Ags 55 2

ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA
GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK
55-2 2015
Contents Vsebina
Nataa KOLEGA
Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010
Spreminjanje obalne rte na slovenski obali med letoma1954 in2010
205
216
Bogdan MIHAI, Constantin NISTOR, Gabriel SIMION

Post-socialist urban growth of Bucharest, Romania. achange detection
analysis on Landsat imagery (19842010)
223
Drago PERKO, Mauro HRVATIN, Rok CIGLI

Amethodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia
Metodologija naravne pokrajinske tipizacije Slovenije
235
254
Andreea-Loreta CERCLEUX, Daniel PEPTENATU, Florentina-Cristina MERCIU

Structural dynamics of tertiary activities in industrial parks in Bucharest, Romania
271
Vanja DRAGIEVI, David BOLE, Anela BUI, Aleksandra PRODANOVI

European capital of culture: residents' perception of social benefits and costs
Maribor2012 case study
Evropska prestolnica kulture: mnenje prebivalcev odrubenih koristih
in strokih dogodka primer Maribora2012
283
294
Botjan KERBLER
Population aging in Slovenia: aspatial perspective
Staranje prebivalstva vSloveniji: prostorski vidik
303
312
Katarina POLAJNAR HORVAT

Opportunities for developing mountain biking in themunicipality of Bohinj
Monosti razvoja gorskega kolesarstva vobini Bohinj
317
330
Special issue Wikialps

Riccardo BROZZI, Lucija LAPUH, Janez NARED, Thomas STREIFENEDER
Towards more resilient economies in Alpine regions
339
Stefan MARZELLI, Florian LINTZMEYER

Transnational needs of sustainable spatial development in theAlps:
results from an analysis of policy documents
351
Janez NARED, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVI, Dominik CREMER-SCHULTE,

Riccardo BROZZI, Felipe CORTINES GARCIA
Achieving sustainable spatial development in theAlps through participatory planning
363
ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 55-2 2015
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ACTA GEOGRAPHICA
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ISSN 1581-6613
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ACTA GEOGRAPHICA
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ZNANSTVENORAZISKOVALNI CENTER
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2015
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ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA/GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK

55-2
2015
ISSN: 1581-6613
COBISS: 124775936
UDC/UDK: 91
Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU2015
International editorial board/mednarodni uredniki odbor: Michael Brndl (Switzerland), Rok Cigli (Slovenia), Matej
Gabrovec (Slovenia), Peter Jordan (Austria), Drago Kladnik (Slovenia), Bla Komac (Slovenia), Andrej Kranjc (Slovenia),
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Mimi Urbanc (Slovenia), Matija Zorn (Slovenia).
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Front cover photography: Already the name of the Izola city (isola means island in Ital.) indicates historical changes
of the Slovenian coast (photograph: Miha Pavek).
Fotografija na naslovnici: e ime Izola (isola v ital. pomeni otok) nakazuje na zgodovinske spremembe slovenske obale
(fotografija: Miha Pavek).
ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK

ISSN: 1581-6613
UDC UDK: 91
Number tevilka: 55-2
Year leto: 2015
Contents Vsebina
Nataa KOLEGA
205
216

223

235
254
Andreea-Loreta CERCLEUX, Daniel PEPTENATU,

Florentina-Cristina MERCIU
Structural dynamics of tertiary activities in industrial
parks in Bucharest, Romania
271
Vanja DRAGIEVI, David BOLE, Anela BUI,

Aleksandra PRODANOVI
European capital of culture: residents' perception of social benefits
and costs Maribor2012 case study
Evropska prestolnica kulture: mnenje prebivalcev odrubenih
koristih in strokih dogodka primer Maribora2012
283
294
Botjan KERBLER
303
312

317
330
203

339

351

Achieving sustainable spatial development in theAlps through participatory
planning
363
204
Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015, 205221
Coastline Changes
on theslovenian Coast
between1954 and2010
sPReMinJanJe obalne Rte
na slovensKi obali Med
letoMa1954 in2010
Nataa Kolega
Lucija leta 1954.

Lucija in 1954.
Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/AGS.1887
UDC: 911:551.468(497.4) "1954/2010"
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Due to adense population and thepresence of various activities, among which tourism and
port activities must be highlighted, theSlovenian coast is subject to constant changes. This article analyzes theextent of these changes between1954 and2010, which coincides with atime of major coastline
changes resulting from intense development of tourism and thecommercial port. Theanalysis was based
on acomparison of aerial photographs from1954 and2010. Thechanges were determined and measured
on transects 50meters apart. Theland area gained and lost during this time was also calculated and thecoastline was classified into four different types based on thelevel of naturalness and anthropogenic transformations.
KEY WORDS: geography, coastline, Slovenian coast, aerial photography, Digital Shoreline Analysis System
This article was submitted for publication on27th November2012.
ADDRESS:
Nataa Kolega, Ph.D.
Harpha sea,d. o. o. Koper
evljarska 8, SI 6000Koper, Slovenia
E-mail: natasa@harphasea.si
206
Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015
1 Introduction
Acoastline is an imaginary line along theland-sea interface. There are various methods for determining
coastlines depending on their intended future uses. Thecoastline can be determined based on themean
sea level, thelowest sea level, themean high sea level, and so on. This article discusses thecoastline as aline
determined by themean high sea level over along period of observations because themajority of countries have acoastline defined in this way (Jovanovi1978). Principally, thecoastline is theline above which
thesea normally does not rise (Jovanovi1978). Under natural conditions, this line is typically quite visible because thepart of thecoast that is usually submerged during high tide is adifferent color. Measured
this way, thecoastline is much longer than thedistance generally used because it includes all structures
that form thecoast, including piers and other structures prominent in thesea and on land. Thewidely
accepted and commonly used length of theSlovenian coast is 46.6 km (Internet1), whereas thelength of
coastline measured for this study is 53.5 km.
Thechanges to thecoastline during this fifty-six year period have been mostly anthropogenic, due to
intense social development of thezone in thesecond half of thetwentieth century. Natural changes to thecoastline are much smaller and it is impossible to measure them with themethods used in this study because
thechanges are smaller than themethod's degree of accuracy. For example, thespeed of erosion processes on flysch cliffs is estimated as afew centimeters per year (egina, Komac and Zorn2012). On parts where
major anthropogenic changes have occurred, it is impossible to determine where thecoastline originally
lay.
Thepurpose of this research was to precisely determine thechanges to theSlovenian coastline over
thepast fifty-six years and to classify these coastline changes. In addition, it also explored theextent, causes, and parts of thecoast along which these changes are most extensive.
1.1 Short description of theregion

TheSlovenian coastline is mostly composed of rias, and lithologically it can be divided into three types:
calcareous, representing 11% of thecoast and thereby aless common type that appears only in Izola; flysch,
extending across 60% of thecoast; and alluvial plains with Holocene alluvial sediments, which comprise29%
of thecoast (Oroen Adami1990). Themain characteristics are high ridges that end at thecoast with
steep flysch cliffs and alluvial accumulation on parts where rivers flow into thesea, forming theaccumulation type of coast. Theonly exception is thezone around Izola, where coastal karst was formed (Oroen
Adami2002). Theinterface between land and sea can be classified into four natural classes: cliffs, agentle sweep of land towards thesea, accumulation coast, and relatively gently sloping land that rapidly drops
after becoming sea bottom (Kolega and Poklar2012).
It is also important to mention that during theresearch period theresearch area was subject to intense
social development. Theannexation of theregion to Yugoslavia in1954 opened thedoor for organized
and accelerated economic and social development in Koper. As theregional district center and later municipal center with numerous administrative, political, educational, and cultural institutions, Koper became
theleading driver of intense economic development in theentire coastal zone. In1957, construction began
on thePort of Koper. This fast-growing industry attracted many people to settle in and near thecity. Industrial,
commercial, business, administrative, sport, and recreational activities together with storehouses and
traffic facilities were located on the Semedela Polder (Sln. Semedelska bonifika) and kocjkan Polder
(Sln. kocjanska bonifika). Theport complex was developed northeast of theold city center and cargo, passenger, and railway traffic were situated on part of theAnkaran Polder (Sln. Ankaranska bonifika; itko
and Simi1999). All this was followed by intense tourism development and adoubling of thenumber of
inhabitants from 42,665 in1953 (Internet2) to 86,604 in2012 (Internet3). There is no doubt that tourism
and theport had major impacts on coastline changes.
1.2 Literature review

Not much has been written about coastline changes in Slovenia. Themajority of studies on this topic were
carried out and published in theearly1980s, when aseries of analyses of Slovenian coastal zone were carried
207
out for establishing protected areas (e. g., Svetlii and Krian1985). Thecourse of thecoastline in antiquity was studied by Kozlii (1986). Past changes to thecoastline in and around Koper were studied by Rejec
Brancelj (1991). After this, no detailed analyses of coastline changes in Slovenia were carried out.
Precise coastline measurement for theMinistry of Transportation was conducted in2001 and2002
by theGeodetic Institute of Slovenia together with Harpha Sead. o. o., asubcontractor that performed
theactual detailed coastline measurements (Karninik et al.2001; Karninik and Radovan2002). Coastline
measurements were performed during high tide on areas where thehigh waterline was not visible and coasts
were not artificial. For other parts, themeasurements followed thesigns of high tide: theend of thedarker coloration on rocks and artificial coasts (erjal2002).
2 Methods
Theanalysis of coastline changes between1954 and2010 was carried out with thehelp of aerial photographs
from two different years. Thephotographs from1954 were taken as part of aregular program of countrywide aerial photography. They are maintained by theSurveying and Mapping Authority of theRepublic
of Slovenia. Theentire coastal zone of Slovenia is covered by eleven photographs. In1954, however, theentire
coast was not photographed; theextreme northern part Debeli Rti was omitted. We used thephoto
from1974 for this part. Thefirst step was to orthorectify and georeference these photographs with photographs made during lidar scanning with aresolution of 0.1 m of thecoast in2010 (Harpha Sea2010).
Thegeoreferencing was relatively complicated because in some places thecoastal zone had changed to
thepoint that it was very difficult to find common ground control points for georeferencing. Because thephotographs were of varying quality and were also deformed in different ways, it was not possible to carry out
orthorectification and georeferencing with thesame degree of accuracy for all photographs. This is why
thephotographs and zones on them were treated separately and thedegree of accuracy was also defined
separately for each photograph. Georeferencing is performed by setting theground control points on thephotograph to be georeferenced and thereference photograph. Theroot mean square (RMS) of thegeoreferenced
photograph is calculated as thedifference between theposition set for shifting of single known points and
theposition on which these points were actually set (Marinovi2004; Skumavec and abi2005). Table1
shows thezones covered by individual photographs and their degree of accuracy expressed by theRMS.
Table 1: Georeferencing accuracy for each photograph.
Zone on photograph
Root mean square
Debeli Rti and Lazaret (1974 photo)

