthy
condition? (14 CFR 91.403)

Owner or operator of an A/C is

primarily responsible.

After A/C inspections have been

made and defects have been
repaired, who is responsible for
determining that the A/C is in an
airworthy condition? (14 CFR 91.7)

The PIC. PIC shall discontinue any

flight when unairworthy mechanical,
elecrical, or structural conditions occur.

What records or documents should

be checked to determine that the
owner or operator of an A/C has
complied with all required
inspections and airworthiness
directives? (14 CFR 91.405)

The maintenance records (A/C and

engine logbooks). Owner or operator
shall ensure maintenance personnel
make appropriate entries in the A/C
maintenance records indicating the A/C
has been approved for return to
service.

What regs apply concerning the

operation of an aircraft that has
alterations or repairs which may
have substantially affected its
operation in flight? (14 CFR
91.407)

No person may op or carry passengers

in any A/C that has undergone
maintenance, preventative maint,
rebuilding, or alteration that may have
appreciably changed its flight
characteristics or affected its operaion
in flight until an appropriately rated pilot
with at least private pilot cert:
a. flies the A/C
b. makes op check of maint
c. logs the flight in records

What is an Airworthiness
Certificate and how long does it
remain valid? (FAA-H-8083-25)

It is issued by the FAA only after the

A/C has been inspected and found to
meet the requirments of 14 CFR, and
is in cond for safe op. Aircraft must
meet requirements of the original type
cert. It must be displayed in A/C so that
it is legible to pass or crew whenever
A/C is operated. Remains in effect as
long as A/C receives the required
maintenance and is properly registered
in U.S.

Can a pilot conduct a flight

operations in an A/C with inop
equip? (AC 91-67, 14 CFR 91.213)

Yes, 14 CFR part 91 allows for

operation of A/C with certain
inoperative instruments and equip not
essential for safe flight:
a. Operation with Minimum Equipment
List (MEL)
b. Operation of A/C without MEL.

What are Minimum Equipment

Lists? (AC 91-67)

The MEL is a precise listing of

instruments, equip and procedures that
allows and A/C to be operated under
specific conditions with inop
equipment. The MEL is the specific
inop equipment document for a
particular make and model A/C by
serial and reg numbers. FAA-approved
MEL includes only those items of equip
that FAA deems my be inop and still
maintain acceptable level of safety w/
appropriate conditions and limitations.

What limitations apply to A/C

operations conducted using the
deferral provision of 14 CFR
91.213(d)?

When inop equip is found during

preflight or prior to departure, the
decision should be to cancel the flight,
obtain maintenance prior to flight, or to

defer the item or equipment.

Maintenance deferrals are not used for
inflight discrepancies. Manufacturers
POH procedures are to be used in
those situations.

What limitations apply to aircraft

operations being coducted using
MELs? (FAA-H-8083-25)

For small, non-turbine-powered

airplane operated under part 91 allows
for the deferral of inop items or
equipment. FAA considers an
approved MEL to be a supplemental
type certificate (STC) issued to an A/C
by serial number and reg number.
Once an operator requests an MEL,
and a Letter of Authorization (LOA) is
issued by the FAA, then the MEL
becomes mandatory for that A/C. All
maintenance deferrals must be done in
accordance with the MEL and the
operator-generated procedures
document.

What are the procedures to follow

when using 14 CFR 91.213(d) for
deferral of inop equipment?

Pilot determines whether the inop

equip is required by type design, the
regs, or ADs. If the inop item is not
required, and the A/C can be safely op
w/o it, the deferral may be made. Then
the pilot removes or deactivates the
inoperative item, and places an
INOPERATIVE placard near the
switch, control, or indicator. If
deactivation or remival involves
maintenance, it must be done by
certificated personnel.

What are the required maintenance

inspections for aircraft? (14 CFR

a. Annual Inspection - within the

preceding 12 calendar months

91.409)

b. 100-hour - if carrying any person for

hire or flight instruction.

If an A/C has been on a scheduled

of inspection every 100 hours,
under what condition may it
continue to operate beyond the
100 hours w/o a new inspection?
(14 CFR 91.409)

The 100-hour limitation may be

exceeded by not more than 10 hours
while en route to a place where the
inspection can be done. This time must
be included in computing the next 100
hours of time in service.

What is the difference between and

Annual inspection and a 100-hour
inspection? (14 CFR part 43)

Content is the same. Only an A&P

mechanic with an Inspecion
Authorization can perform an annual,
100 hour may be performed by any
A&P mechanic.

Be capable of locating the required

maintenance and equipment
inspections for your aircraft in the
A/C and engine logbooks. What
should these include? (14 CFR
91.207, 91.215, 91.405, and
91.413)

a. Annual inspection/100 hour

b. ELT inspection (12 mo)
c. ELT battery exp date
d. Transponder cert (24 mo)
e. Compliance with ADs
**IFR-pitot-static pressure sys,
altimeter, and auto pressure altitude
reporting sys must also have been
tested and ispected in the previous 24
months.

What are some of the

responsiblilities an A/C owner has
pertaining to A/C docs, maint, and
inspections of their A/C? (FAA-H8083-25)

a. Airworthiness Cert and A/C

registration in the A/C
b. Maintain A/C in airworthy condition
including compliance w/ all ADs
c. Ensure maintenance is properly
recorded
d. Keep abreasy of curr regs
concerning op of A/C
e. Notify FAA Civil Aviation Registry
immediately of any change of address,

or of the sale or export of the A/C, or

the loss of citizenship
f. Have a curr FCC radio station lic if
equipped w/ radios, including ELT, if
operated outside the U.S.

Define "preventative maintenance".

(FAA-H-8083-25)

Simple or minor preservation

operations and the replacement of
small standard parts not involving
complex assembly operations.
Certificated pilots, excluding student,
sport, and recreational pilots, may
perform preventative maint on any A/C
that is owned or operated by them, not
used in air carrier service. (Oil
changes, wheel bearing lubrication,
hydraulic fluid - brakes, landing gear
system - refills.

What are "Special Flight Permits",

and when are they necessary? (14
CFR 91.213, 14 CFR 21.197)

May be issued for A/C that may not

currently meet applicable airworthy req
but is capable of safe flight.
a. Flying an A/C to a base where
repairs, alterations, or maint is to be
perf, or to a point of storage.
b. Delivering or exporting an A/C.
c. Production flight testing
d. Evacuating A/C from impending
danger
e. Conducting customer demonstration
flights in new-production A/C that have
satisfactorily completed prod flight
tests.

How are "Special Flight Permits"

obtained? (FAA-H-8023-25)

Assistance and necessary forms may

be obtained from the local FSDO or
Designated Airworthiness

Representative (DAR).

What are "Airworthiness

Directives" - (ADs)? (FAA-H-808325)

State the general characteristics in

regard to the flow of air around
high and low pressure systems in
the Northern Hemisphere.

The medium the FAA uses to notify

A/C owners and other potentially
interested persons of unsafe conditions
that may exist because of design
defects, maint, or other causes, and to
specifythe conditions under which the
product may continue to operate. ADs
are regulatory in nature, and
compliance is mandatory. A/C owner or
operator must comply with all pertinent
ADs.
Low Pressure--inward, upward, and
counterclockwise
High Pressure--outward,downward,
and clockwise

What is a "trough"?

an elongated area of relatively low

atmospheric pressure. At the surface
when air converges into a low, it
cannot go outward against the
pressure gradient, nor can it go
downward into the ground; it must go
upward. Therefore, a low or trough is
an area of rising air. Rising air is
conductive to cloudiness and
precipitation; hence the general
association of low pressure and bad
weather.

What is a "ridge"?

elongated are of relatively high

atmospheric pressure. Air moving out
of a high or ridge depletes the quantity
of air; therefore, these are areas of

descending air. Decending air favors

dissipation of cloudiness; hence the
association of high pressure and good
weather.
What are the standard temperature
and pressure values for sea level?

15C and 29.92" Hg

What are "isobars"?

a line on a weather chart which

connects areas of equal or constant
barometric pressure

If the isobars are relatively close

together on a surface weather
chart or a constant pressure chart,
what information will this provide?

Spacing of isobars on charts defines

how steep or shallow a pressure
gradient is. When isobars are spaced
very close together, a steep pressure
gradient exists which indicates higher
wind speeds. A shallow pressure
gradient usually means wind speeds
will be less.

What causes the winds aloft to flow

parallel to the isobars?

The Coriolis Force

Why do surface winds generally

flow across the isobars at and
angle?

Surface Friction

At what rate does atmospheric

pressure decrease with an
increase in altitude?

1" Hg per 1000 feet

Define "dew point".

The temperature to which a parcel of

air must be cooled to attain the state of
saturation.

When temperature and dew point

Visible moisture in the form of clouds,

are close together (within 5), what

type of weather is likely?

dew, or fog. Also, these are ideal

conditions for carburetor icing.

What factor primarily determines

the type and vertical extent of
clouds?

The stability of the atmosphere.

How do you determine the stability

of the atmosphere?

By observing the actual lapse rate and

comparing it to the standard lapse rate
of 3.5F per 1000 feet. The "K" index of
a stability chart is the primary means of
determining stability. In general, stable
air cools at a rate less than the
standard lapse rate with altitude, and
unstable air cools at a rate that is
greater than the standard lapse rate.

List the effects of stable air on

clouds, turbulence, precipitation
and visibility.

Clouds..........Stratiform
Turbulence......Smooth
Precipitation...Steady
Visibility......Fair to Poor

List the effects of unstable air on

clouds, turbulence, precipitation
and visibility.

Clouds..........Cumuliform
Turbulence......Rough
Precipitation...Showery
Visibility......Good

At what altitude above the surface

would the pilot expect the bases of
cumuliform clouds if the surface
temperature is 82 and the dew
point is 62?
What will the freezing level be if the
field elevation is 1000 ft and the
temp @ the surface is 15C?

Temperature - Dew Point/4 x 1000 =

base of clouds
82-62=20 /4=5x1000=5000ft AGL
Subtract 2C per 1000 ft (avg lapse
rate) from 15C. 15/2 = 7500 + 1000
field elevation = 8500 msl freezing
level.

What conditions are necessary for

structural icing to occur?

Visible moisture and below freezing

temperatures at the point moisture
strikes the aircraft.

What are the two main types of

icing?

Structural and induction.

Clear ice--forms when large drops
strike the aircraft surface and slowly
freeze.
Rime ice--small drops strike the aircraft
and freeze rapidly.

Name Four types of structural ice.

Mixed ice--combination of above;

supercooled water drops varying in
size.
Frost--ice crystal deposits formed by
sublimation when temperature and dew
point are below freezing.

What action is recommended if you

inadvertantly encounter icing
conditions?

Change course and or altitude; usually,

climb to a higher altitude if possible.

Is frost considered to be hazardous

to flight?