Valdoltra
Sveta Katarina and Ankaran
Port of Koper
usterna and Koper
Zone between Izola and Koper
Simon's Bay and Izola
Holy Cross Bay and Belvedere
Portoro, Piran, and Strunjan
Seovlje salt pans (north) and Lucija
Seovlje salt pans (south)
7.55
3.21
3.62
4.72
3.37
6.76
3.55
6.90
3.41
3.95
5.84
Thecoastline was first drawn on orthophotos from2010 (Harpha Sea2010) with aresolution of 0.1 m.
During lidar scanning in2010, themajority of theMunicipality of Izola was not scanned, and so for this
part of thecoast we used orthophotos made during lidar scanning in2007 (Harpha Sea2007) with thesame
resolution. As with theterrain measurements of thecoastline in2002 (erjal2002), on theorthophotos
we focused on theend of theblack area representing high tide level, which is seen in most photographs.
Thescale of coastline mapping was 1:200. All concrete piers and other structures that extend to thebottom were included in thecoastline, but all wooden, assembled, and floating piers were omitted. Thelength
of thecoastline measured this way is 53.5 km.
208
After georeferencing the1954photographs, we drew thecoastline on them too, using thesame methodology and scale. Determining thecoastline on these photographs was more complicated because they are blackand-white and poor quality. Correspondingly, theborder between sea and land is not clearly visible everywhere.
Then we analyzed coastline changes with theDSAS (Digital Shoreline Analysis System) program, working within theprogram package ArcGIS (Thieler2009). This program allows us to analyze coastlines with
transects 50 m apart. Transects are perpendicular to thecoastline and baseline. Thebaseline is aline that
is parallel to thecoastline but is drawn on interior land. It has to be placed father into theinterior than any
part of thecoastline. Then thedistance between thetwo coastlines is measured on every transect. This program also allows various statistical variables to be calculated, but these are not applicable in our case because
they require more than two coastlines.
3 Results and discussion

3.1 Comparison of coastlines in1954 and2010
21
101
25
161
271
12
31
1
32
331
341
281
191
301
201
261
171
421
411
481
501
591
581
401
471
491
511
531
621
611
631
181
231
461
441
39
221
29
151
211
371
561
431
451
52
551
1 651
131
141
571
601
64
541
361
38
351
111
91
81
51
71
61
11
41
31
Table2 shows thedistances between lines on thetransects together with theRMS for thephotograph on
which thetransect was placed. Only values on transects where thedifference is greater than theRMS are
displayed. Thus it can be seen that thedifference between lines changes for different parts of thecoast. Thedifference ranges from 0 to2,359m. Thecoastline was divided into nine parts according to thevalue of thedifference
between lines. These are shown in Figure2. Thefirst part comprises thecoast from theborder with Italy
751
Legend/legenda
1954
2010
every 10th transect/vsak 10. prerez
83
1
801
811
78
17
61
701
731
721
1
71 7
41
771
691
67
681
661
791
500 1.000
2.000 m
Scale/merilo:
Author of contents/avtorica vsebine: Nataa Kolega
Author of map/avtorica zemljevida: Nataa Kolega
Source/vir: TK 50, Geodetski zavod Slovenije
and Mladinska knjiga, 1996
Harpha sea, d.o.o., 2013
821
Figure 1: Coastlines in 1954 and 2010 and every tenth transect.
209
24
to Ankaran. Themajority of thecoast is flysch cliffs. Thecourse of thecoastline has not changed alot here;
that is, thedifference is smaller than thedegree of accuracy, although we know that slight changes such
as small landslides on cliffs are constantly present (Furlani et al.2011).
Table 2: Differences between coastlines together with RMS (The table is accessible on the internet page of the article).
Thesecond part extends from Ankaran to Sveta Katarina. Thedifferences between lines here are greater,
especially in theapproach to Sveta Katarina. All changes here are anthropogenic and are theresult of building and expanding of thePort of Koper.
Thethird part represents thePort of Koper zone, for which thecourse of thecoastline has totally changed.
On some parts thecoastline has moved more than 2 km towards thesea. In thepast Koper was an island
that was connected to themainland by acauseway in1827. Soon afterwards, drainage of thenearby wetlands and shoals began, and theisland slowly became increasingly connected with themainland (Rejec
Brancelj1991). In1954 Koper was still apeninsula, which means that thearea of today's Port of Koper was
abay, but by2010 this was totally filled in. Koper's appearance in1954 can be seen in Figure3.
Thefourth part is thecity of Koper with thecoast to usterna. Major anthropogenic changes to thecoastline have also taken place here. Amarina was built in thenorth part of theold city of Koper and thezone
towards usterna was filled in, resulting in this coastline moving towards thesea.
Thefifth part represents thecoastal road between Koper (usterna) and Izola. In1954 this road was
already there, which means that thecliff behind theroad was already dead. Thecourse of coastline has
not changed much here (Figure4).
1
2
3
5
7
Legend/legenda
1954
2010
selected parts of the coast/
izbrana obmoja obale
0
500 1.000
2.000 m
Scale/merilo:
Figure 2: The coast divided into nine parts according to the difference between the 1954 and 2010 coastlines.
210
Thesixth part represents thecity of Izola, which, like Koper, used to be an island. Unlike Koper, in1954
Izola was already strongly connected with themainland and no large areas were filled in after that. Theonly
part that was filled in after1954 is where theshipyard lies (Figure4). In theold city thecourse of thecoastline has not changed much, but this is not true of thezone in thewest part of thecity, where alarge marina
has been built that made asignificant change to thecourse of thecoastline.
Theseventh part of thecoast begins at Simon's Bay, consisting mainly of flysch cliffs from Strunjan
to Piran. Thechanges to thecoastline along thecliffs are mainly smaller than thepotential error in georeferencing thephotographs from1954. Principal factors contributing to coastline changes here are landslides
and pieces of cliff breaking off. These incidents are relatively rare and thereby do not contribute much to
coastline changes (eginam, Komac and Zorn2012). Large changes are detected only on intermediate, anthropogenically changed sections such as Strunjan, Fiesa, and Pacug. This part also encompasses theStrunjan
salt pans, along which thecoastline has not changed significantly.
Theeighth part of thecoast includes Piran, Portoro, and Lucija. Thechanges here are substantial and
entirely anthropogenic. From Piran towards Bernardin major areas have been filled in, which are large
parking lots today. Thecourse of thecoastline at Bernardin was changed by theconstruction of ahotel
complex and asmall marina has been built on theformer mainland. In Portoro thebeach was extended
by filling it in with soil, but thegreatest changes took place in Lucija, where there were still salt pans in1954
(Figure5). Thesalt pan zone was changed into what is now thelargest marina on theSlovenian coast, which
has radically changed thecourse of coastline in this case mainly towards themainland. Thezone below
theForma Viva outdoor exhibition area has also been filled in and thus theflysch cliffs were cut off from
thesea.
Legend/legenda
1954
2010
new land/pridobljena zemljia
lost land/izgubljena zemljia
0
150
300
600 m
Scale/merilo:
Figure 3: Coastlines in 1954 and 2010 and new and lost mainland at the Port of Koper.
211
Thefinal, ninth part is theSeovlje salt pans, where thecourse of thecoastline has not changed much
because theextent and borders of thesalt pans have not changed.
3.2 New and lost mainland

In addition to determining thecoastline changes from1954 to2010, we also investigated how large theareas
were for which themainland was actually extended or diminished. Figures 3, 4, and 5show zones where
these areas were most extended: thePort of Koper, theeast part of Izola, and Portoro and Lucija.
Much more mainland was gained over this fifty-six year period than theamount of land lost; new land
covers 364 ha and lost land only18 ha. Thelargest land gains are at thePort of Koper, with smaller gains
at Sveta Katarina, Izola, Bernardin, Portoro, and Lucija. Major losses took place only at theLucija marina and thesecond basin of thePort of Koper, which indents inwards past themainland.
3.3 Classification of coastline changes

We classified coastlines from1954 and2010 according to thelevel of naturalness or anthropogenic transformations. Coastline was classified as four types: relatively natural coast, somewhat natural coast, filled
but unfortified coast, and artificially fortified coast (i.e.,wall or rocks). Thelengths of these coast types
are given in Table3 and their locations are shown in Figure6.
Legend/legenda
1954
2010
0
125
250
500 m
Scale/merilo:
Figure 4: Coastlines in 1954 and 2010 and new and lost mainland in the east part of Izola along with the coastal road from Koper to Izola.
212
Table 3: Lengths (in km) of coastline types in 1954 and 2010.