Yes, frost does not change the basic

aerodynamic shape of the wing, the
roughness of its surface spoils the
smooth flow of air, causing a slowing of
airflow. This slowing of the air causes
early airflow separation, resulting in a
loss of lift. Even a small amount of frost
may prevent an aircraft from becoming
airborne at normal takeoff speed. Also,
once airborne, an aircraft could have
insufficient margin of airspeed above

stall so that moderate gusts or turning

flight could produce incipient or
complete stalling.
A source of lift (heating, fast-moving
front)
What factors must be present for a
thunderstorm to form?

Unstable air (nonstandard lapse rate)

High moisture content (temp/dew point
close)
Cumulus stage--Updrafts cause
raindrops to increase in size.

What are the three stages of a

thunderstorm?

Mature stage--Rain at earth's surface;

it falls through or immediately beside
the updrafts; lightning; perhaps roll
clouds.
Dissipating stage--Downdrafts and rain
begin to dissipate.

What is a "temperature inversion"?

Name several ways that fog may

form.

An increase in temperature with height-a reversal of the normal decrease with

height. An inversion aloft permits warm
rain to fall through cold air below.
Temperature in the cold aer can be
critical to icing. A gound-based
inversion favors poor visibility by
trapping fog, smoke, and other
restrictions into low levels of the
atmosphere. The air is stable, with little
or no turbulance.
Cool air to the dew point.

Add moisture to the air.

Radiation fog
Advection fog
Name several types of fog.
Upslope fog
Precipitation-induced fog

What causes radiation fog to form?

The transport of warm humid air over a

cold surface. A pilot can expect
advection fog to form primarily along
costal areas during winter. Unlike
radiation fog, it may occur with winds,
cloudy skies, over a wide geographic
area, and at any time of the day or
night.

What is upslop fog?

A result of moist, stable air being

cooled adiabatically as it moves up
sloping terrain. Once the upslope wind
ceases, the fog dissipates. Upslope fog
is often quite dense and extends to
high altitudes.

Define "wind shear," and state the

areas in which it is likely to occur.

The rate of change of wind velocity

(direction or speed) per unit distance;
conventionally expressed as vertical or
horizontal wind shear. It may occur at
any level in the atmosphere but three
areas of special concern"
A. Wind shear with low-level
temperature inversion.
B. Wind shear in a frontal zone or
thunderstorm.
C. Clear air turbulence (CAT) at high

levels associated with a jet stream or

strong circulation.

Why is wind shear an operational

concern to pilots?

Because unexpected changes in wind

speed and direction can be potentially
hazardous to aircraft operations at low
altitudes on approach to and departing
from airports.

What is the primary means of

obtaining a weather briefing?

Individual briefing from and FSS.

These are tailored to your specific flight
by calling 1-800-WX BRIEF.

What are some examples of other

sources of weather information?

Telephone Information Briefing Service

(TIBS)
Transcribed Weather Broadcasts
(TWEB)
Telephone Access to TWEB (TELTWEB)
Weather and aeronautical information
from numerous private industry
sources
Direct User Access System (DUATS)

Where can you finde a listing of

FSS and weather information
numbers?

Airport/Facility Directory (AFD) under

the "FAA and NWS Telephone
Numbers" section. Also in US Gov
section of the local telephone directory.

What types of weather briefings

are avalable from an FSS briefer?

Standard Briefing
Abbreviated Briefing
Outlook Briefing
Inflight Briefing

Describe Standard Briefing

Request when you are planning a flight

and you have not received a previous
briefing or have not received

preliminary information through mass

dissemination media (TIBS, TWEB,
etc).

Describe Abbreviated Briefing

Request when you need information to

supplement mass disseminated data,
update a previous briefing, or when
you need only one or two items.

Describe Outlook Briefing

Request when your proposed time of

departure is six or more hours from the
time of the briefing; for planning
purposes only.

Describe Inflight Briefing

Request when needed to update a

preflight briefing.

What pertinent information should

a weather briefing include?

Adverse Conditions
VFR Flight Not Recommended
Synopsis
Current Conditions
Enroute Forecast
Destination Forecast
Winds Aloft
Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
ATC Delay
ON REQUEST--MTRs, MOAs, printed
NOTAMs, Density altitude info, info on
air traffic services/rules,
customs/immigration procedures, ADIZ
rules, search and rescue, LORAN,
NOTAM, GPS RAIM availability, and
other assistance as required.

What is EFAS?

En Route Flight Advisory Servce is a

service specifically designed to provide
enroute aircraft w/ timely and

meaningful weather advisories

pertinent to the type of flight intended,
route of flight, and altitude. Also serves
as central collection adn distribution
point for PIREPS. Provides comm
capabilities for aircraft flying at 5000 ft
AGL to 17500 ft MSL on common
frequency of 122.0 MHz. Also known
as "Flight Watch".

What is HIWAS?

Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory

Service is a continuous broadcast of inflight weather advisories including
summarized Aviation Weather
Warnings, SIGMETs, Convective
SIGMETs, Center Weather Advisories,
AIRMETs, and uregent PIREPs.
Source of hazardous weather
informatino which makes this data
available on a continuous basis.

What is a METAR?

Aviation Routine Weather Report.

Hourly surface observation of
conditions observed @ an airport.

Describe the elements of a

METAR.

a. Type of Report - METAR- SPECI

b. ICAO station identifier
c. Date and time of report-6 digit
date/time group appended with
Z(UTC)DDHHMM
d. Modifier (as req)-auto (A01-A02 for
sensor type)
e. Wind-5 digit group (6 if over 99
knots) first 3 digits wind direction in
true, next 2 speed in kts.
f. Visibility: statute miles
g. Runway visual range

h. Weather phenomena
i. Sky condition-amount/height/type
j. Temp/dew point group- (minus temps
prefixed M)
k. Altimeter - 4 digit prefixed A
l. Remarks

Describe several types of weather

observing programs available.

a. Manual observations-reports mande

from airport locations staffed by FAA or
NWS.
b. AWOS-Automated Weather
Observing System; consists of various
sensors, a processor, a computergenerated voice subsystem, and a
transmitter to broadcast local, minuteby-minute weather data directly to the
pilot. Observations will include the
prefix AUTO in data.
c. AWOS Broadcasts-computer
generated voice is used to automate
the broadcast of minute-by-minute
weather observations.
d. ASOS-Automated Surface
Observing System; the primary U.S.
surface weather observing system. Up
to 993 systems installed through the
US providing minute-by-minute
observations generating METARs and
other aviation weather info.
Transmitted over a discrete VHF radio
freq or the voice portion of a NAVAID.
ASOS includes the prefix AUTO in the
report data.

What are PIREPs (UA), and where

are they usually found?

These reports contain info concerning

weather as observed by pilots en route.
Required elements for all PIREPs are
message type, location, UTC time,

flight level (altitudes are MSL), type of

aircraft, and at least one weather
element encountered (visibility in SM,
distances in NM). A PIREP is usually
transmitted to a surface aviation
weather report or placed into
collectives. Coded "UA".

What are Radar Weather Reports

(SD)?

General areas of precipitation,

including rain, snow, and
thunderstorms, can be observed by
radar. The radar weather report (SD)
includes the type, intensity, and
location of the echo top of the precip.
All heights are reported MSL. Radar
stations report each hour at H+35. SDs
should be used along with METARs,
satellite photos, and forcasts when
planning a flight, to help in
thunderstorm area avoidance. Once
airborne, depend on Flight Watch,
which has the capability to display
current radar images, airborne radar,
or visual sighting to evade individual
storms.

What are TAFs?

Terminal Aerodrome Forcast is a

concise statement of the expected
meteorological conditions within a 5SM
radious from the center of an airport's
runway complex during a 24hr period.
Uses same weather code found in
METAR.
a. Type of reports-routine or amended
(TAF AMD)
b. ICAO station identifier
c. Date and time of origin-DDTTT
followed by Z.

d. Valid period date and time-is 2 digit

date followed by 2 digit beginning and
2 digit ending hours in Z. Routine TAFs
are valid for 24 hours and are issued 4
times daily @ 0000Z, 0600Z, 1200Z,
and 1800Z.
e. Forcasts- Wind, sig weather, sky
condition, nonconvective low-level wind
shear, change indicators, probability.

What is and Aviation Area Forecast

(FA)

A forcast of visual meteorological

conditions (VMC), clouds, and general
weather contitions over an area the
size of several states. To understand
the complete weather picture, the FA
must be used along with inflight
weather advisories to determine
forecast enroute weather and to
interpolate conditions at airports where
no TAFs are issued. FAs are issued 3
times a day by the Aviation Weather
Center (AWC). for each of the 6 areas
in the contiguous 48 states.

What information is provided by

Area Forcast (FA)?

4 sections
a. Communications and product
header section - identifies the office
from which the FA is issued, the date
and time of issue, the product name,
the valid times and the states and the
states and/or areas covered by the FA.
b. Precautionary statement section
(IFR conditions etc)
c. Synopsis section-summary of the
location and movements of fronts,
pressure systems, and circulation
patters for an 18 hour period.
References to other phenomena the

forecaster considers useful may also

be included.
d. VFR Clouds and Weather sectioncontains a 12 specific forecast,
followed by a six-hour categorical
outlook giving a total forecast period of
18 hours. VFR CLDS/WX sections is
usually several pargraphs long,
breakdown by states or well known
geographical areas. Section gives
general description of clouds and
weather which covers an area greater
than 3000 square miles and is sig to
VFR flight operations.

What are Inflight Aviation Weather

Advisories (WST, WS, WA)?

Forecasts to advise enroute aircraft of

development of potentially hazardous
weather, in 3 types: SIGMET, AIRMET,
and Convective SIGMET. Heights are
referenced MSL, except in the case of
CIG, which indicate AGL.

What is a Convective SIGMET

(WST)?

(WST) implies severe or greater

turbulence, sever icing and low-level
with shear. They may be issued for any
convective situation which the
forecaster feels is hazardous to all
catagories of aircraft. Convective
SIGMET bulletins are issued for the
(E), (C), and (W) US. Bulletins are
issued hourly at H+55. Special
bulletins are issued at any time as req
and updated @ H+55. Text of the
bulletin consists of either an
observation and a forcast, or just a
forecast valid up to 2 hours.
a. Severe thunderstorm due to surface
winds greater than or equal to 50

knots, hail at the surface greater than

or equal to 3/4 inches in diameter,
Tornadoes.
b. Embedded Thunderstorms
d. Thunderstorms producing greater
than or equal to heavy precip that
affects 40% or more of an area at least
3000 square miles.

What is a SIGMET (WS)?

(WS) advises of non-convective

weather that is potentially hazardous to
all aircraft. Issued for the six areas
corresponding to the FA areas.
Maximum forcast period is 4 hours.
Issued when:
a. Severe icing not associated with
tstorms
b. Severe Turbulence or clear air
turbulence (CAT) not associate with
tstorms
c. Duststorms or sandstorms lowering
surface or inflight vis to below 3 miles
d. Volcanic ash.

What is an AIRMET (WA)?

(WA) Advisories of sig wthr

phenomena that describe conditions at
intensities lower than those which
require SIGMET. Intended for use by
pilots in the preflight and issued every
6 hours beginning @ 0145 UTC during
Central Daylight Time,a dn @ 0245
UTC during CST. Unscheduled
updates and corrections are issued as
nec. AIRMET bulletin includes an
outlook for conditions expected after
the AIRMET valid period. Contain IFR,
mountain obscuration, turbulence,
strong surface winds, icing, and

freezing levels.

What is TWEB?

Transcribed weather broadcast

includes synopsis and forcast for more
than 200 routes and local vicinities.
Valid for 12 hours and are issued 4
times a day @ 0200, 0800, 1400, and
2000Z in a variety of sources (TIBS,
PATWAS, and more).
TWEB route forcast or vicinity forcast
will not be issued if the TAF for that
airport has not been issued. TWEB
route forcast is for a 50NM wide
corridor along a line connecting the
end points of the route. Local vicinity
forecast covers an area w/ a radius of
50NM. Describe sustained surface
winds (25kts or greater), visibility,
weather and obscurations to vision, sky
conditions, mountain obscurment, and
nonconvective low-level wind shear.

What is a Winds and Temperatures

Aloft Forecast (FD)?

Forecasted for specific locations in the

contiguous US and for a network of
locatins in AK and HI. Made twice daily
based on 00Z and 12Z radiosonde
data for use during specific time
intervals. FDs contain:
a. Valid time period the FD may be
used, and a notation "TEMPS NEG
ABV 24000".
b. FT indicates the levels of the wind
and temp data. Through 12000 ft the
levels are true altitude. From 18000ft
levels are pressure altitude.
c. A 4 digit group shows wind direction
in tens of degtees, and the second 2
are the wind speed in kts. 6 digit group

includes forecast temp in C.

d. No winds are forcasted within 1500
ft of station elevation.
e No temps are forecasted for any level
w/in 2500 ft of station elevation.
f. if a wind direction is coded between
51 and 86, the wind speed is 100 kts or
greater. (731960 7350=230,100+19=119, temp -60C).
g. Wind speed is forecasted to be 200
kts or greater, the wind group is coded
as 99kts. (7799 77-50=270 at 199kts
or greater).
h. Forecast speed is less than 5kts, the
coded group is "9900" which means
light and variable.
Most favorable altitude-based on winds
and direction of flight.
What valuable info can be
determined from Winds and
Temperatures Aloft Forecasts
(FD)?

Areas of possible icing;by noting air

temps of +2C to -20C.
Temperature inversions.
Turbulence-by observing abrupt
changes in wind direction and speed
@ diff altitudes.

What are Center Weather

Advisories (CWA)?

An aviation warning for use by aircrews

to anticipate and avoid adverse
weather conditions in the en route and
terminal environments. The CWA is not
a flight planning product: instead it
reflects current conditions expected at
the time of issueance and/or a short
range forecast for conditions expected
to begin w/in 2 hours of issueance.

CWAs are valid for a max of 2 hours. If

conditions are expected to continue
beyond 2 hrs a statement will be
included with CWA.

What is a Convective Outlook

(AC)?

National forecast of thunderstorms, in 2

parts; Day 1 Convective Outlook (first
24) and Day 2 Convective outlook
(next 24hrs). Describes areas in which
there is a slight, mod, or hight risk of
severe tstorms, as well as areas of
general (non-severe) tstorms. Times of
issuance for day 1 are 0600Z, 1300Z,
1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z. The initial
day 2 issueanceis @ 0830Z during
standard time and 0730Z during
daylight time, updated @ 1730Z. The
AC is a flight planning tool used to
avoid tstorms.

Give some examples of current

weather charts available at the
FSS or NWSO used in flight
planning.

a. Surface analysis chart

b. Weather depiction chart
c. Radar summary chart
d. Significant weather prognostic chart
e. Winds and temperatures aloft chart
f. Composite moisture stability chart
g. Convective outlook chart
h. Constant pressure analysis chart
i. volcanic ash forecast transport and
dispersion chart

What is a Surface Analysis Chart?

This is a computer prepared chart that

covers the contiguous 48 states and
adjacent areas. The chart is
transmitted every three hours. The
surface analysis chart provides a ready
means of locating pressure systems

and fronts. It also gives an overview of

winds, temps and dew point temps at
chart time. When using the chart, keep
in mind that weather moves and
conditions change. Using the surface
analysis chart in conjunction with other
information gives a more complete
weather picture.

What information does a Weather

Depiction Chart provide?

It is computer generated with a

weather observer's analysis of fronts
from METAR reports. It gives a broad
overview of the observed flying
category conditions at the valid time of
the chart. Begins @ 01Z ea day, is
transmitted @ 3 hour intervals, and is
valid at the time of the plotted data. the
plotted data for ea station area are :
total sky cover, cloud height or ceiling,
weather and obstructions to vision and
visibilities. It is an ideal place to begin
in preparing for a weather briefing and
flight planning. One can gain a birds
eye view of areas of favorable and
adverse weather conditions at chart
time.
IFR - Instrument Flight Rules - Ceilings
less than 1000 ft and/or visibilities less
than 3 miles.

Define IFR, MVFR, and VFR.

MVFR - Marginal VFR - Ceiling 1000 to

3000 ft inclusive and/or visibility 3 to 5
miles inclusive.
VFR - Visual Flight Rules - No ceiling,
or ceiling greater than 3000 and
visibility greater than 5 miles.

What are Radar Summary Charts?

Computer generated graphical display

of a collection of automated radar
weather reports (SDs). Chart displays
areas of precipitation as well as info
about type, intensity, configuration,
coverage, echo top, and cell movement
of precip. Severe weather watches are
plotted if they are in effect when the
chart is valid. The chart is available
hourly with a valid time of 35 min past
each hour.
This chart aids in preflight planning by
identifying general areas and
movement of precip and/or
thunderstorms. Displays drops or ice
particles of precipitation size only; it
does not display clouds or fog.
Absence of echoes does not guarantee
clear weather, and cloud tops will most
likely be higher than the tops of the
precip echoes detected by radar, the
radar summary chart must be used
along with other charts, reports, and
forecasts for best effectiveness.

What aer Significant Weather

Prognostic Charts?

called "progs," these charts portray

forecasts of selected weather
conditions at specified valid times (12,
24, 36, and 48 hour progs). Each valid
time is the time @ which the forecast
conditions are expected to occur,made
from a comprehensive set of observed
weather conditions. The observed
conditions are extended forward in time
and become forecasts by considering
atmospheric and environmental
processes. Forecast info for the
surface to 24,000 ft is provided by the

low level significant weather prog chart.

Forcast info from above 24,000 to
60,000 ft is provided by the high level
significant weather prog chart.

Describe a US Low-Level
Significant Weather Prog Chart.

A Day One forecast of significant

weather for the conterminous US,
pertaining to the layer from the surface
to FL240. With 2 forecast panels. The
two lower panels depict the 12 and 24
hour surface progs, and the two upper
panels depict the 12 and 24 hour
significant weather progs. Issued four
times a day @ 00Z, 06Z, 12Z, and
18Z. Covered are forecast positions
and characteristics of pressure
systems, fronts, and precipitation.
Much insight can be gained by
evalueating the individual fields of
pressure patterns, fronts, precip,
weather flying categories, freezing
levels, and turbulence displayed on the
chart.

What is a Forecast Winds and

Temperatures Aloft Chart (FD)?

A computer generated chart depicting

both observed and forecast winds and
temps aloft. Forecast winds and
temperatures aloft are prepared for
eight levels on eight seperate panels.
The levels are 6000, 9000, 12000,
18000, 24000, 30000, 34000, and
39000 feet MSL. They are available
daily as 12 hour progs valid @ 1200Z
and 0000Z. These charts are typically
used to determine winds at a proposed
altitude or to select the best altitude for
a proposed flight. Temperatures also
can be determined from the forecast

charts. interpolation must be used to

determine winds and temperatures at a
level between charts and data when
the time period is other than the valid
time of the chart.

What is a Composite Moisture

Stability Chart?

Front

Back

What is a Convective Outlook Chart?

An analysis chart using observed

upper air data. The chart is composed
of four panels including stability,
freezing level, precipitable water, and
average relative humidity. This
computer generated chart is available
twice daily with valid times of 12Z and
00Z. It is used to determine the
characteristics of a particular weather
system in terms of stability, moisture,
and possible aviation hazards. These
characteristics tend to move with the
associated weather systems, such as
lows, highs, and fronts. Exercise
caution, as modification of these
characteristics could occur through
development, dissipation, or the
movement of the system.

This chart depicts areas forecast to

have thunderstorms, and is
presented in two panels. The left
hand panel is the Day 1 Convective
Outlook, and the right hand panel is
the Day 2 Convective Outlook. "Day
1" outlines areas in the continental
US where thundershorms are
forecasted during that period. It si

issued 5 times daily (0600Z, 1300Z,

1630Z, 2000Z, and 0100Z) and all
issuances are valid until 12Z the
following day. The outlook issued
qualifies the level of risk (SLGT,
MDT, HIGH) as well as the areas of
general tstorms. "Day 2" contains the
same info as the Day 1 chart, and is
issued twice a day (0830Z and
1730Z) in a period from 12Z the
following day to 12Z the next day.

What are Constant Pressure

Analysis Charts?

Any surface of equal pressure in the

atmosphere is a constant pressure
surface. A constant pressure
analysis chart is an upper air weather
map where all information depicted is
at the specified pressure of the chart.
From these charts, a pilot can
approximate the observed air temp,
wind, and temperature-dewpoint
spread alon a proposed route. They
also depict highs, lows, troughs, and
ridges aloft by the height contour
patterns resembling isobars on a
surface map. Twice daily, six
computer prepared constant
pressure charts are transmitted by
fax for six pressure levels: 5000ft,
10000ft, 18000ft, 30000ft, 34000ft,
39,000ft.

Describe a Volcanic Ash Forecats

Transport and Dispersion Chart.

Presents the relative concentrations

of ash following a volcanic eruption
for three layers of the atmosphere in
addition to a composite of ash
concentration through the

atmosphere. The chart focuses on

hazards to aircraft flight operaions
caused by volcanic eruption with an
emphasis on the ash cloud location
in time and space. It uses Naitonal
Centers for Environmental Prediction
forecast data to determine the
location of ash concentration over 6
hour and 12 hour time intervals. The
chart is strictly for advanced flight
planning purposes. It is not intended
to take the place of SIGMETs
regarding volcanic eruptions and
ash.
What are the four dynamic forces
that act on an airplane during all
maneuvers?

Lift - the upward acting force

Weight - downward acting force
Thrust - forward acting force
Drag - backward acting force

What flight condition will result in the

sum of the opposing forces being
equal?

Steady-state, straight and level,

unaccelerated flight, the sum of the
opposing forces is equal to zero.

What is an airfoil?

A device which generates lift. Wings,

horizontal tail surfaces, vertical tail
surfaces, and propellers are airfoils.