Types of coastline
1954
2010
Relatively natural coast

Somewhat natural coast
Filled but unfortified coast
Artificially fortified coast (wall, rocks)
Total coast length
17,7
1,8
0
29,7
49,2
10,3
1,4
2,8
39,0
53,5
Themajority of therelatively natural coast in2010 was thecliff zones and it was thesame in1954.
In1954 thenaturally preserved cliff zones were more extensive than today; in this category there are now
also some strongly anthropogenically transformed cliffs, such as thecliff below theForma Viva exhibition area and thecliff between Izola and Belvedere. Thenatural preservation of cliffs categorized in this
type of coast currently varies from cliff to cliff. More naturally preserved cliffs include those at Debeli Rti,
thecliffs between Izola and Strunjan, and thecliffs between Strunjan and Fiesa. An example of acliff with
slightly more anthropogenic changes is theone between Piran and Fiesa, beneath which afootpath has
been created. There were also some zones categorized as therelatively natural type in1954 that are no
longer natural: part of Bernardin, thenorth coast of Izola, theIzola marina, thepart east of Koper, which
has now been filled in, and Sveta Katarina. Thearea of somewhat natural coast has not significantly diminished between1954 and2010, but thelocations of these zones have changed. In1954 these zones were at
Legend/legenda
1954
2010
0
87,5
175
350 m
Scale/merilo:
Figure 5: Coastlines in 1954 and 2010 and new and lost mainland in Portoro and Lucija.
213
Bernardin, Fiesa, theeast coast of Koper's old center, Ankaran, and Debeli Rti. Today these zones are artificially fortified coasts, and somewhat natural coasts are found in Strunjan between Izola and Belvedere
and thenorth part of Izola. Filled but unfortified coast did not exist in1954, and today it extends to Sveta
Katarina. Like today, in1954 artificially fortified coast was themost common type of coast and it includes
all zones not mentioned above. Today it represents approximately three-quarters of thecoast.
4 Conclusion
This analysis of changes to theSlovenian coastline indicates that anthropogenic changes to thecoastline
dominate. During theperiod studied, arelatively large amount of anthropogenic coastline changes were
carried out that affected thelength of thecoastline. Natural changes to thecoastline in therare zones of
natural coast were particularly small and it is impossible to measure them with this methodology because
they are smaller than thepotential error in georeferencing photographs from1954. To determine natural changes it would be necessary to have more precise photographs, but they did not exist in the1950s.
On many parts of thecoast anthropogenic changes are so extensive that it is no longer possible to see,
either in person or in photographs, where thecoastline lay in1954. Of thenine study zones, thePort of
Koper is theone that changed themost. In addition to zones with significant changes there are also some
zones that hardly changed at all, such as theSeovlje salt pans, of which theouter border (awall) was created along time ago and remained unchanged during this period. In addition to thesalt pans, thezones
with very few changes are thecliff zones between Debeli Rti and Ankaran and from Belvedere to Strunjan.
Legend/legenda
1954
relatively natural coast/razmeroma naravna obala
conditionally natural coast/pogojno naravna obala
artificially fortified coast/umetno utrjena obala
2010
relatively natural coast/razmeroma naravna obala
conditionally natural coast/pogojno naravna obala
filled not fortified coast/nasuta neutrjena obala
artificially fortified coast/umetno utrjena obala
0
500 1.000
2.000 m
Scale/merilo:
Figure 6: Types of coastlines in 1954 and 2010.
214
Considering thenature of cliffs, it is impossible to say that nothing has changed in fifty-six years only
that thedifference is too small to be measured with this methodology.
Thearea of new mainland grew by 364 ha over thefifty-six year period, primarily due to theconstruction
of thePort of Koper. Here it should be noted that thearea of thePort of Koper is still increasing because
it was also expanded from2007 to2010 (Kolega2009).
It is important to mention that today approximately three-quarters of thecoastline is artificially fortified with walls or rocks and theportion of relatively natural coast decreased by 7 km during theperiod studied.
5 References
Aerial photography of Slovenian coast. Geodetski zavod Slovenije,1954. Ljubljana.
Aerial photography of Debeli rti, Geodetski zavod Slovenije,1974. Ljubljana.
Topographic map 1 : 50.000, Geodetski zavod Slovenije, Mladinska knjiga,1996. Ljubljana.
Digital orthophoto made during lidar scanning of the coast, parts of Municipalities Koper, Izola and Piran
(DOF010), 2007. Harpha sea d. o. o. Koper.
Digital orthophoto made during lidar scanning of the coast, parts of Municipalities Koper and Piran
(DOF010), 2010. Harpha sea d.o.o. Koper.
Furlani, S., Devoto, S., Biolchi, S., Cucchi, F.2011: Coastal cliff behaviour: Thecase study of Debeli rti
(SWSlovenia). Annales, series historia naturalis21-1.
Internet1: Government of theRepublic of Slovenia, Osnovni geografski podatki. http://www.vlada.si/
o_sloveniji/osnovni_geografski_podatki/ (4. 6. 2013).
Internet2: Statistical office of theRepublic of Slovenia, Prebivalstvo in gospodinjstva ob popisih1948, 1953
in1961. http://www.stat.si/publikacije/popisi/1961/1961_3_01.pdf (7. 11. 2012).
Internet3: Statistical office of theRepublic of Slovenia, prebivalstvo po starosti in spolu, obine, Slovenija,
polletno. http://pxweb.stat.si/pxweb/Database/Dem_soc/05_prebivalstvo/10_stevilo_preb/20_05C40_
prebivalstvo_obcine/20_05C40_prebivalstvo_obcine.asp (7. 11. 2012).
Jovanovi, B.1978: Izuavanje metoda mjerenja dubina mora. Unapreenje obrade dubina idefiniranja
obalne linije sa hidrofrafskog, geodetskog ipomorskog gledita. Ph. D.thesis. University of Zagreb,
Faculty of Geodesy. Zagreb.
Karninik, I., erjal, A., Radovan, D.2001: Izvedba detajlne izmere obalne linije slovenskega morja odsek
od Izole do izliva Dragonje. Ljubljana.
Karninik, I., Radovan, D. 2002: Izvedba detajlne izmere obalne linije slovenskega morja na relaciji
Sv. JernejIzola. Ljubljana.
Kolega, N.2009: Medsebojno vplivanje kopnega in morja doloanje znailnosti stika med kopnim in
morjem spomojo lidarskih in sonarskih snemanj. Ph. D.thesis. University of Primorska, Faculty of
humanities. Koper.
Kolega, N., Poklar, M.2012: Morphological analysis of theSlovenian coast with data from lidar and sonar
ranging. Acta geographica Slovenica52-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS52105.
Kozlii, M.1986: Antika obalna linija Istre u svijetlu hidroarheolokih istraivanja. Izdanja Hrvatskog
arheolokog drutva2.
Marinovi, Z.2004: Georeferenciranje katastarskih planova K. O.Vrbanj. Bachelors thesis. University of
Zagreb, Faculty of Geodesy. Zagreb.
Oroen Adami, M.1990: Podvodni relief Trakega zaliva in varovanje naravne dediine. Primorje,
Zbornik15. zborovanja slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana.
Oroen Adami, M.2002: Geomorfoloke znailnosti Trakega zaliva in obrobja. Dela18.
Rejec Brancelj, I.1991: Antropogeno spreminjanje obalne linije vokolici Kopra. Annales1-1.
Skumavec, D., abi, D.2005: Pokrovnost tal vSloveniji19932001. Ljubljana.
Svetlii, B., Krian, B.1985: Slovenska obala predstavitev naravne dediine in naravovarstvena ocena
stanja. Piran.
egina, E., Komac, B., Zorn, M.2012: Factor influencing therockwall retreat of flisch cliffs on theSlovenian
coast. Acta geographica Slovenica52-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS52202.
Thieler, E. R., Himmelstoss, E. A., Zichichi, J. L., Ergul, A.2009: Digital Shoreline Analysis System (DSAS)
version 4.0 An ArcGIS extension for calculating shoreline change. Reston. erjal, A.2002: Poroilo
omeritvi obalne linije. Koper.
itko, S., Simi, S.1999: Koper Capodistria. Ljubljana.
215
Nataa Kolega, Spreminjanje obalne rte na slovenski obali med letoma1954 in2010

UDC: 911:551.468(497.4) "1954/2010"
COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEEK: Obalna rta na slovenski obali je zaradi poseljenosti in prepletanja razlinih dejavnosti med
katerimi je treba izpostaviti turizem in pristanie, podvrena nenehnim spremembam. lanek poskua
analizirati obseg sprememb vobdobju med letoma1954 in2010, kar sovpada zobdobjem velikih sprememb obalne rte zaradi intenzivnega razvoja turizma in pristania. Analiza sprememb je bila izvedena
na podlagi primerjave letalskih posnetkov iz let1954 in2010. Spremembe so bile doloene in merjene na
podlagi prerezov med seboj oddaljenih 50metrov. Izraunana je bila tudi povrina pridobljenih in izgubljenih zemlji na kopnem vtem asu, obalni rti pa sta bili klasificirani vtiri razline tipe glede na stopnjo
naravnosti oziroma antropogene preoblikovanosti.
KLJUNE BESEDE: geografija, obalna rta, slovenska obala, letalski posnetki, Digital Shoreline Analysis
System
Urednitvo je prejelo prispevek 27.novembra2012.
NASLOV:
dr. Nataa Kolega
Harpha sea,d. o. o. Koper
evljarska 8, SI 6000Koper, Slovenija
E-pota: natasa@harphasea.si
216
1 Uvod
Obalna rta je navidezna rta, ki poteka po stiku kopnega in morja. Njena natanna doloitev je odvisna
od namena za katerega obalno rto potrebujemo, saj za razline namene obstaja ve nainov doloanja obalne rte. Le-to lahko doloamo na podlagi srednje gladine morja, najnije nije gladine morja, srednje vrednosti
visokih voda, ipd. Vnai raziskavi bomo oobalni rti govorili kot orti doloeni na podlagi srednje vrednosti visokih voda iz daljega obdobja spremljanja viine gladine morja, saj ima tako definirano obalno
linijo veina drav (Jovanovi1978). Naelno velja, da je obalna rta linija, ez katero morje obiajno ne
gre (Jovanovi1978). Ta je vnaravi navadno dokaj dobro vidna, saj je del obale, do kamor sega morje, drugae obarvan. Dolina tako izmerjene obalne rte je bistveno dalja kot splono uporabljena dolina obale,
saj so vnjej zajeti tudi vsi objekti, ki tvorijo obalo (npr. pomoli), ter drugi vmorje izstopajoi in vkopno
zarezujoi se deli obale. Tako je splono uveljavljena dolina slovenske obale 46,6 km (internet1), dolina izmerjene obalne rte vtej raziskavi pa kar 53,5 km.
Spremembe obalne rte vtem estinpetdesetletnem obdobju so bile veinoma antropogene, saj je drugo polovico 20.stoletja zaznamoval predvsem intenziven drubeni razvoj obmoja. Naravne spremembe
obalne rte so bistveno manje in jih je zato nemogoe meriti zmetodami, ki so bile uporabljene tekom
te raziskave, saj so manje od stopnje natannosti metode. Na primer hitrost erozijskih procesov na flinih
klifih je ocenjena na nekaj centimetrov letno (egina, Komac in Zorn2012). Na obmojih, kjer je prilo
do vejih antropogenih sprememb ni ve mogoe vedeti kje je vpreteklosti potekala obalna rta.
Namen raziskave spreminjanja obalne rte je natanneje doloiti, kako se je obalna rta na slovenski
obali spreminjala vobdobju zadnjih estinpetdeset let ter klasificirati ugotovljene spremembe. Poleg tega
nas zanima tudi, kolikne so te spremembe, na katerem delu obale so najveje ter kakni so njihovi vzroki.
1.1 Kratek oris obmoja

Slovenska obala je preteno riakega tipa, zvidika litologije pa jo lahko loimo vtri tipe: apnenike obale, ki predstavljajo 11 % obale in so tako najmanj zastopan tip obale, pojavljajo se zgolj vIzoli; fline obale,
ki obsegajo 60 % obale; ob aluvialnih ravnicah pa se pojavljajo obale sholocenskimi aluvialnimi sedimenti, ki zavzemajo 29 % obale (Oroen Adami1990). Znailno je, da se vija, grievnata slemena konujejo
na obali sstrmimi flinimi klifi, na mestih, kjer pritekajo vmorje vodotoki, pa se je zaradi nanaanja drobnega gradiva izoblikoval akumulacijski tip obale. Izjemo predstavlja obmoje Izole, kjer je prisoten priobalni
kras (Oroen Adami2002). Stik med kopnim in morjem lahko razdelimo vtiri naravne tipe: klifi, polono spuanje kopnega in morskega dna, akumulacijske obale in razmeroma polono kopno, ki se ob prehodu
vmorsko dno dokaj hitro spremeni vprevis (Kolega in Poklar2012).
Omeniti je treba tudi, da se je vobdobju, katerega spremembe preuujemo, obmoje iz drubenega
vidika intenzivno razvijalo. Prikljuitev kSloveniji leta1954 je Kopru ponovno odprla vrata za organiziran in pospeen gospodarski in drubeni napredek. Kot regijsko-okrajno, kasneje pa obinsko sredie
stevilnimi upravno-politinimi, izobraevalnimi in kulturnimi ustanovami je Koper prevzemal nase breme pospeenega gospodarskega razvoja celotnega obalnega obmoja. Leta1957 se je zaela izgradnja luke.
Hitra rast industrije je privabila veliko novega prebivalstva vneposredno bliino mesta. Na semedelski in
kocjanski bonifiki so se razvili industrijski obrati, trgovine, poslovni objekti, skladia, upravne stavbe
pa tudi portni objekti in rekreacijske povrine ter prometnice. Severovzhodno od starega mestnega jedra
se je raziril luki kompleks, na delu ankaranske bonifike pa tovorni, potniki in elezniki promet (itko in Simi1999). Intenzivno se je zael razvijati turizem, tevilo prebivalstva pa je iz 42.665 leta1953
(internet2) naraslo na 86.604 leta2012 (internet3). Nedvomno sta prav turizem in pristanie imela najveji vpliv na spreminjanje obalne rte.
1.2 Pregled obstojee literature

Na temo spreminjanja poteka obalne rte slovenskega morja na splono ni bilo veliko napisanega. Najve
se je otematiki pisalo vzaetku osemdesetih let prejnjega stoletja, ko je nastala vrsta analiz slovenskega
obalnega pasu in obalne rte za potrebe ustanovitve zavarovanih obmoji (npr. Svetlii in Krian1985).
Potek obalne rte vasu antike je preueval Kozlii (1986). Sspreminjanjem in premikanjem obalne rte
217
vokolici Kopra vpreteklosti se je ukvarjala Rejec Branceljeva (1991). Kasneje ni bila izvedena nobena druga podrobneja analiza spreminjanja obalne rte vSloveniji.
Natanno izmero obalne rte je vletih2001 in2002 za Ministrstvo za promet izvedel Geodetski intitut Slovenije vsodelovanju spodjetjem Harpha sea,d. o. o. kot podizvajalcem, ki je natanne meritve obalne
rte dejansko izvedlo (Karninik s sod.2001; Karninik in Radovan2002). Meritve obalne rte so potekale ob visoki plimi na obmojih, kjer ni opazne linije visokih voda ali ni grajene obale, na ostalih obmojih
pa se je sledilo sledovom visokih voda (konec temneje obarvanega obmoja na skalah) ali zidani obali
(erjal2002).
2 Metodologija
Analizo spreminjanja obalne rte med letoma1954 in2010 smo izvedli spomojo letalskih posnetkov dveh
razlinih starosti. Posnetki iz leta1954 so nastali so kot zaetek ciklinega aerosnemanja dravnega ozemlja, hrani pa jih Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Da pokrijemo celotno obalno rto slovenske obale,
potrebujemo 11letalskih posnetkov. Omeniti je treba, da vletu1954 ni bila posneta obalna rta vceloti,
saj ni bil posnet njen skrajni severni del, t. j.Debeli rti. Za ta del je bil uporabljen posnetek iz leta1974.
Posnetke je bilo najprej treba ortorektificirati in georeferencirati zortofoto posnetki, izdelanimi med lidarskim
snemanjem leta2010, zloljivostjo 0,1 m (Harpha sea2010). Samo georeferenciranje je bilo precej zapleteno, saj se je obalni pas ponekod spremenil do takne mere, da je bilo izjemno teko najti skupne oslonilne
toke za georeferenciranje. Ker so bili posnetki razlinih kakovosti in so bile tudi razlino deformirane, ortorektificiranja in georeferenciranja ni bilo mogoe izvesti za vse posnetke zenako stopnjo natannosti. Zato
so bili posnetki oziroma obmoja na posnetkih obravnavana vsako posebej, prav tako je bila za vsak posnetek doloena stopnja natannosti georeferenciranja. Georeferenciranje poteka spostavljanjem veznih tok
na sliki, ki jo elimo georeferencirati, in referenni sliki. Srednja napaka poloaja georeferencirane slike se
rauna kot razlika med poloajem, doloenim za premik posameznih poznanih tok, in poloajem, na katere
so se toke dejansko preslikale (Marinovi2004; Skumavec in abi2005). Preglednica1 prikazuje obmoja,
ki jih pokrivajo posamezni posnetki, in stopnjo natannosti, izraeno scenilko srednje napake poloaja
za vsak posnetek posebej.
Preglednica 1: Natannost georeferenciranja posameznih letalskih posnetkov.
obmoje na posnetku
srednja napaka poloaja
Debeli rti in Lazaret (leto 1974)

Valdoltra
Sv. Katarina in Ankaran
Luka Koper
usterna in Koper
Obmoje med Izolo in Koprom
Simonov zaliv in Izola
Zaliv sv. Kria in Belveder
Portoro, Piran in Strunjan
Severni del Seoveljskih solin z Lucijo
Juni del Seoveljskih solin
7,55
3,21
3,62
4,72
3,37
6,76
3,55
6,90
3,41
3,95
5,84
Obalno rto smo najprej vrisali na ortofoto posnetke, izdelane ob lidarskem snemanju leta2010 (Harpha sea2010), zloljivostjo 0,1 m. Ker pri tem snemanju veji del obine Izola ni bil posnet, smo za ta del
obalne rte uporabili ortofoto posnetke nastale pri lidarskem snemanju leta2007 (Harpha sea2007) enake
kakovosti. Na ortofoto posnetkih smo poskuali, podobno kot e pri meritvah na terenu leta2002 (erjal2002), upotevati rto, do koder voda lahko see, ki je na veini posnetkov vidna. Merilo, vkaterem se
je izvajalo kartiranje poteka obalne rte na ortofoto posnetkih, je bilo 1 : 200. Vobalno rto so bili zajeti
vsi zidani pomoli ter ostali objekti na obali (kiseejo do dna), izpueni pa so bili vsi montani (leseni)
in plavajoi pomoli ter objekti. Skupna dolina tako doloene obalne rte je 53,5 km.
218
Po georeferenciranju posnetkov iz leta1954 smo tudi na njih doloili potek obalne rte, vistem merilu. Doloanje poteka obalne rte je bilo bolj zapleteno, saj so posnetki rno-beli in slabe kakovosti. Temu
primerno se ponekod slabe vidi tudi meja med kopnim in morjem.
Nadalje smo spremembe obalne rte poskuali analizirati sprogramom Digitalni sistem za analizo obale
(ang. Digital shoreline analysis system DSAS), ki deluje znotraj programskega paketa ArcGIS (Thieler2009).
Program omogoa analizo rt sprerezi, ki so pravokotni na obalno rto oziroma na bazno rto ter so oddaljeni med seboj 50 m. Bazna rta je rta, ki poteka vzporedno zobalno rto vendar bolj vnotranjosti kopnega,
na nain, da se vedno nahaja bolj vnotranjosti kopnega kot katera koli obalna rta. Na vsakem prerezu je
nato izmerjena razdalja med obalnima rtama. Poleg tega nam program omogoa tudi izraun nekaterih
statistinih spremenljivk, ki pa vnaem primeru veinoma niso uporabne, saj sta za njihov izraun potrebni
ve kot dve obalni rti.
3 Rezultati in razprava
3.1 Primerjava obalnih rt leta1954 in leta2010
VPreglednici2 lahko vidimo razdalje med rtama po prerezih skupaj sstopnjo natannosti georeferenciranja, izraeno zRMS. Prikazane so zgolj vrednosti na prerezih pri katerih je mogoe doloiti razliko med
rtama, saj je njuna razlika veja od mone napake (RMS). Vidimo, da se razlika med rtama zelo spreminja po odsekih obale. Vrednost razlike se giblje med 0 m in2359 m. Glede na vrednost razlike med rtama
je bila obala razdeljena vdevet delov, ki so prikazani na sliki2. Prvi del obsega obmoje od meje zItalijo
do Ankarana. Veji del obmoja predstavljajo klifi. Tu se potek obalne rte ni bistveno spremenil oziroma
je sprememba povsod manja od stopnje natannosti (mone napake pri georeferenciranju), vemo pa da
so oitne vendar manje spremembe vobliki udorov redno prisotne (Furlani s sod.2011).
Slika 1: Potek obalnih rt leta 1954 in 2010 ter vsak deseti prerez.
Glej angleki del prispevka.
Preglednica 2: Razdalje med rtama po prerezih.
Slika 2: Obalo smo glede na vrednost razlike med obalnima rtama, v letih 1954 in 2010, razdelili v devet delov.
Drugi del se razprostira od Ankarana do Sv. Katarine. Razlike med rtama so tu veje, posebno ko se
pribliujemo Sv. Katarini. Vendar so vse te spremembe antropogene, saj so nastale preteno znasipavanjem
med gradnjo Luke Koper.
Tretji del predstavlja obmoje Luke Koper, za katero je znailno, da se je potek obalne rte popolnoma spremenil. Obalna rta se je na nekaterih mestih premaknila na kodo morja za ve kot2 km. Kot je
znano, je bil Koper vpreteklosti otok, ki so ga leta1827 povezali skopnim znasipom, kmalu za tem pa so
zaeli tudi zizsuevanjem blinjih plitvin ter ga tako postopoma vedno bolj povezovali skopnim (Rejec
Brancelj1991). Leta1954 je bil Koper e polotok, kar pomeni da je bilo obmoje, kjer se danes nahaja del
Luke Koper, zaliv, ki je bil do leta2010 popolnoma zasut. Izgled Kopra leta1954 prikazuje slika3.
etrti del predstavlja mesto Koper ter obalo do usterne. Tudi tu je prilo do vejih antropogenih sprememb obalne rte. Na severni obali starega mestnega jedra Kopra so zgradili marino, obmoje proti usterni
pa je nasuto, kar pomeni, da se je obalna rta premaknila na kodo morja.
Peti del predstavlja obalna cesta med Koprom (usterno) in Izolo. Omenjena obalna cesta je obstajala e leta1954, kar pomeni, da je bil klif vnjenem zaledju e takrat mrtev. Potek obalne rte se tu ni
bistveno spreminjal (slika4).
esti del predstavlja mesto Izola, ki je bilo tako kot Koper vpreteklosti otok. Vnasprotju od Kopra je
bila Izola leta1954 e veliko tesneje povezana skopnim in po tem letu okolice niso ve tako bistveno zasipavali. Dodatno so zasipali le del, kjer se nahaja Ladjedelnica Izola (slika4). Na obmoju starega mestnega
jedra se potek obalne rte ni bistveno spreminjal, tega pa nikakor ne moremo rei za zahodni del mesta, kjer
je bila zgrajena velika marina, ki je tu zelo spremenila potek obalne rte.
219
Naprej od Simonovega zaliva se zane sedmi del obale, preteno klifi, od Strunjana do Pirana. Spremembe obalne rte ob klifih so veinoma manje od mone napake pri georeferenciranju, saj so poglavitni
dejavniki spreminjanja obalne rte tu predvsem usadi in odlomi, ki pa so razmeroma redki in zato ne prispevajo bistveno kspreminjanju obalne rte (egina, Komac in Zorn2012). Veje spremembe zasledimo le
na vmesnih, antropogeno preoblikovanih delih obale, kot so Strunjan, Fiesa in Pacug. Na tem delu se nahajajo tudi Strunjanske soline, ob katerih se obalna rta prav tako ni bistveno spreminjala.
Na osmem delu obale se nahajajo Piran, Portoro in Lucija. Tu so spremembe velike in popolnoma antropogene. Naprej od Pirana proti Bernardinu so bila nasuta veja obmoja, kjer se sedaj nahajajo parkiria,
potek obalne rte na Bernardinu pa je spremenil kompleks hotelov; iz nekdanjih kopnih zemlji je bil narejen mandra. VPortorou je bila znasipavanjem umetno podaljana plaa, najveje spremembe pa so se
zgodile vLuciji, kjer so leta1954 e bile soline (slika5). Obmoje solin je bilo spremenjeno vtrenutno najvejo marino na slovenski obali in stem se je zelo spremenil tudi potek obalne rte, vtem primeru predvsem
na kodo kopnega. Tudi obmoje pod Formo vivo je bilo umetno nasuto, stem pa so bili klifi odrezani od
morja.
Zadnji, deveti del predstavljajo Seoveljske soline, kjer ni prilo do omembe vrednih sprememb vpoteku obalne rte, saj se zunanja podoba oziroma obseg solin vobravnavnem obdobju ni spremenil.
3.2 Pridobljena in izgubljena zemljia na kopnem