What is the "angle of incidence"?

The angle formed by the longitudinal

axis of the airplane and the chord of
the wing. It is measured by the angle
at which the wing is attached to the
fuselage. It is fixed and cannot be
changed by the pilot.

What is a "relative wind"?

The direction of the airflow with

respect to the wing. When a wing is

moving forward and downward the

relative wind moves backward and
upward. The flight pathe and relative
wind are always parallel but travel in
opposite directions.

What is the "angle of attack"?

The angle between the wing chord

line and the direction of the relative
wind: it can be changed by the pilot.

What is Bernoulli's Principle?

The pressure of a fluid decreases at

points where the speed of the fluid
increases. Applies to an airfoil by
creating faster airflow and reduced
pressure above and impact airflow
for higher pressure below creating
lift.

What are several factors which will

affect both lift and drag?

Wing area - Lift and drag acting on a

wing are roughly proportional to the
wing area. A pilot can change wing
area by using certain types of flaps
(fowler flaps)
Shape of the airfoil - As the upper
curvature is increased the lift
produced increases. Lowing an
aileron or flap can accomplish this.
Ice or frost on a wing can disturb
normal airflow, changing its camber,
and disrupting its lifting capability.
Angle of attack - both lift and drag
are increased when AOA is
increased.
Velocity of air - increase of air
passing over the wing increases lift
and drag.
Air density - vary directly with the

density of the air. Air density is

affected by pressure, temp, and
humidity.

What is torque effect?

Newtons third law - for every action

there is an equal and opposite
reaction. As internal engine parts and
the propeller are revolving in one
direction, and equal force is trying to
rotate the aircraft in the opposite
direction. Greatest at low airspeeds
with high power and high AOA.

What effect does torque reaction

have on an airplane on the ground
and in flight?

In flight torque reaction is acting

around the logitudinal axis, tending to
make the airplane roll. To
compensate, some of the older
airplanes are rigged in a manner to
create more lift on the wing that is
bing forced downward. More modern
aircraft are designed with the engine
offset to counteract this effect.
On the ground during takeoff roll, and
additional turning moment around the
vertical axis is induced by torque
reaction. As the left side of the
airplane is being forced down, more
weight is being placed on the left
main landing gear. This results in
more ground friction, or drag, on the
left tire than on the right, causing a
further turning moment to the left.

What are the four factors that

contribute to the left turning tendency
of an aircraft?

Torque reaction of engine and

propeller - equal and opposite
reaction

Gyroscopic precession: the resultant

action or deflection of a spinning
object when a force is applied to the
outer rim of iths rotational mass. If
the axis of the propeller is tilted, the
resulting force will be exerted 90
ahead in the direction of rotation and
in the same direction as the applied
force. Most noticeable in taildraggers
when the tail is raised.
Corkscrewing effect of the propeller
slipstream strikes the vertical tail
surface on the left side pushing the
tail to the right and yawing the
airplane to the left.
Asymmetrical loading of the propeller
(P-Factor) @ high angles of attack
the bite of the downward moving
propeller blade is greater tan the bite
of the upward moving blade. The
downward moving blade is meeting
the relative wind at a greater angle of
attack than the upward moving blade
causing greater thrust on the
downward moving side forcing the
airplane to the left.

What is centrifugal force?

The equal and opposite reaction of

the airplane to the change in
direction, and it acts equal and
opposite to the horizontal component
of lift.

What is load factor?

The ration of the total load supported

by the airplanes wing to the actual
weight of the airplane and its

contents. Also expressed as the ratio

of given load to the pull of gravity (3
Gs is 3X the weight of the airplane
imposed upon the wings due to
curved flight).
Danger of overstressing the airframe
For what 2 reasons in load factor
important to pilots?

Danger of increased stall speed makes stalls possible at seemingly

safe flight speeds.
Level Turns - increases at a terrific
rate after bank has reached 45 or
50. Load factor in 60 bank is 2Gs,
80 bank is 5.76Gs.

What situations may result in load

factors reaching or exceeding the
maximum?

What are the different operational

categories for aircraft and within
which category does your aircraft

Turbulence - Severe vertical gusts

cause a sudden increas in angle of
attack, resulting in large loads which
are resisted by the inertia of the
airplane.
Speed - Amount of excess load that
can be imposed upon a wing
depends on how fast the airplane is
flying. Below maneuvering speed,
the airplane will stall before the load
factor can become excessive. Above,
the limit load factor for which an
airplane is stressed can be exceeded
by abrupt or excessive application of
the controls or by strong turbulence.
Normal +3.8 to -1.52
Utility +4.4 to -1.76
Aerobatic +6.0 to -3.00

fall?
The Cessna 152 is certified in the
utility category.

What effect does an increase in load

factor have on stalling speed?

Stalling speed will increase. An

airplane can be stalled at any
airspeed within limits of its structure
and the strength of the pilot. The
formula for determining the speed at
which a wing will stall is that the
stalling speed increases in proportion
to the square root of the load factor.

Define the term Maneuvering Speed.

Va is the maximum speed at which

abrupt control movement can be
applied or at which the airplane could
be flown in trubulence without
exceeding design load factor limits.
Below this speed the aircraft should
stall before the load becomes
excessive.

Discuss the effect on maneuvering

speed of an increase or decrease of
weight.

Maneuvering speed increases with

and increase in weight and
decreases with a decrease in weight.
An aircraft operating at a reduced
weight is more vulnerable to rapid
acceleration encountered during
flight through turbulence or gusts.

What causes an airplane to stall?

When the critical angle of attack has

been exceeded. When the AOA
increases to approx 18-20, the air
can no longer flow smoothly over the
top wing surface. This can occur at
any airspeed, in any attitude, with
any power setting.

What is a spin?

When the aircraft descends in a

helical path while flying at an AOA
greater than the critical angle of
attack. Spins result from aggravated
stalls in either a slip or a skid. No
stall = no spin.

What causes a spin?

Exceeding the critical AOA while

applying excessive or insufficient
rudder, and to a lesser extent,
aileron.
Can occur in any phase of flight but
are most likely to occur:
Engine failure on takeoff during
climbout - pilot tries to stretch glide to
landing area by increasing back
pressure or makes an uncoordinated
turn back to departure runway at low
airspeed.

When are spins most likely to occur?

Crossed-control turn from base to

final - pilot overshoots final
(crosswind?) and makes
uncoordinated turn at a low airspeed.
Engine failure on approach to landing
- pilot tries to stretch glide to runway
by increasing back pressure.
Go-around with full nose up trip pilot applies power with full flaps and
nose up trim compined with
uncoordinated use of rudder.
Go-around with improper flap
retraction - pilot applies power and

retracts flaps rapidly resulting in a

rapid sink rate followed by and
instinctive increase in back pressure.
Close the throttle
Neutralize the ailerons
Apply full opposite rudder

What procedure should be used to

recover from an inadvertent spin?

Briskly move the elevator control

forward to the neutral position (varies
by a/c)
Once stall is broken the spinning will
stop. Neutralize the rudder when
spinning stops.
When the rudder is neutralized,
gradually apply enough aft elevator
pressure to return to level flight.

What causes adverse yaw?

When turning an airplane the

downward deflected airleron
produces more lift and more drag.
While the opposite aileron has less
lift and less drag. This added drag
attempts to pull or veer the airplanes
nose in the direction of the raised
wing; the opposite to that desired.

What is ground effect?

Condition of improved performance

the airplane experiences when it is
operating near the ground. A change
occurs in the three dimensional flow
pattern around the airplane because
the airflow around the wing is

restricted by the ground surface. This

reduces the wings upwash,
downwash, and wingtip vortices.
Must be close to the ground.
During landing - @ height of approx
1/10 of a wing span above the
surface, drag may be 40% less than
when the airplane is operating out of
ground effect. Any excess speed
during landing may result in
significant floating.
What major problems can be caused
by ground effect?

During Takeoff - the reduced drag

may allow the aircraft to takeoff
below recommended speed. As
airplane rises out of ground effect
speed deficient the greater induced
drag may result in marginal climb
performance, or may settle back to
the runway in extreme conditions.

Define Empty weight

Airframe, engines, and all items of

operating equipment that have fixed
location and are permanently
installed in the aircraft. Includes
hydraulic fluid, unuseable fuel, and
undrainable oil.

Gross Weight

Maximum allowable weight of both

the airplane and its contents.

Useful load

Weight of the pilot, copilot,

passengers, baggage, usable fuel,
and drainable oil.

Arm

Horizontal distance in inches from

the reference datum line to the

center of gravity of the item.

Moment

Product of the weight of an item

multiplied by its arm. Moments are
expressed in pound-inches.

Center of Gravity

Point about which an aircraft would

balance if it were possible to
suspend it at that point. Expressed in
inches from datum.

Datum

Imaginary vertical plane or line from

which all measurements of arm are
taken. Set by manufacturer.
W.A.M.

What basic equation is used in all

weight and balance problems to find
the center of gravity location of an
airplane and/or its components?

What performance characteristics will

be adversely affected when an
aircraft has been overloaded?

Weight X Arm = Moment

Weight = Moment/Arm
(Total) Moment
Arm (CG) = -----------(Total) Weight
Higher takeoff speed
Longer takeoff run
Reduced rate & angle of climb
Lower maximum altitude
Shorter range
Reduced Cruising speed
Reduced maneuverability
Higher stalling speed
Higher landing speed
Longer landing roll
Excessive weight on the nosewheel

What causes a spin?

Exceeding the critical AOA while

applying excessive or insufficient
rudder, and to a lesser extent,
aileron.
Can occur in any phase of flight but
are most likely to occur:
Engine failure on takeoff during
climbout - pilot tries to stretch glide to
landing area by increasing back
pressure or makes an uncoordinated
turn back to departure runway at low
airspeed.
Crossed-control turn from base to
final - pilot overshoots final
(crosswind?) and makes
uncoordinated turn at a low airspeed.

When are spins most likely to occur?

Engine failure on approach to landing
- pilot tries to stretch glide to runway
by increasing back pressure.
Go-around with full nose up trip pilot applies power with full flaps and
nose up trim compined with
uncoordinated use of rudder.
Go-around with improper flap
retraction - pilot applies power and
retracts flaps rapidly resulting in a
rapid sink rate followed by and
instinctive increase in back pressure.
What procedure should be used to
recover from an inadvertent spin?

Close the throttle

Neutralize the ailerons

Apply full opposite rudder

Briskly move the elevator control
forward to the neutral position (varies
by a/c)
Once stall is broken the spinning will
stop. Neutralize the rudder when
spinning stops.
When the rudder is neutralized,
gradually apply enough aft elevator
pressure to return to level flight.

What causes adverse yaw?

When turning an airplane the

downward deflected airleron
produces more lift and more drag.
While the opposite aileron has less
lift and less drag. This added drag
attempts to pull or veer the airplanes
nose in the direction of the raised
wing; the opposite to that desired.

What is ground effect?