Poleg doloanja samih premikov obalne rte med letoma1954 in2010 nas je zanimalo tudi, kako velika
so zemljia, ki so bile dejansko pridobljena ali izgubljena zvidika kopnega. Slike 5, 6 in 7prikazujejo obmoja,
kjer so te obmoja najobseneja; obmoje Luke Koper, vzhodni del Izole in Portoro ter Lucijo.
Slika 3: Obalni rti leta 1954 in 2010 ter pridobljena in izgubljena obmoja kopnega na obmoju Luke Koper.
Slika 4: Obalni rti leta 1954 in 2010 ter pridobljena in izgubljena obmoja kopnega na obmoju vzhodnega dela Izole ter obalna cesta med Koprom
in Izolo.
Slika 5: Obalni rti leta 1954 in 2010 ter pridobljena in izgubljena obmoja kopnega na obmoju Portoroa in Lucije.
Povrine, ki jih je kopno vteh letih pridobilo, so veliko veje od zemlji, ki jih je kopno izgubilo, saj
je pridobljenih 364 ha, izgubljenih pa 18 ha zemlji. Najveji del pridobljenih povrin se nahaja vLuki
Koper, manji deli pa e na Sv. Katarini, vIzoli, na Bernardinu, vPortorou in Luciji. Veji izgubljeni zemljii sta le vmarini vLuciji in vdrugem bazenu Luke Koper, ki se zajeda vnekdanje kopno.
3.3 Klasifikacija preoblikovanosti obalne rte

Obalni rti vletih1954 in2010 smo poskuali klasificirati glede na stopnjo naravne oz. antropogene preoblikovanosti. Klasificirali smo ju vtiri tipe: razmeroma naravna obala, pogojno naravna obala, ki bi ji lahko
rekli tudi utrjena obala ssledmi naravne obale, umetno nasuta neutrjena obala in umetno utrjena obala
(zid, skale). Doline natetih tipov obale oziroma obalne rte so predstavljene vpreglednici3, lokacije pa
na sliki6.
Slika 6: Tipi obalne rte leta 1954 in leta 2010.
Najveji del razmeroma naravne obale so zavzemala obmoja klifov tako leta1954 kot2010. Leta1954
je bilo naravno ohranjenih obmoij klifov ve kot danes, saj so mednje sodili tudi danes mono antropogeno preoblikovani klifi, kot je klif pod Forma vivo in klif med Izolo in Belvederjem. Naravna ohranjenost
klifov, ki smo jih umestili vto kategorijo, se danes od klifa do klifa razlikuje. Med bolj naravnimi lahko
izpostavimo klife na Debelem rtiu, klife med Izolo in Strunjanom ter med Strunjanom in Fieso, kot klif
220
Preglednica 3: Doline (v km) tipov obalne rte leta 1954 in leta 2010.
tipi obalne rte
1954
2010
razmeroma naravna obala

pogojno naravna obala
nasuta neutrjena obala
umetno utrjena obala (zid, skale)
skupna dolina obale
17,7
1,8
0
29,7
49,2
10,3
1,4
2,8
39,0
53,5
znekoliko vejimi lovekimi posegi pa klif med Piranom in Fieso, na vznoju katerega je utrjena sprehajalna pot. Leta1954 so vkategorijo razmeroma naravne obale sodila tudi nekatera obmoja, ki jih danes ne
moremo ve kategorizirati kot naravna; to so: del Bernardina, severna obala Izole, obala kjer je danes marina Izola, del vzhodno od Kopra, ki je danes zasut in obmoje Sv. Katarine. Povrina obmoij pogojno naravne
obale se ni bistveno zmanjala od leta1954 do leta2010, vendar so se spreminjale lokacije teh obmoij.
Leta1954 so se nahajala na Bernardinu, vFiesi, na vzhodni obali starega mesta Koper, vAnkaranu in na
Debelem rtiu. Danes nateta obmoja sodijo med umetno utrjene obale, pogojno naravna obala pa se
nahaja vStrunjanu, med Izolo in Belvederjem ter na severni strani starega mesta Izole. Nasuta neutrjena
obala leta1954 ni bila prisotna, danes pa je prisotna na Sv. Katarini. Umetno utrjena obala je bila tako
leta1954 kot2010 najprisotneji tip obale in zavzema vsa obmoja, ki niso bila predhodno nateta. Danes
obsega priblino tri etrtine celotne obale.
4 Sklep
Analizo spreminjanja obalne rte lahko sklenemo zugotovitvijo, da so na slovenski obali poglavitne predvsem antropogene spremembe obalne rte. Antropogenih sprememb poteka obalne rte se je vpreuevanem
obdobju glede na celotno dolino obale zgodilo relativno veliko. Naravne spremembe obalne rte na redkih
obmojih ohranjene naravne obale so zelo majhne in jih zato ni mogoe meriti na taken nain, saj so pogosto manje od razpona napake, ki je nastala pri georeferenciranju in ortorektificiranju posnetkov iz leta1954.
Da bi lahko doloili naravne spremembe, bi potrebovali natanneje posnetke, vendar vpetdesetih letih
prejnjega stoletja natanneji posnetki niso obstajali.
Na mnogih mestih so antropogene spremembe tako velike, da ni ve mogoe opaziti, ne vnaravi ne
na posnetkih, kje je obalna rta vpreteklosti (leta1954) potekala. Med njimi najbolj izstopa obmoje Luke
Koper. Najdemo pa lahko tudi nekaj obmoij, kjer je sprememb zelo malo ali skoraj ni. Gre za obmoje
Seoveljskih solin, katerih zunanji rob, po katerem poteka obalna rta, je bil utrjen e davno in se zato tudi
vpreuevanem obdobju ni spreminjal. Poleg solin sta se kot obmoji zzelo majhnimi spremembami pokazali
obmoji klifov od Debelega rtia do Ankarana in od Belvederja do Strunjana. Vendar bi glede na naravo
klifov teko rekli, da se vestinpetdesetih letih na njih ni ni spremenilo, gre le za to, da so spremembe premajhne glede na metodo merjenja.
Povrina kopnega se je vestinpetdesetletnem obdobje poveala za 364 ha, predvsem na raun Luke
Koper, na tem mestu pa je treba omeniti, da se njena povrina e poveuje, saj se je od leta2007 do2010
tudi nekoliko poveala (Kolega2009).
Zanemariti ne smemo tudi dejstva, da je danes priblino tri etrtine obalne rte umetno utrjene, bodisi zzidovi ali sskalami, ter da se je dele razmeroma naravne obale vpreuevanem obdobju zmanjal za
dobrih 7 km.
5 Literatura
221
222
Post-soCialist URban gRowth

oF bUChaRest, RoMania
aChange deteCtion analYsis
on landsat iMageRY (19842010)
BOGDAN MIHAI
Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion
Bucharest suburbanisation.
Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion, Post-socialist urban growth of Bucharest, Romania a change detection
Post-socialist urban growth of Bucharest, Romania achange

detection analysis on Landsat imagery (19842010)
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.709
UDC: 911.375(498.11)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: In this study, Bucharest, thecapital city of Romania was selected as acase study. Based on
time series of Landsat TM imagery and statistical data, an analysis on urban growth from1984 to2010
was performed, using an integrated approach of remote sensing and GIS techniques. Theland cover data
were validated by CORINE Land Cover maps. Theresults revealed that rapid urban growth of theBucharest
region led to accelerated land use conversion from cropland to built-up land. Theprocesses of deindustrialization in the core city and industrialization to the ring road represent other driving factors for
spatiotemporal pattern of built-up land. Thepaper will discuss these processes and their impact on economic growth and residential suburbanization of thestudied region.
KEY WORDS: Bucharest, Landsat TM, Change detection, Land and real-estate market.
Thearticle was submitted for publication on October10th,2010.
ADDRESSES:
Bogdan Mihai, Ph.D.
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography
Nicolae Balcescu Blvd.1, 010041Bucharest, Sect.1, Romania
E-mail: bogdan@geo.unibuc.ro
Constantin Nistor, Ph.D.
E-mail: nistorcosti@yahoo.com
Gabriel Simion, Ph.D.
E-mail: gabriel.simion@humangeographies.org.ro
224
1 Introduction
Post-communist cities of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) are characterised by an interesting evolution,
as theeffect of thetransition from thecentralised urban planning policy to aliberal urban policy based
on competitive real-estate market and private investments (Turnock1997). Although social and economic
transitions had different rhythms, for CEE cities urban evolution followed quite thesame cyclic phenomena
related with theWestern European cities (Antrop2004; Stanilov2007). Since1990, every CEE Capital city
including Moscow (Russian Federation) followed almost thesame way of reformation through urban
policy (Rudolph and Brade2005). Thedifference is theeffect in landscape change and its temporal resolution. Some capital cities better connected with Western Europe on European transport corridors had themost
dynamic urban change Prague (Skora1999), Budapest (Kiss2007), Warsaw (Wecawowicz2005), Ljubljana
(Ravbar1997; Gaperi2004).
Remote sensing data change detection is one of themost useful methods in analysing thespatiotemporal dynamics of post-socialist cities, because maps and statistical data might be outdates in thecontext
of ashort-time period urban change and urban sprawl process (Lu et al.2004). Recent contributions from
international literature integrated Landsat data within thestudy of urban change and urban sprawl in large
urban areas (Qin, Jianwen and Yang Yun2006; Tang, Wang and Yao2008; Wu and Zhang2012). Feranec et al.
(2010) mapped in asynoptic formula thechanges in theEuropean landscape from1990 to2000 and showed
for Romania that Bucharest was one of themost dynamic regions.
Our paper is focused on theBucharest city, ranked the10th largest capital city in EU by population number. Until1989, thecity gone through thesocialist urban policy which increased thebuilding densities
mainly residential within theinner city and theindustrial and block of flats areas. Those transformation
policies were accelerated after theMarch 4,1977 earthquake until thefall of socialist regime in1989 according to theideas of theformer communist leaders, including demolition of affected areas and systematization
of thecity centre.
2 Study area
Thestudy area is centred on theBucharest City and its fringe, with aradius of2025km (Figure1). Bucharest
City is thecountry capital and themain urban centre of Romania. Thestudy region covers2,274 km2, in
southern Romania. Therelief is mostly flat, with thealtitude between 60to100 m. This region is characterised by thealternating countryside with anew emerging urban landscape founded in theformer villages
surrounding Bucharest City.
During thelate communist period thestate encouraged theexpansion of an intensive socialist agriculture
around theBucharest City, within aspecial district called theIlfov Agricultural District (Simion,2010).
TheNational Census from2002 registered apopulation of1.93million inhabitants in theBucharest City
core, with aslowly decrease at thelast census from2011 when thecity counted apopulation of1.88million inhabitants. Thedensity of population is about 8,400inhabitants perkm2. In theend of2010 local
GDP per capita was approximately 13,809Euro, and was well above thenational average (approximately
5.804Euro) and almost double than thesecond region with 6,565Euro. This level of high economic development is best expressed by theinvestments in theindustrial, commercial, services and residential projects.
3 Methodology
3.1 Landsat image processing
Mapping of spatiotemporal changes was done on four Landsat TM subscenes acquired on 4August,1984,
13August,1993, 25August,2003 and 12August,2010 (Table1). These years are representative for analysing
of theurban change of theBucharest city and for its surrounding region during socialist and post-socialist
period.
Thechange detection analysis combined themultispectral data classification with theGIS mapping.
Although spatial resolution is limited to 30 m, theclassification results were cross-tabulated with independent
225
Table 1: Landsat scenes (path183row029) used for change detection analysis.

Sensor
Landsat 5 TM
Landsat 5 TM
Landsat 5 TM
Landsat 5 TM
Date
Central point scan time
Resolution
Processing Level
1984/08/04
1993/08/13
2003/08/25
2010/08/12
08.32 local time

08.25 local time
08.40 local time
08.53 local time
30 m
30 m
30 m
30 m
L1T (orthorectified)
L1T(orthorectified)
L1T(orthorectified)
L1T(orthorectified)
Data source: Earth Explorer database
land use/land cover (LULC) data CORINE Land Cover from1990,2000 and2006 and ground truth
validation. Theneural network supervised algorithm used hundreds of training areas grouped within four
categories, covering almost all thespectral differences within thefuture classes (built-up land, water, forest and green spaces and cropland). Theoverall accuracies are between 8694% after thecomparison of
each four images result with theEuropean CORINE Land Cover Data (CLC).
3.2 Change detection and GIS mapping of change

Mapping urban growth between1984 and2010 was done after theseparation of built-up land class. Mapping
scale change is completed for two derived case studies of themost dynamic areas represented by northern
and thewestern areas of Bucharest region. Further, analysis was focused on identifying theeffect of urban
change and growth phenomena in connection with thedistance from thecity centre by using buffer zones
drawn at each 5 km from centre up to20 km.
Legend
Elevation in m
0 100
100 200
200 500
500 700
7001000
10001500
15002000
20002500
Study area
BUCHAREST
Authors of contents: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simon

Authors of map: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simon
Source: Processed data from Earth Science Data Interface, University of Maryland
Anton Melik geographical institute ZRC SAZU, 2014
Figure 1: The geographical setting of the study area in Romania.
226
Scale:
0
100 km
Table 2: Synthetic table of confusion matrices.

Ground truth image CORINE Land Cover
User accuracy (%)
1984
Built-up land
Cropland
Forest land
Water
Overall accuracy (%)
Kappa
1993/
CLC 1990
Producer accuracy (%)
2003/
CLC 2000
N/A
80.91
94.93
N/A
88.42
95.89
N/A
93.37
95.01
N/A
85.42
81.23
87.84 (1993); 93.86 (2003); 86.92 (2010)
0.70 (1993); 0.8920 (2003); 0.70 (2010);
2010/
CLC 2006
1984
1993/
CLC 1990
2003/
CLC 2000
2010/
CLC 2006
78.16
88.26
90.92
77.14
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
62.73
96.99
79.12
34.04
95.22
98.11
97.39
71.03
60.34
95.26
86.13
50.32
Data source: Authors processed the data from classifications on Landsat TM images
Statistical analysis of change detection was derived from thedifference between classification layers
for three periods: 19841993, 19932003 and20032010. Confusion matrix was drawn for all of these three
periods linking CLC2006 data with Landsat image2010 classification (Table2). Interpretation of thediagrams (Figure2) allow theidentification of changes where regression coefficient R2 is lower than0.5.
4 Results
4.1 Spatiotemporal pattern of change detection statistic
Table3 and Figure3 show spatiotemporal patterns of LULC in theBucharest region from1984 to2010.
As observed theextent of theLULC classes varied according with thespatial dynamics of thecity, which
implied an increasing of built-up land and decreasing of cropland.
In theoverall period, thebuilt-up land increased with23.5%, thecropland decreased with 4.2%, forestry
and green spaces has remained almost constantly with and increasing of only 1.9%. Theprojects of water
management determined an increase of water bodies, mainly reservoirs and canals for irrigations.
Thedynamics of built-up land during socialist time revealed an increase by 15.9% from1984 to1993,
and decrease with4.4% through thetransition period from1993 to2003. Increasing of built-up land was
registered after2003 when theinvestments in services, industrial and residential land determined thegrowth
of thebuilt-up land by11.5%.
a.
b.
80
y = 1,1093 x 0,2772
R2 = 0,9802
60
50
40
30
20
y = 1,0868 x 0,1726
R2 = 0,9791
60
50
40
30
20
10
10
0
80
70
CLC 2006 (Km2)
CLC 1993 (Km2)
70
50
100
50
100
Figure 2: Linear regression graphs. (a) built-up land 1993; (b) cropland 2010. Each point represents an administrative unit from the study area.
227
An interesting fact is that classified forest patches for Landsat image2010 was with alower accuracy
of 6080%. In this case, thequestion is if urban growth replaced forest or not? Examination of Figure3
together with statistical data change detection matrices for theperiod2003 to2010 demonstrated an
increase of forest patches from178to 192 km2.
Analysis of themaps and tables shows theevolution of thebuilt-up land in theBucharest region from1984
to2010 (Figure3 and Table3). Theexpansion of thebuilt-up land was accelerated before1993, but this trend
became negative between1993 and2003 and become even faster between2003 and2010. Consequently,
420000
440000
0000
0000
42
440000
420000
440000
Forest land
920000
4
4
900000
920000
940000
90
900000
92
0000
4
0000
920000
4
900000
4
900000
4
920000
920000
4
900000
Built-up land
440000
940000
420000
Legend:
Cropland
940000
920000
4
900000
4
44
940000
42
940000
440000
0000
920000
420000
940000
440000
940000
420000
900000
440000
940000
420000
Water
Authors of contents: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simon