Condition of improved performance

the airplane experiences when it is
operating near the ground. A change
occurs in the three dimensional flow
pattern around the airplane because
the airflow around the wing is
restricted by the ground surface. This
reduces the wings upwash,
downwash, and wingtip vortices.
Must be close to the ground.

What major problems can be caused

by ground effect?

During landing - @ height of approx

1/10 of a wing span above the

surface, drag may be 40% less than

when the airplane is operating out of
ground effect. Any excess speed
during landing may result in
significant floating.
During Takeoff - the reduced drag
may allow the aircraft to takeoff
below recommended speed. As
airplane rises out of ground effect
speed deficient the greater induced
drag may result in marginal climb
performance, or may settle back to
the runway in extreme conditions.

Define Empty weight

Airframe, engines, and all items of

operating equipment that have fixed
location and are permanently
installed in the aircraft. Includes
hydraulic fluid, unuseable fuel, and
undrainable oil.

Gross Weight

Maximum allowable weight of both

the airplane and its contents.

Useful load

Weight of the pilot, copilot,

passengers, baggage, usable fuel,
and drainable oil.

Arm

Horizontal distance in inches from

the reference datum line to the
center of gravity of the item.

Moment

Product of the weight of an item

multiplied by its arm. Moments are
expressed in pound-inches.

Center of Gravity

Point about which an aircraft would

balance if it were possible to
suspend it at that point. Expressed in
inches from datum.

Datum

Imaginary vertical plane or line from

which all measurements of arm are
taken. Set by manufacturer.
W.A.M.

What basic equation is used in all

weight and balance problems to find
the center of gravity location of an
airplane and/or its components?

What performance characteristics will

be adversely affected when an
aircraft has been overloaded?

What effect does a forward center of

gravity have on an aircrafts flight
characteristics?

Weight X Arm = Moment

Weight = Moment/Arm
(Total) Moment
Arm (CG) = -----------(Total) Weight
Higher takeoff speed
Longer takeoff run
Reduced rate & angle of climb
Lower maximum altitude
Shorter range
Reduced Cruising speed
Reduced maneuverability
Higher stalling speed
Higher landing speed
Longer landing roll
Excessive weight on the nosewheel
Higher stall speed - stalling angle of
attack is reached at a higher speed
due to increased wing loading.
Slower cruise speed - increased
drag; greater AOA is required to

maintain altitude.
More stable - the center of gravity is
farther forward from the center of
pressure which increases
longitudinal stability.
Greater back elevator pressure
required - longer takeoff roll: higher
approach speeds and problems with
landing flare.
Lower stall speed - less wing loading.

What effect does a rearward center

of gravity have on an aircrafts flight
characteristics?

Higher cruise speed - reduced drag;

smaller AOA required to maintain
altitude.
Less stable - stall and spin recovery
more difficult; the center of gravity is
closer to the center of pressure,
causing longitudinal instablility.

What are the standard weights

assumed for the following when
calculating weight and balance
problems?

Crew and passengers = 170 lbs

Gasoline = 6 lbs/ gal
Oil = 7.5 lbs/ gal
Water = 8.35 lbs/ gal

What are some of the main elements

of aircraft performance?

Takeoff and landing distance

Rate of Climb
Ceiling
Payload
Range
Speed
Fuel Economy

What factors affect the performance

Air Density (density altitude)

of an aircraft during takeoffs and

landings?

Surface Wind
Runway Surface
Upslope or Downslope of runway
Weight
Takeoff - a headwind will increas the
airplane performance by shortening
the takeoff distance and increasing
the angle of climb. A tailwind will
decrease performance by increasing
the takeoff distance and reducing the
angle of climb.

What effect does wind have on

aircraft performance?

Landing - a headwind will increase

airplane performance by steepening
the approach angle and reducing the
landing distance. A tailwind will
decrease performance by decreasing
the approach angle and increasing
the landing distance.
Cruise flight - winds aloft have
somewhat the opposite effect on
performance. Headwind will
decrease performance by reducing
ground speed, which in turn
increases fuel requirements. Tailwind
will increase performance by
increasing the ground speed, which
in turn reduces the fuel requirement
for the flight.

How does weight affect takeoff and

landing performance?

Increased weight can have a

significant effect on takeoff
performance:
Higher liftoff speed
Greater mass to accelerate
Increased retarding force (drag and

ground friction)
Longer takeoff distance
The effect of gross weight on landing
distance is that the airplane will
require a greater speed to support
the airplane at the landing AOA and
lift coefficient resulting in and
increased landing distance.

What effect does an increase in

density altitude have on takeoff and
landing performance?

Define the term density altitude.

Increased takeoff distance (greater

takeoff TAS req)
Reduced rate of climb (decreased
thrust and reduced acceleration)
Increased true airspeed on approach
and landing (same IAS)
Increased landing roll distance.
Pressure altitude corrected for
nonstandard temperature.
(performance altitude)

How does air density affect aircraft

performance?

Direct effect on:

Lift produced by the wings
Power output of the engine
Propeller efficiency
Drag forces

What factors affect air density?

Altitude - higher = less dense

Temperature - warmer = less
Humidity - more = less dense

How does temperature, altitude, and

humidity affect density altitude?

Density altitude will increase when

Hot, High, Humid
Density altitude will decrease when

cold, low, dry.

Vso

Stall speed in landing configuration;

the calibrated power off stalling
speed or the minimum steady flight
speed at which the airplane is
controllable in the landing
configuration.


Clearing Turns 1. Scan left, right,
below. 2. Raise wing toward turn
slightly and scan. 3. Enter standard
rate turn. 4. Scan above, below,
ahead during turn. 5. At 90
degrees, roll level. 6. Repeat 1-5 in
opposite direction. 7. Complete premaneuver checklist and establish
maneuver during second turn.

Clearing TurnsObjective: To determine

that the airspace immediately
surrounding the aircraft is clear of
other traffic before the start of any
maneuver and that the aircraft is not
over a congested area.

Slow Flight - Cruise Configuration1.

Select altitude: 2500' AGL.2. Begin
clearing turns.3. At 90-degree point,
apply carburetor heat.4. Slowly
reduce power to 1500 RPM.5. At
completion of clearing turns, reduce
power to idle.6. As airspeed
decreases, increase pitch attitude
to maintain altitude.6. As airspeed
approaches 55 mph, increase
power to 1700 RPM to maintain
level flight.7. Trim to maintain
attitude/altitude.8. Maintain
heading, altitude, and airspeed.9.
Practice turns, climbs, and
descents.10. Recovery: Smoothly
apply full power, shut off carburetor
heat, adjust pitch to maintain
altitude, trim.

Slow Flight - Cruise

ConfigurationObjective: To control the
aircraft at critically slow airspeeds in a
cruise configuration.Standards: MCA
+10/-0 knots, Altitude +/- 100 ft,
Heading +/- 10 degrees, Bank +/- 10
degreesNotes: Compensate for
adverse yaw during turns. Maintain
orientation; avoid fixation on airspeed
indicator.

Slow Flight - Landing

Configuration1. Select altitude:
2500' AGL.2. Begin clearing
turns.3. At 90-degree point, apply
carburetor heat.4. Slowly reduce

Slow Flight - Landing

ConfigurationObjective: To control the
aircraft at critically slow airspeeds in a
landing configuration.Standards: MCA
+10/-0 knots, Altitude +/- 100 ft,

power to 1500 RPM.5. As airspeed

decreases, increase pitch attitude
to maintain altitude.6. At 95 mph,
extend flaps 10 degrees. Continue
deceleration.7. Extend flaps in
increments to full flaps. Trim as
necessary to compensate for
changes in control pressures.8. As
airspeed approaches slow flight,
adjust power to 1900 RPM and trim
for 45 mph.9. Maintain heading,
altitude, and airspeed.10. Practice
turns, climbs, and descents.11.
Recovery: Smoothly apply full
power, shut off carburetor heat,
adjust pitch to maintain altitude.12.
Retract flaps in 10 degree
increments as airspeed increases.
Maintain altitude and heading.

Heading +/- 10 degrees, Bank +/- 10

degreesNotes: Compensate for
adverse yaw during turns. Maintain
orientation; avoid fixation on airspeed
indicator. Anticipate changes in lift as
flaps are extended or retracted.

Level off from a Climb1. PITCH:

When the aircraft is approximately
10% of the rate of climb below the
target altitude, slowly lower the
pitch to the level, cruise flight
attitude.2. POWER: As the
airspeed increases near cruise
airspeed (105-110 mph), reduce
throttle to the cruise power setting
(2200-2500 RPM).3. TRIM: Use
elevator trim to reduce forward
elevator pressure.

Level off from a ClimbNotes: Reduce

the power early if required to keep the
engine RPM within limits. Decrease
right rudder pressure as airspeed
increases, and as power is reduced.
Trimming is the last step, as it is
affected by any changes made by the
first two.

Level Flight to a Climb1. PITCH:

Increase pitch to an attitude that
should give a full-power climb at 80
mph.2. POWER: After the airspeed
has decreased to approximately 85

Level Flight to a ClimbNotes: Increase

right rudder pressure to maintain
coordination at the lower airspeed and
increased power.

mph, increase throttle to full

power.3. TRIM: Use elevator trim to
relieve any elevator control
pressures and maintain 80 mph.
Level Flight to a Descent1. PITCH:
Reduce pitch to an altitude that will
provide 500-700 ft/min rate of
descent (5-10 degree pitch
change).2. POWER: After the
aircraft has accelerated to 125
mph, reduce power by
approximately 250 RPM to maintain
this new speed.3. TRIM: Use
elevator trim to relieve any elevator
control pressures and maintain 125
mph.

Level Flight to a Descent

Level Off from a Descent1. PITCH:

At 10% of the descent rate above
the target altitude, increase the
pitch to the level cruise flight
attitude.2. POWER: As the
airspeed decreases toward cruise
speed (about 110 mph), increase
the throttle to cruise power of 2400
RPM.3. TRIM: Adjust the elevator
trim for level flight at cruise
airspeed.

Level Off from a DescentNote: Change

rudder control input to maintain proper
coordination as airspeed and power
are changed.