Source: GIS overlay of the processed data from classifications on Landsat TM images
Figure 3: Spatiotemporal evolution of land use/land cover changes from 1984 to 2010.
228
Scale:
20 km
along with political and socio-economic influences, spatial pattern of thebuilt-up land of theBucharest
region during thedifferent periods analysed can be described as follows:
1) The19841993period: During this interval, built-up land of theBucharest region increased by15.9%,
from246.86 km2 to286.04 km2. Theclassification shows acompact city built-up area (sharp borders)
and limited built-up areas for all thesettlements around Bucharest. This is related to theso called systematization of villages which forbids thedeveloping beyond thestrictly defined city borders, and
preserving surrounding area for an intensive socialist agriculture. In this period were established several hydro-technical constructions including reservoirs and rivers channels. New runway of Henri Coand
Otopeni airport was built and apartment blocks arose within Bucharest city administrative limit.
2) The19932003period. Built-up land of theBucharest region registered ainteresting change, with theslightly decrease from286.04 km2 to273.4 km2 as an effect of uncertain urban and regional development policy
and theeconomic restructuring. Thedecrease of built-up area is related with theabandonment/close/demolish of theformer socialist plants or demolished of theold/historical buildings.
3) The20032010period. Built-up land of theBucharest region increased from273.4 km2 to 304.92 km2.
This period superposes on themost dynamic urban change and urban growth period. Built-up land
increases at an approximate rate like that of thepeak of socialist time. New urban nuclei erected between
main roads, near to thelakes or forests. Thenew residential ensembles, individual houses, hypermarkets/malls with large parking areas, headquarters of international companies and banks replaced croplands
and in few cases forested grounds returned to theformer owners by thestate. There are also some infrastructure elements that increase thebuilt-up land as themotorway to Ploieti, thenew terminal for
international flight at Henri Coand Otopeni airport and themodernization of electrified railway to Ploieti
and Braov in north and Constana in east, belonging to thePan-European Corridor IV.
Table 3: Change rates and directions for the land use/land cover data from 1984 to 2010.
Class Name
1984km2
1993km2
2003km2
2010km2
Built-up land
Cropland
Forest land
Water
246.86
1,794.72
200.41
32.07
286.04
1,776.25
184.86
26.91
273.4
1,752.06
205.97
42.62
304.92
1,718.58
204.26
46.30
19841993 19932003 20032010 19932010 19842010

(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
(%)
15.9
1.0
7.8
16.1
4.4
1.4
11.4
58.4
11.5
1.9
0.8
8.6
6.6
3.2
10.5
72.1
23.5
4.2
1.9
44.4
Data source: Authors processed data from classifications on Landsat TM images
4.2 Land cover change with buffer zones

Another objective of this study was to make alarge scale mapping of urban growth in relations with thedistance from thecity centre. Figure4 is theresult of abuffer zone analysis displaying theeffect of LULC on
aradius of20 km. It is focused on only three classes that better define theurban change and city growth:
built-up land, water and forest land.
Themap shows for thecentral area of 5 km city radius more transformation for water and forest-green
land than for built-up land. Buffer zone of 510 km is superposed on thecity administrative border, where
representative change are related to thenew developments as residential, commercial, logistic park, on former cropland situated along themain roads. Thebuffer zone of1015 km shows an important change of
built-up land with approximately 50% of change from1984 to2010 due to theabundant new residential
land. Thebuffer zone of1520 km shows equilibrium between thepercentages of change with only several logistics parks built along themotorway A1to Piteti.
5 Discussion
5.1 Economic growth and its effect on logistics and services
Bucharest region is themost dynamic economic area of Romania. Its high developed economy is best expressed
by theinvestments in theindustrial, commercial, services and residential projects.
229
Legend
Change area (% per class)
Built-up land
Water
Forest land
10
15
Settlement
Railway
Main road
20 Km
Scale:
0
20 km
Authors of contents: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor,

Gabriel Simon
Source: processed data from classifications on Landsat TM
Figure 4: Buffer zones map of land use/land cover change from 19842010.
Industrial and warehouse facilities are built in thewestern area along themotorway to Pitesti (A1)
where landscape is amixture of logistic parks with commercial facilities, (Figure5). These developments
are covering 2530 ha and constructed recently (20052013), on thecropland and barren land. Towards
thecity there are also large commercial investments on theplace of former socialist industries. One interesting phenomenon is theindustrialization of thering road introduced by restriction for trucks inside
Bucharest City during thelast ten years (Simion,2010).
Service facilities are located in thenorthern area mainly in thetowns of Otopeni and Bneasa (Figure6).
Themain attraction of this area was thetransport infrastructure: thehighway to Ploieti and Braov, thenorthern sector of Bucharest City ring railway. Thechange map show acomplex land use pattern with airport,
roads and blocks of apartments or individual houses.
In thenorthern area near thesecond Bucharest City airport called Bneasa airport (BBU) and up to
thering road and railway is alarge area with commercial facilities. Thecore is theBaneasa Shopping City.
In vicinity of theBneasa forest is alarge business park with international corporations' headquarters
and showrooms. Another development trend was that barren grounds in Otopeni town along themain
road DN1-E60 were thesubject of office and showroom development in avery short period from2001
to2006.
5.2 Residential suburbanization

Residential suburbanization of Bucharest City is strongly related with thedevelopment in industrial, warehouse and services areas. Residential areas appeared as thecontinuation of those spaces. Northern from
OTP airport is asystem of residential ensembles, erected after1997 on barren ground, attracted by thepresence of Romania main roads and commercial facilities.
Other residential development areas completed thegap between thecity and thering road and railroad.
These areas are still developing and extended theBucharest city built-up area, although thecity expansion was more or less interrupted by theglobal economic crisis. Except this more compact area of change,
Figures5 and 6offer agood overview of thespatial impact of urban growth inside Bucharest region.
Residential developments extended their limits on2030 km far from thecity centre to thenorthern area,
but there are also new residential project in thesouthern area.
230
Sftica
Cciulai
Baloteti
Dasclu
Petreti
Dimieni
Corbeanca
OTP
Tunari
Otopeni
tefnetii
de Sus
Odile
Afumai
Co
l en
t in
a
BBU
BUCHAREST
Built-up land 1984

Built-up land growth 19841993
Voluntari
Settlement
Railway
European highway
International Airports
OTP Otopeni, BBU Baneasa
National highway
Stream network

Local road
Forest land 1984
Author of contents: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion

Author of map: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion
Figure 5: Detailed change maps of western area of the Bucharest region.
231
Scale:
0
2.5 km
Odile
Otopeni
Mogooaia
Sbreni
Chitila
Zurbaua
Dragomireti-Vale
Bcu
Rudeni
Chiajna
Dragomireti-Deal
Dudu
Rou
Ciorogrla
BUCHAREST
Drvari
Domneti
Olteni
Built-up land 1984

Settlement
Local road
Motorway
Railway
European highway
Stream network

National highway
Forest land 1984
Author of contents: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion

Author of map: Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion
Figure 6: Detailed change maps of northern area of the Bucharest region.
232
Scale:
0
2.5 km
6 Conclusion
Bucharest region featured adelay in urban change and urban growth in comparison with other Eastern
European country capitals. One identified tendencies of is therelocation of industrial, commercial, services
from theurban core to radial roads and to theouter ring in order to accommodate automobile transportation.
Themain effect was thedeterritorialisation of production and in thefuture is expected thedevelopment
of socio-economic centres and expansion nuclei in thesuburban area. Thenew suburban landscape appears
as amixed use of industrial, commercial, office and residential, that can be interpreted as aconvergence with
thegrowth of earlier Western European urban regions. Theprocess is well-known Western literature as urban
sprawl, with associated problems as increasing automobile traffic, air pollution, increasing public cost for
providing infrastructure and services.
Mapping of post-socialist period changes at alarge scale showed that several areas, especially in thenorthern and thewestern regions were attractive for residential, services and warehouse investments due to their
position along main roads and available cropland to be converted to such type of uses. Theurban growth
of Bucharest City became even faster between2003 and2010, with adeclining trend after2008 in thecontext of global economic crisis that affected land market and investments in residential projects. Furthermore,
deindustrialization limited thegrowth of theBucharest City in thesounding regions because it created available land in theinner city that are converted to other uses commercial, residential or are abandoned.
Theresults can offer away to evaluate spatiotemporal changes within apost-socialist Capital city. Thescale
of theanalysis is limitative but it is essential to mapping and to validate thequalitative features of thesocial
and economic change.
7 References
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234
aMethodologY FoR natURal

landsCaPe tYPiFiCation oF slovenia
MetodologiJa naRavne
PoKRaJinsKe tiPiZaCiJe sloveniJe
MATEJ GABROVEC
Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Cigli
The Mediterranean Vipava Valley is a juncture of several landscape types.

Sredozemska Vipavska dolina je stiie ve pokrajinskih tipov.
Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Cigli, Amethodology for natural landscape typification of Slovenia

UDC: 911.52(497.4)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Based on digital data on relief, rock, and vegetation, themost significant elements of theinternal structure of Slovenian landscapes and at thesame time of their external appearance, ageographic
information system and verification in thefield were used to create several natural landscape typologies
of Slovenia with avarying number of types. Themost generalized typology is based on thespatial overlap of four relief, seven lithological, and seven vegetation units. It has twenty-four landscape types: four
flat, eleven low hilly, six hilly, and three mountainous types.
KEY WORDS: geography, typification, typology, landscape type, surface, rocks, vegetation, digital elevation
model, geographic information system, Slovenia
Thearticle was submitted for publication on October20th,2014.
ADDRESSES:
Drago Perko, Ph.D.
Anton Melik Geographical Institute
Research Centre of theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Novi trg2, SI 1000Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: drago@zrc-sazu.si
Mauro Hrvatin
E-mail: mauro@zrc-sazu.si
Rok Cigli, Ph.D.
E-mail: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si
236
1 Introduction
Geographical regionalization and geographical typification rank among themost interesting but also
the most complicated problems in geography (Hammond 1964; Dikau, Brabb and Mark 1991;
Kladnik1996; Brabyn1998; McMahon, Wiken, and Gauthier2004; Natek and iberna2004; Gallant,
Douglas and Hoffer2005; Iwahashi and Pike2006; Ellison2010; Cigli2014). Theregionalization and
typification of Slovenia are especially complicated because thecountry is known for its exceptional landscape diversity. In this very small area of central Europe, four major natural geographical units theAlps,
theDinaric Alps, thePannonian Basin, and theMediterranean meet and interwine, as do four major
cultural spaces: Slavic, Germanic, Romance, and Hungarian (Melik1935; Ilei1956 and1958; Gams1983
and1998; Natek1993; Gams, Kladnik and Oroen Adami1995; Gabrovec and Hrvatin1998; Perko1998a;
Perko and Kladnik 1998; Plut 1999; pes et al. 2004; Kladnik, Perko and Urbanc 2009; Perko and
Hrvatin2009; Hrvatin and Perko2012; Cigli and Perko2012 and2013a). Many researchers justifiably
describe Slovenia as anatural geographical laboratory because it is rare to have so many diverse landscapes in such asmall space anywhere in theworld. Landscape diversity also contributes to thediversity
of natural hazards (Zorn and Komac2011) and influences regional development (Nared and Ravbar2003;
Kozina2010).
1.1 Regionalization and typification