Power-On Stall - Cruise

Configuration1. Select altitude:
2500 AGL.2. Clearing turns.3. At 90
degree point, apply carburetor
heat.4. Slowly reduce power to
1500 RPM.5. At 65 mph, increase
power to 2100 RPM and turn off

Power-On Stall - Cruise

ConfigurationObjectives: To
demonstrate the effect of an excessive
angle of attack with the engine
developing medium power; to teach
stall recognition, avoidance, and
recovery; to prepare for recovery of

carburetor heat.6. Slowly increase

pitch attitude until imminent stall
(buffeting or decay of control
effectiveness) or full stall (loss of
control effectiveness, excessive
sink rate, sudden nose pitch
down).7. Recovery: Decrease
elevator back pressure. Apply full
power. Establish a pitch attitude to
minimize altitude loss and establish
a positive rate of climb. Smoothly
fly to attain 80 mph.
Power-Off Stall - Landing
Configuration1. Select altitude:
2500' AGL.2. Begin clearing
turns.3. At 90-degree point, apply
carburetor heat.4. Slowly reduce
power to 1500 RPM.5. As airspeed
decreases, increase pitch attitude
to maintain altitude.6. At 95 mph,
extend flaps 10 degrees. Continue
deceleration.7. Incrementally adjust
power and flaps to landing
configuration: 1300 RPM/20
degrees, 1100 RPM/30 degrees,
idle/40 degrees.8. Slowly increase
pitch attitude until imminent stall
(buffeting or decay of control
effectiveness) or full stall (loss of
control effectiveness, excessive
sink rate, sudden nose pitch
down).9. Recovery: Decrease
elevator back pressure. Apply full
power. Turn off carburetor heat.
Level wings with coordinated
ailerons and rudder. Retract flaps to
20 degrees. Establish a pitch

takeoff/departure stalls.Standards:
Heading +/- 10 degrees or Bank <= 20
degrees +/- 10 degrees.Notes: As
airspeed decreases, it is necessary to
increase right rudder pressure to
maintain proper coordination. When
recovering, do not try to establish the
best rate of climb attitude too abruptly,
as a secondary stall may occur.

Power-Off Stall - Landing

ConfigurationObjectives: To teach
proper recovery techniques for a stall
occurring during the approach and
landing phase of the flight.Standards:
Heading +/- 10 degrees or Bank <= 20
degrees +/- 10 degrees; Altitude loss
<= 200 ftNotes: Scan outside the
cockpit to avoid an wing-low condition
on entry. As the flaps are retracted,
the aircraft will tend to pitch down. This
should be counteracted by applying
the correct amount of elevator back
pressure, and re-trimming after each
configuration change.

attitude to minimize altitude loss

and establish a positive rate of
climb. After attaining a positive rate
of climb and 65 mph, retract flaps to
10 degrees. After attaining 70 mph,
fully retract the flaps.
Landing1. Complete the Before
Landing Checklist.2. Set power to
2100 RPM to produce 100 mph in
level flight.3. At mid-field, apply
carburetor heat.4. Abeam
touchdown point, reduce power to
1500 RPM.5. Increase elevator
back pressure to maintain
altitude.6. At 95 mph, extend 10
degrees of flaps.7. Decelerate to 85
mph before allowing descent.8.
With runway threshold 45 degrees
behind the aircraft, begin turn to
base.9. On base leg, reduce power
to 1300 RPM, extend flaps to 20
degrees, maintain 80 mph.10. On
final leg, reduce power as required
(e.g., idle), extend flaps to 30
degrees if necessary, and maintain
70 mph.11. Coordinate pitch to
maintain 70 mph and power to
maintain approach angle.12. At
appropriate flare altitude, slow the
descent by raising the pitch attitude
and smoothly reducing power to
idle.13. Maintain back pressure on
the yoke throughout the landing roll
to keep the nose wheel off the
runway as long as possible.14.
Once clear of the runway and
stopped, perform After Landing

LandingObjective: To develop
proficiency in conducting approaches
and landings under normal
conditions.Standards: Approach
airspeed +10/-5 knots and landing
within 400' beyond specified
point.Notes: Compensate for flap
extension. Trim on final approach.
Focus down the runway (not too close
to the airplane) to avoid too high
roundout.

Checklist.
Normal Take-Off (POH)1. Wing
Flaps -- 0 degrees.2. Carburetor
Heat -- Cold.3. Power -- Full
throttle.4. Elevator Control -- Life
nose wheel at 60 mph.5. Climb
Speed -- 75 to 85 mph.

Normal Take-Off (POH)

Maximum Performance Take-Off

(POH)1. Wing Flaps -- 0 degrees.2.
Carburetor Heat -- Cold.3. Brakes -Apply.4. Power -- Full Throttle.5.
Brakes -- Release.6. Airplane
Attitude - Slightly tail low.7. Climb
Speed -- 68 MPH until all obstacles
are cleared.

Maximum Performance Take-Off

(POH)

Climb (POH)1. Airspeed -- 80 to 90

mph.2. Power -- Full throttle.3.
Mixture -- Full rich (mixture may be
leaned above 3000 feet).

Climb (POH)

Cruising (POH)1. Power -- 2200 to

2700 RPM.2. Elevator Trim Control
Wheel -- Adjust.3. Mixture -- Lean
for maximum RPM.

Cruising (POH)

Before Landing (POH)1. Fuel

Selector Valve -- BOTH.2. Mixture - Rich.3. Carburetor Heat -- Apply
full heat before closing throttle.4.
Wing Flaps -- As desired.5.
Airspeed -- 70 to 80 mph (flaps up),
65 to 75 mph (flaps down).

Before Landing (POH)

Balked Landing (Go-Around)

Balked Landing (Go-Around) (POH)

(POH)1. Power -- Full throttle.2.

Carburetor Heat -- Cold.3. Wing
Flaps -- Retract to 20 degrees as
soon as practical after advancing
power.4. Upon reaching an
airspeed of approximately 65 mph,
retract flaps slowly.
Normal Landing (POH)1.
Touchdown -- Main wheels first.2.
Landing Roll -- Lower nose wheel
gently.3. Braking -- Minimum
required.

Normal Landing (POH)

After Landing (POH)1. Wing Flaps - Up.2. Carburetor Heat -- Cold.

After Landing (POH)

Securing Aircraft (POH)1. Parking

Brake -- Set.2. Radios and
Electrical Equipment -- OFF.3.
Mixture -- Idle cutoff (pulled full
out).4. Ignition and Master Switch -OFF.5. Control Lock -- Installed.

Securing Aircraft (POH)

Spin Recovery (POH)1. Retard

throttle to idle position.2. Apply full
rudder opposite to the direction of
rotation.3. After one-fourth turn,
move the control wheel forward of
neutral in a brisk motion.4. As the
rotation stops, neutralize the
rudder, and make a smooth
recovery from the resulting dive.

Spin Recovery (POH)

Short Field Landing (POH)1.

Airspeed -- 69 mph.2. Flaps -- 40
degrees.3. Touchdown -- Main

Short Field Landing (POH)

wheels first.4. Landing Roll -- Lower

nose wheel gently.5. Braking -Retract flaps, hold full nose up
elevator and apply maximum brake
pressure without sliding the tires.
Carburetor Icing (POH)1.
Recognize gradual loss of RPM
and eventual engine roughness.2.
Apply full throttle.3. Pull the
carburetor heat knob full out until
engine runs smoothly.4. Remove
carburetor heat and adjust
throttle.5. If conditions require
continued use of carburetor heat in
cruise flight, use the minimum
amount of heat necessary and lean
the mixture slightly.

Carburetor Icing (POH)

Spark Plug Fouling (POH)1.

Recognize engine roughness in
flight. Verify by obvious power loss
when ignition switch momentarily
turned from BOTH to either LEFT
or RIGHT. (Indicates spark plug or
magneto trouble.)2. Lean mixture to
normal lean setting for cruising
flight. If unsuccessful after several
minutes, try a richer mixture.3. If
neither lean nor rich mixture
produces smoother engine
operation, proceed to nearest
airport for repairs using the BOTH
position, unless extreme roughness
dictates use of a single ignition
position.

Spark Plug Fouling (POH)

Magneto Malfunction (POH) 1.

Recognize sudden engine
roughness or misfiring. 2. Switch
from BOTH to either LEFT or
RIGHT to identify which magneto is
malfunctioning. 3. Try different
power settings and richer mixture to
determine if continued operation on
BOTH magnetos is practicable. 4. If
engine roughness or misfiring
persists, switch to the good
magneto and proceed to the
nearest airport for repairs.

Magneto Malfunction (POH)

Low Oil Pressure (POH)1. If low oil

pressure is accompanied by normal
oil temperature, land at the nearest
airport to inspect source of
trouble.2. If accompanied by a rise
in oil temperature, reduce engine
power immediately and begin
forced landing procedure.3. Leave
engine running at low power during
the approach, using minimum
power required to reach the desired
touchdown spot.

Low Oil Pressure (POH)

Precautionary Landing with Engine

Power (POH)1. Draw over selected
field with flaps 20 degrees and 70
mph airspeed, noting the preferred
area for touchdown on the next
landing approach. Then retract
flaps after well clear of all
obstacles.2. On downwind leg, turn
off all switches except the ignition
and master switches.3. Approach
with flaps 40 degrees at 70 mph.4.

Precautionary Landing with Engine

Power (POH)

Unlatch cabin doors prior to final

approach.5. Before touchdown, turn
off ignition and master switches.6.
Land in a slightly tail-low attitude.
Emergency Landing without Engine
Power (POH)1. Establish flaps up
glide at 80 mph.2. If time permits,
attempt to restart the engine by
checking for fuel quantity, proper
fuel selector valve position, and
mixture control setting. Also check
that engine primer is full in and
locked and ignition switch is
properly positioned. If all attempts
to restart the engine fail, and a
forced landing is imminent, select a
suitable field and prepare for the
landing as follows.3. Pull mixture
control to idle cut-off position.4.
Turn fuel selector valve handle to
OFF.5. Turn off all switches except
master switch.6. Airspeed -- 70 to
80 mph (flaps up).7. Extend wing
flaps as necessary within gliding
distance of the field.8. Airspeed -65 to 75 mph (flaps down).9. Turn
off master switch.10. Unlatch cabin
doors prior to final approach.11.
Land in a slightly tail-low
attitude.12. Apply heavy braking
while holding full up elevator.

Emergency Landing without Engine

Power (POH)

Ditching (POH)1. Prepare for

ditching by securing or jettisoning
heavy objects located in the
baggage area, and collect folded
coats or cushions for protection of

Ditching (POH)

occupant's face at touchdown.2.

Transmit Mayday message on
121.5 MHz, giving location and
intentions.3. Plan approach into
wind if winds are high and seas
area heavy. With heavy swells and
light wind, land parallel to swells.4.
Approach with flaps 40 degrees
and sufficient power for a 300
ft./min. rate of descent at 70 mph.5.
Unlatch the cabin doors.6. Maintain
a continuous descent until
touchdown in level attitude. Avoid
landing flare because of the
difficulty in judging aircraft height
over a water surface.7. Place
folded coat or cushion in front of
face at time of touchdown.8.
Evacuate aircraft through cabin
doors. If necessary, open window
to flood cabin compartment for
equalizing pressure so that door
can be opened.9. Inflate life vests
and raft (if available) after
evacuation of cabin. The aircraft
cannot be depended on for flotation
for more than a few minutes.
Executing a 180 degree Turn in
Clouds (POH)1. Note the time of
the minute hand and observe the
position of the sweep second hand
on the clock.2. When the sweep
second hand indicates the nearest
half-minute, initiate a standard rate
left turn, holding the turn
coordinator symbolic airplane wing
opposite the lower left index mark

Executing a 180 degree Turn in

Clouds (POH)

for 60 seconds. Then roll back to

level flight by leveling the miniature
airplane.3. Check accuracy of the
turn by observing the compass
heading which should be the
reciprocal of the original heading.4.
If necessary, adjust heading
primarily with skidding motions
rather than rolling motions so that
the compass will read more
accurately.5. Maintain altitude and
airspeed by cautious application of
elevator control. Avoid
overcontrolling by keeping hands
off the control wheel and steering
only with rudder.
Emergency Let-Downs Through
Clouds (POH)1. Apply full rich
mixture.2. Use full carburetor
heat.3. Reduce power to set up a
500 to 800 ft./min. rate of
descent.4. Adjust elevator trim tab
for a stabilized descent at 90
mph.5. Keep hands off the control
wheel.6. Monitor turn coordinator
and make corrections by rudder
alone.7. Check trend of compass
card movement and make cautious
corrections with rudder to stop the
turn.8. Upon breaking out of clouds
resume normal cruising flight.

Emergency Let-Downs Through

Clouds (POH)

Recovery from a Spiral Dive

(POH)1. Close the throttle.2. Stop
the turn by using coordinated
aileron and rudder control to align
the symbolic airplane in the turn

Recovery from a Spiral Dive (POH)

coordinator with the horizon

reference line.3. Cautiously apply
elevator back pressure to slowly
reduce the indicated airspeed to 90
mph.4. Adjust the elevator trim
control to maintain a 90 mph
glide.5. Keep hands off the control
wheel, using rudder control to hold
a straight heading.6. Apply
carburetor heat.7. Clear engine
occasionally, but avoid using
enough power to disturb the
trimmed glide.8. Upon breaking out
of clouds, apply normal cruising
power and resume flight.
Engine Fire During a Start on the
Ground (POH)1. Continue cranking
in an attempt to get a start, which
would suck the flames and
accumulated fuel through the
carburetor and into the engine.2. If
the start is successful, run the
engine a 1700 RPM for a few
minutes before shutting it down to
inspect the damage.3. If engine
start is unsuccessful, continue
cranking for two or three minutes
with throttle full open while ground
attendants obtain fire
extinguishers.4. When ready to
extinguish fire, release the starter
switch and turn off master switch,
ignition switch, and fuel selector
valve handle.5. Smother flames
with fire extinguisher, seat cushion,
wool blanket, or loose dirt. If
practical try to remove carburetor

Engine Fire During a Start on the

Ground (POH)

air filter if it is ablaze.6. Make a

thorough inspection of fire damage,
and repair or replace damaged
components before conducting
another flight.
Engine Fire in Flight (POH)1. Pull
mixture control to idle cut-off.2.
Turn off fuel selector valve
handle.3. Turn off master switch.4.
Establish a 120 mph glide.5. Close
cabin heat control.6. Select a field
suitable for a forced landing.7. If fire
is not extinguished, increase glide
speed in an attempt to find an
airspeed that will provide an
incombustible mixture.8. Execute a
forced landing. Do not attempt to
restart engine.

Engine Fire in Flight (POH)

Electrical Fire in Flight (POH)1.

Recognize odor of burning
insulation. Immediately turn off the
master switch. Then close
ventilating air as much as
practicable to reduce the changes
of a sustained fire. If electrical
power is indispensable for the flight,
an attempt may be made to identify
and cut off the defective circuit as
below.2. Master Switch -- OFF.3.
All other switches (except ignition
switch) -- OFF.4. Check condition
of circuit breakers to identify faulty
circuit if possible. Leave faulty
circuit deactivated.5. Master Switch
-- ON.6. Select switches ON
successively, permitting a short

Electrical Fire in Flight (POH)

time delay to elapse after each

switch is turned on until the short
circuit is localized.7. Make sure fire
is completely extinguished before
opening ventilators.
Flight in Icing Conditions (POH)1.
Turn on pitot heat switch (if
installed).2. Turn back or change
altitude to obtain an outside air
temperature that is less conducive
to icing.3. Pull cabin heat control
full out to obtain windshield
defroster heat and airflow.4. Open
the throttle to increase engine
speed and minimize ice build up on
propeller blades.5. Watch for signs
of carburetor air filter ice and apply
carburetor heat as required. An
unexplained loss in engine speed
could be caused by carburetor ice
or air intake filter ice.6. Plan a
landing at the nearest airport. With
an extremely rapid ice build-up,
select a suitable "off airport" landing
site.7. With an ice accumulation of
one quarter inch or more on the
wing leading edges, be prepared
for significantly higher stall speed.8.
Leave wing flaps retracted. With a
severe ice build-up on the
horizontal tail, the change in wing
wake airflow direction caused by
wing flap extension could result in a
loss of elevator effectiveness.9.
Open left window and, if practical,
scrape ice from a portion of the
windshield for visibility in the

Flight in Icing Conditions (POH)

landing approach.10. Perform a

landing approach using a forward
slip, if necessary, for improved
visibility.11. Approach at 75 to 85
mph, depending upon the amount
of ice accumulation.12. Avoid steep
turns during the landing
approach.13. Perform a landing in
level attitude.
Short-Field Takeoff and Climb1.
Lower flaps to 10 degrees.2. Line
up on runway centerline and apply
brakes. Start takeoff roll from as
close to the end of the runway as
possible.3. Put the elevator in
neutral position. You may find this
position by visually assuring that
the elevator is in line with the
horizontal stabilizer.4. Apply full
power and verify that full power is
being developed. Keep hand on the
throttle in the event an abort
becomes necessary.5. Release
brakes.6. Rotate at 65 mph and
maintain 68 mph until obstacle is
cleared.8. Once the aircraft lifts off,
establish a Wind Correction Angle
to maintain runway centerline with
level wings.9. After airspeed
reaches 75 mph and altitude is
greater than 150 feet AGL, retract
the flaps and maintain 80 mph.10.
Establish cruise climb above a
minimum safe altitude (500-1000'
AGL).

Short-Field Takeoff and

ClimbObjective: To develop
proficiency in conducting short-field
takeoffs and climbs.Standards:
Airspeed Vx +10/-5 knots until
obstacle is cleared or until at least 50'
above the surface, then Vy +10/-5
knots.Conditions: Awareness of
obstacles during all takeoffs.

Soft-Field Takeoff and Climb1.

Soft-Field Takeoff and ClimbObjective:

Lower flaps to 10 degrees.2. Apply

full back elevator.3. After taxiing
onto runway, apply full power
without braking or stopping on
runway. Keep hand on the throttle
in the event an abort becomes
necessary.4. Apply full back
pressure until the nose wheel
comes off the runway. Adjust back
pressure to maintain the nose
wheel clear of the runway and to
avoid striking the tail.5. Liftoff will
occur at or near 57 mph (Vs1).6.
Immediately after liftoff, begin to
gradually lower the pitch to the
normal climb attitude. 7. If there is
an obstacle, lower the pitch attitude
so that 68 mph is maintained until
the obstacle is cleared before
accelerating to 80 mph.8. Once the
aircraft lifts off, establish a Wind
Correction Angle to maintain
runway centerline with level
wings.9. After airspeed reaches 75
mph and altitude is greater than
150 feet AGL, retract the flaps and
than maintain 80 mph.

To develop proficiency in conducting

soft-field takeoffs and
climbs.Standards; Airspeed Vx +10/-5
knots or Vy +10/-5 knots, as
appropriate.Conditions: Awareness of
obstacles during all takeoffs.Notes: It
is important to immediately reduce the
pitch attitude after liftoff to prevent a
takeoff/departure stall as the aircraft
climbs out of ground effect. However,
the pitch should not be reduced so
rapidly that the aircraft settles back
onto the ground.

Steep Turns1. Select altitude: 2500'

AGL.2. Begin clearing turns.3. At
90-degree point, reduce power to
2200-2300 RPM.4. As airspeed
decreases, increase pitch attitude
to maintain altitude.5. Maintain an
airspeed at or below 112 mph
(maneuvering speed).6. Select a
suitable visual reference point.7.
Use coordinated aileron and rudder

Steep TurnsObjective: To develop

smoothness, coordination, orientation,
division of attention, and control
techniques while executing high
performance turns.Standards:
Airspeed +/- 10 knots. Altitude +/- 100
feet. Bank 45 +/- 5 degrees. Heading
+/- 10 degrees of entry heading.Notes:
Perform by visual (not instrument)
reference. The best way to correct for

to establish a bank angle of 45

degrees. Attempt to hold the angle
constant.8. After approximately 30
degrees of heading change,
increase elevator back pressure
and increase power to 2400
RPM.9. Continue the turn for two
full revolutions, left and right.10.
Approximately 25 degrees (or onehalf the bank angle) before
reaching the desired heading, use
coordinated aileron and rudder to
smoothly roll out of the bank, while
simultaneously relaxing elevator
back pressure and reducing power
back to 2200-2300 RPM. This will
keep the aircraft from entering a
climb.
Rectangular Course1. Select
altitude: 1000 AGL.2. Select a
rectangular field whose sides are
approximately equal to a typical
traffic pattern. Major axis
approximately parallel to wind
direction. Close to a suitable place
to land in case of an emergency.2.
Clearing turns.3. Establish normal
cruise airspeed (2300 RPM) and
enter at 45 degrees to downwind.
First circuit to the left.4. Establish
proper Wind Correction Angle to
maintain uniform distance from field
boundaries.5. Commence and
complete turns abeam the field
boundaries.6. Vary the bank angle
(not to exceed 45 degrees) to
maintain a constant radius during

small climbs or descents in this

maneuver is to vary the bank angle by
small mounts (no more than 5
degrees). Excessive elevator back
pressure while trying to gain altitude
during the steep turn increases the
loading on the aircraft and can lead to
a high descent rate or possibly an
accelerated stall.

Rectangular CourseObjective: To
develop the pilot's ability to maneuver
the airplane while compensating for
drift during turns, and orient the flight
path with ground references while
dividing attention inside and outside
the airplane.Standards: Altitude +/100 ft, Airspeed +/- 10 knots, Bank
less than 45 degrees.Notes: Establish
proper altitude prior to entry.
Coordinate turns. (Avoid skidding from
downwind, slipping from upwind.)
Keep head out of cockpit to maintain
ground track and lookout for other
aircraft.

the turns.7. Reverse course.

Turns Around a Point1. Select
altitude 1000' AGL.2. Select a small
but prominent reference point that
is close to a suitable place to land
in case of emergency.3. Clearing
turns.4. Establish normal cruise
speed (2300 RPM) and enter the
maneuver approximately downwind
so that initial bank angle is
approximately 45 degrees.4. Adjust
bank angle and Wind Correction
Angle to correct for the effects of
wind and maintain a constant
radius around the reference point.5.
Plan to depart on the entry heading
after two turns and reverse course.

Turns Around a PointObjective: To

develop the ability to maneuver the
airplane while compensating for drift
during turns, and orient the flight path
with ground references while dividing
attention inside and outside the
airplane.Standards: Altitude +/- 100 ft,
Airspeed +/- 10 knots, Bank less than
45 degrees.Notes: Recognize wind
drift. Bank will be steepest when
downwind, shallowest when upwind.
Maintain altitude.

S-Turns1. Select altitude: 1000'

AGL.2. Select a road or other
straight reference line running
approximately perpendicular to the
wind. Identify a suitable place to
land in case of emergency.3.
Clearing turns.4. Establish normal
cruise speed (2300 RPM).5. At a
point directly over the reference
line, heading downwind, initiate a
180 degree constant radius turn,
modifying the bank angle and Wind
Correction Angle to compensate for
wind drift. At completion of turn,
aircraft should be directly over and
perpendicular to the reference line
with the wings level.6. Immediately
on completion of first turn, an
identical turn is begun on the

S-TurnsObjective: To develop the

ability to maneuver the airplane while
compensating for drift during turns and
orient the flight path in relation to
ground references while dividing
attention inside and outside the
airplane.Standards: Altitude +/- 100 ft,
Airspeed +/- 10 knots, Bank less than
45 degrees.Notes: Maintain
coordination. Lookout for other aircraft.
Steepest bank will be at beginning of
maneuver (downwind).

upwind side of the reference line in

the opposite direction.7. Bank and
WCA should be adjusted, as
necessary, throughout the
maneuver to achieve two complete
semicircles of equal radius.
Short-Field Approach and
Landing1. Complete Before
Landing Checklist.2. Complete
traffic pattern.3. On final, add full
flaps and establish 69 mph.4. Upon
obstacle clearance, initiate a power
reduction.5. Start the roundout and
flare so as to arrive at the power off
stall attitude with power reaching
idle prior to or just at touchdown.6.
Immediately upon touchdown, and
closing the throttle, the brakes
should be applied to minimize the
after-landing roll. Stop the airplane
within the shortest possible
distance consistent with safety and
controllability.7. During the afterlanding roll, continuously apply
elevator back pressure to maintain
a positive pitch attitude and
maximize aerodynamic braking.8.
Maintain directional control and
crosswind correction with
appropriate rudder aileron input.

Short-Field Approach and

LandingObjective: To develop
proficiency in conducting approaches
and landings to short runways, with
and without obstacles.Standards:
Approach airspeed +10/-5 knots and
landing within 200' beyond specified
point.Conditions: Awareness of
obstacles.Notes: Allow sufficient room
on final to set up the approach, to
avoid overly steep approach and high
sink rate. If airspeed on final is too low,
proper flare will not be possible and
the landing will be hard. If too high,
floating will occur.

Soft-Field Approach and Landing1.

Complete Before Landing
Checklist.2. Complete traffic
pattern.3. On final, add full flaps
and establish 69 mph.4.

Soft-Field Approach and

LandingObjective: To develop
proficiency in conducting approaches
and landings to soft runways, with an
without obstacles.Standards:

Touchdown at minimum speed with

the aircraft in a nose-high pitch
attitude.5. Maintain back pressure
on the yoke to keep the nosewheel
off the ground until is can no longer
be held, and then gently lower.6.
Maintain directional control and
crosswind correction with
appropriate rudder aileron input.7.
Avoid use of brakes, and use
power, if necessary, when taxiing
on very soft fields.8. Maintain full
back elevator.

Approach airspeed +10/-5

knots.Conditions: Awareness of
obstacles.Notes: Avoid excessive
descent rate and excessive airspeed
on final approach.

Front

Back

What is a transponder?

The transponder allows the radar to

see you better.

What is Squak Code 1200?

1200 - Normal VFR Rules

What is Squak Code 7700?

7700 - Emergency

What is Squak Code 7600?

7600 - Lost Communication

What is Squak Code 7500?

7500 - Hi Jack

What is Squak Code 0000?

0000 - Military Intercept Code

What does VFR stand for?

Visual Flight Rules

What does IFR stand for?

Instrument Flight Rules

When does a stall occur?

A stall occurs when you exceed the

critical angle of attack, regardless of
weight, airspeed, attitude or altitude.

How do you basically exit a stall?

Reduce your angle of attack and

restore smooth airflow over the wing.

Under what condition will the plane

roll during a stall?

During uncoordinated flight

What is a spin?

A spin is a stall in which one wing is

more fully stalled than the other.

What light is always on?

Beacon Light

What light do you turn on when

you start the engine?

Nav Light

What lights do you turn on before

take off?

Strobe Light and Taxi/Landing Light

What altitude is pattern altitude?

1500 at Palomar, but normally 1000

feet

Whats the maximum cross wind a

152 can handle?

12 knots

Where can I find information on

Student Pilot Requirements?

FAR 61.81

Where can i find information on

Solo Requirements for Student
Pilots?

FAR 61.87

Where can i find information on

General Limitations for Student
Pilots?

FAR 61.89

Where can i find information on

Solo Cross Country Flight
Requirements for Student Pilots?

FAR 61.91

Where can i find information on

Private Pilot Privileges and
Limitations?

FAR 61.113

Where can i find information on

Medical Certs, Requirements and
Durations?

FAR 61.23

Where can i find information on

use of Alcohol and Drugs?

FAR 91.17

What is a sectional map?

Zoomed out map, ie. all of Southern

California

What is a terminal map?

Zoomed in map.ie..North County

What is the acronym for aircraft

inspections?

AVIATE

what does the acronym AVIATE

stand for?

A - Annual Inspection FAR 91.409

V - VOR -Very high Omni-bearing
Radio
I - 100 Hour check FAR 91.409b
A - Altimeter (pitot static system) FAR
91.411 (every 24 cal months)
T - Transponder FAR 91.413 (every 24
cal months)
E - Emergency Locator Transmitter
FAR 91.207 (every 12 cal months),
battery replace after one hour use or
half its batter life)

What does ELT stand for?

Emergency Locator Transmitter

How often does the ELT need to

be checked?

Every 12 calendar months

How often do you change the

ELT's battery?

After one hour of cumulative use or 1/2

its battery life span.

Whats the acronym for personal

inspections?

IM SAFE

What does the acronym IM SAFE

stand for?

I - Illness
M - Medication
S - Stress
A - Alcohol (8 hours) FAR 91.17
F - Fatigue

E - Emotion
How often does the Altimeter need
to be checked?

Every 24 Calendar Months - FAR

91.411

How often does the Transponder

need to be checked?

Every 24 Calender Months - FAR

91.413

What does VOR stand for?

Very High Omni Bearing Radial

Where can i find information on

Passenger Briefing?

FAR 91.519

What are the documents for the

aircraft that need to be in the
aircraft at all times?

AROW
A - Airworthiness Cert
R - Registration
O - Operating Handbook
W - Weight and Balance

What pilot documents does the

pilot need on board all flights?

1) All crew licences

2) Picture ID
3) Current Medical and class
appropriate for priveleges being
excercised.

What does FAR stand for?

Federal Aviation Regulations

What color is Class A airspace on

the map?

Class A is not shown

What altitude range is Class A

airspace?

18000 AGL and above

What color is Class B airspace on

the map?

Solid Blue

What altitude range is Class B

10,000 AGL to 17,999 AGL

airspace?
What color is Class C airspace on
the map?

Solid Magenta

What altitude range is class C

airspace?

4,000 AGL to 9,999 AGL

What airspace is SOLID BLUE?

Class B

What airspace is SOLID

MAGENTA?

Class C

What airspace is DASHED BLUE?

Class D

What airspace is DASHED

MAGENTA?

Class E

What airspace is BIG MAGENTA?

Class E

What airspace is BIG BLUE?

Class E

What airspace is not shown?

Class A and G

How far must you be away from

clouds for VFR?

1000 feet above

500 feet below
2000 feet to the sides

What is the Va speed in a 152?

104 knots

How much visibility do you need

for VFR?

at least 3 statuate Miles

How much visibility does a student

pilot need during the day?

at least 3 statuate miles

How much visibility does a student

pilot need during the night?

at least 5 statuate miles

What does SOP stand for?

Standard Operating Procedures

What is the visibility for VFR?

3 or more statuate miles

What is the visibility for MVFR?

1 to 3 statuate miles

What is the visibility for IFR?

under 1 statuate miles

Where can i get information on

Student Pilot Eligibility?

FAR 61.83

Where can i get information on

Student Pilot Application?

FAR 61.85

Where can i get information on

Solo Requirements for Student
Pilots?

FAR 61.87

Where can i get information on

General Limitations for Student
Pilots?

FAR 61.89

Where can i get information on

Solo Cross Country Flight
Requirements for Student Pilots?

FAR 61.93

Where can i get information on

Operations in Class B Airspace
and Class B Airports?

FAR 61.95

Where can i get information on the

Duration of Pilot and Instructor
Certificates?

FAR 61.19

Where can i get information on

Medical Certificates?

FAR 61.23

What altitude do i need to fly when

flying EAST?

Odd thousands + 500

What altitude do i need to fly when

flying WEST?

EVEN thousands + 500

What is Relative Wind?

Direction Opposite but Parrallel to the

flight path

What direction is the force when

refering to CentriFUGAL force?

OUT

What direction is the force when

refering to CentriFIGAL

in

Where can i get information

regaring Private Pilot Flight
Proficiency?

FAR 61.107

What does the White and Green

beacon mean?

Lighted LAND airport

What does the White and Yellow

beacon mean?

Lighted WATER airport

Where can i get information on

ATC Light Gun Signals?

AIM - 4-3-14

What does AIM stand for?

Aeronautical Information Manual

ATC Light Gun - Steady Green

Cleared for Take Off or Landing

ATC Light Gun - Flashing Green

Cleared for Taxi or Return for Landing

ATC Light Gun - Steady Red

STOP or give way to other aircraft and

continue circling

ATC Light Gun - Flashing Red

Get off the runway or Airport unsafe, do

not land

ATC Light Gun - Flashing White

Return to starting point on airport / Not

applicable

ATC Light Gun - Alternating Red

and Green

use EXTREME Caution

what is the POH?

Pilot Operating Handbook

What is the PIM?

Pilot Information Manual

What is a prop?

Propeller, fixed pitch

What is the empennage?

back section of the plane

What is the angle of attack?

Angle between Relative Wind and the

Chord

What is the Chord?

Straight line from the leading edge to

the trailing edge of a wing

Where is the hold short line?

Right in front of the runway

What is UNICOM?

Privately operated advisory, air 2

ground radio service at uncontrolled air
fields.

What does FAA stand for?

Federal Aviation Authority

what does PIC stand for?

Pilot In Command

What is carbeurator heat?

Brings in heat from the engine into the

mixture chamber. Removes icing in the
venturi where air and fuel mix. Will
reduce air speed

What is Magnetos?

Spark Plugs

What checks do u do after take

off?

BUFL
- Brakes
- Undercarriage
- Flaps
- Lights (turn off landing light)

What checks do u perform

Downwind?

GUMFS
Gas - Fuel/Gauges/Fuel shut off
Undercarriage
M's - Mixture,Magnetos,Master
Flaps - First Stage Flaps
Safety