In regionalization as in typification, thebasic element is landscape, which is simultaneously thebasic subject of geography, thefundamental national science of every nation, and it has avery special place in science
because it links thenatural sciences, social sciences, and humanities. Alandscape is composed of natural
landscape elements (rock, surface, water, climate, soil, flora, and fauna) and social ones (population, settlements, and theeconomy). One distinguishes thenatural landscape, which is composed of only natural
landscape elements, and thecultural landscape, which is composed of social landscape elements in addition to natural landscape elements and has two subtypes: rural and urban (Perko1998b and1998c).
Regionalization is theprocess of spatially separating regions or dividing theland surface into regions,
and it is often based on thetypification of landscapes; that is, theclassification of landscapes according to
their characteristics into groups or landscape types. Each landscape belongs to aspecific landscape type,
and many landscapes can rank in acertain landscape type. Theprinciple of similarity is characteristic for
typification, whereas theprinciple of individuality applies for regionalization. Each region is uniform and
unique, and therefore its name is capitalized, whereas each type of landscape can occur several times and
is therefore not capitalized as acommon noun (Perko1998b and1998c). In Slovenia, for example, grievje
low hills forms atype of landscape that is frequent and found in various places in Slovenia, and theKrko
Low Hills (Krko grievje) region is unique in theworld.
Regionalization and typification also represent ahierarchical classification, division, and combination
of landscapes and regions. Each landscape or region may be apart of alarger landscape or region and divided into smaller landscapes or regions. Thelargest regions are macroregions or large regions, which are
further divided into mesoregions or medium-sized regions, which are further divided into microregions
or small regions. Thesame applies to landscapes (Perko1998b and1998c).
Numerous studies have proven that three natural landscape elements are themost significant for thefunction and appearance of Slovenian landscapes: relief, rocks, and vegetation. They are so strongly linked with
other natural landscape elements that anatural-geographical regionalization or typification of appropriate quality can only be created by considering these three landscape elements.
Because Slovenia has enough accurate digital data on relief, rocks, and vegetation at its disposal, it is
possible to employ ageographic information system to create autilizable natural landscape typification
and to define themost important natural landscape types in Slovenia as relatively homogenous natural
spatial units.
Themain goals of theresearch are to define natural landscape types using arelatively objective method,
verify them in situ, and create athematic map of thenatural landscape typification of Slovenia as aresource
for research in various disciplines, for theregionalization of Slovenia, for planning spatial development,
for protecting Slovenia's natural heritage, and for preserving Slovenia's exceptional landscape diversity.
237
Compared with thegeographical regionalization of Slovenia, thegeographical typification of Slovenia

has distinctly been neglected. It is true, however, that some types of regionalization of Slovenia consider
theprinciples of typification or are ablend of regionalization and typification (Perko1998c).
Experts from abroad have never dealt with thenatural landscape typification of Slovenia. They have
included Slovenia only at theEuropean level (Cigli2009). These classifications are very general and therefore not very applicable for detailed analysis.
1.2 Landscape typology of Slovenia from1998

Thefirst partly computer-produced natural landscape typology of Slovenia from1998includes nine types
(Perko1998a; Figure1). Perko defined thetype centers by using ageographic information system (GIS)
and overlapping thedigital layers of natural landscape features (e.g.,a100m digital elevation model, rock
types, and vegetation types). He printed these on a1 : 250,000 scale map and then manually outlined theborders between them.
Thelandscape types are:
Alpine mountains;
Alpine hills;
Alpine plains;
Pannonian low hills;
Pannonian plains;
Dinaric plateaus;
Dinaric valleys and corrosion plains;
Mediterranean low hills;
Mediterranean plateaus.
2 Methodology
This paper mainly presents themethodological part of theresearch project Determination of Natural
Landscape Types of Slovenia using aGeographic Information System.
As abasic layer in ageographic information system, ageomorphologically tested 25 m digital elevation
model (Digitalni model viin 2014) was used, which provides 32,436,693square cells with abaseline
of25 m and an area of 6.25ares.
Vector layers were added with relief, lithological, and vegetation units.
On thebasis of statistical analysis of thecorrelation or spatial congruence of relief, lithological, and
vegetation units relative to individual cells, combinations of therelief, lithological, and vegetation units
as natural landscape types were defined. Avery simplified example of apossible combination or possible
landscape type is plaingravelpedunculate oak, which means that, on alayer of relief units, aselected
cell is ranked as aplain composed of gravel that is overgrown with pedunculate oak.
Equally important, those natural landscape types were identified whose actual frequency (number of
cells among all cells) is large, meaning they cover larger areas of Slovenia (absolute importance of each type),
as well as those natural landscape types that occur more rarely but whose actual frequency of occurrence
is larger than their theoretical frequency, theproduct of thetheoretical frequencies of therelief, lithological, and vegetation units that compose acertain natural landscape type (relative importance of each type).
2.1 Relief layer

Because of Slovenia's diverse relief, landform is often themost important factor in distinguishing between
regions and is an important element of geographical classification, typification, and regionalization; this
is why Slovenian geographers have developed several relief-based landform classifications of theterritory (Melik1935; Natek1993; Gabrovec and Hrvatin1998; Perko2001).
Figure 1: Natural landscape typology of Slovenia with nine types (Perko 2007a). p
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Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU
Mediterranean plateaus
Mediterranean low hills
Pannonian plains
Pannonian low hills
Dinaric plateaus
Dinaric valleys and corrosion plains
Alpine plains
Alpine hills
Alpine mountains
Thefirst computerized typification was developed by Drago Perko (1992) in his doctoral dissertation,
in which he divided Slovenian territory into eight landform units. Perko identified surface roughness using
arelief coefficient (i.e.,thegeometric mean of theheight and slope coefficients, which are based on thespatial changes in relief elevations and inclinations). Perko then used ageographic information system to filter
therelief coefficient layer several times, thus obtaining uniform areas of thesame morphological class, which
he called morphological units. Later on, he used asimilar method to define morphological units on thebasis
of theheight and aspect coefficients, which are based on spatial changes in relief elevations and aspects,
and thejoint coefficient, which represents thegeometric mean of thefirst two (Perko2007b and2009).
Based on this, avector map with eight different relief units was prepared:
Plains;
Rough plains;
Low hills;
Rough low hills;
High hills;
Rough high hills;
Wide valleys;
Mountains.
At thefirst level of generalization, these eight basic relief units were combined into seven relief units
(wide valleys were combined with other units):
Plains;
Rough plains;
Low hills;
Rough low hills;
High hills;
Rough high hills;
Mountains.
At thelast level of generalization, these seven relief units were combined into four relief units (Figure2):
Plains (plains, rough plains);
Low hills (low hills, rough low hills);
High hills (high hills, rough high hills);
Mountains.
2.2 Lithology layer

Avector map of rock types (Zemljevid tipov kamnin 2012) was prepared at theZRC SAZU Anton Melik
Geographical Institute based on avector map of rock types for Slovenia (Litostratigrafska karta Slovenije 2011),
which was produced by theGeological Survey of Slovenia and commissioned by theEnvironmental Agency
of theRepublic of Slovenia primarily based on 1 : 25,000 vectorized geological maps of Slovenia.
Themap has twenty-five different units (types) of rock.
Quaternary clay, silt, and sand;
Quaternary silicate gravel;
Quaternary carbonate gravel;
Quaternary conglomerate;
Quaternary rubble;
Pleistocene till and tillite;
Neogene and Pleistocene sand and quartz gravel;
Tertiary and Pleistocene clay;
Miocene limestone;
Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate;
Tertiary marl;
Cretaceous and Tertiary flysch;
Figure 2: Relief layer of Slovenia with four units. p
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Mountains
High hills
Low hills
Plains
Relief types
Mesozoic and Oligocene platy limestone;

Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleogene bedded limestone;
Paleozoic and Mesozoic massive limestone;
Permian and Mesozoic limestone and dolomite;
Permian and Mesozoic dolomite;
Permian, Mesozoic, and Paleocene carbonate and clastic rocks;
Carboniferous, Permian, and Mesozoic claystone and siltstone;
Carboniferous and Permian sandstone and conglomerate;
Mesozoic and Tertiary volcaniclastic rocks (tuffs and tuffites);
Paleozoic, Triassic, and Tertiary volcanic rocks;
Permian and Tertiary plutonic rocks;
Paleozoic low grade metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite);
Precambrian high grade metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist, amphibolite, serpentinite, eclogite).
At thefirst level of generalization, these twenty-five basic units were combined into fifteen lithological units:
Clay and silt (Quaternary clay, silt, and sand; Tertiary and Pleistocene clay);
Sand (Neogene and Pleistocene sand and quartz gravel);
Carbonate gravel, rubble, and till (Quaternary carbonate gravel; Quaternary rubble; Pleistocene till and tillite);
Silicate gravel (Quaternary silicate gravel);
Claystone and siltstone (Carboniferous, Permian, and Mesozoic claystone and siltstone);
Carbonate conglomerate (Quaternary conglomerate);
Silicate sandstone, and conglomerate (Tertiary sandstone and conglomerate; Carboniferous and Permian
sandstone and conglomerate);
Sandstone and marl (flysch) (Cretaceous and Tertiary flysch);
Marl (Tertiary marl);
Carbonate and clastic rocks (Permian, Mesozoic, and Paleocene carbonate and clastic rocks);
Limestone (Miocene limestone; Mesozoic and Oligocene platy limestone; Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleogene
bedded limestone; Paleozoic and Mesozoic massive limestone; Permian and Mesozoic limestone and dolomite);
Dolomite (Permian and Mesozoic dolomite);
Metamorphic rocks (Paleozoic low grade metamorphic rocks (slate, phyllite); Precambrian high grade
metamorphic rocks (gneiss, schist, amphibolite, serpentinite, eclogite));
Tuffs and tuffites (Mesozoic and Tertiary volcaniclastic rocks (tuffs and tuffites));
Igneous rocks (Paleozoic, Triassic, and Tertiary volcanic rocks; Permian and Tertiary plutonic rocks).
At thelast level of generalization, these fifteen units were combined into seven lithological units (Figure3):
Non-carbonate sediments (clay and silt; sand; silicate gravel);
Carbonate sediments (carbonate gravel, rubble, and till);
Fine grained clastic rocks (claystone and siltstone; marl);
Flysch (sandstone and marl (flysch));
Coarse grained clastic rocks (carbonate conglomerate; silicate sandstone and conglomerate);
Carbonate rocks (limestone; dolomite; carbonate and clastic rocks);
Metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs (metamorphic rocks; igneous rocks; tuffs and tuffites).
2.3 Vegetation layer

Thevector map of potential vegetation types (Zemljevid tipov potencialne vegetacije 2007) was prepared
at theZRC SAZU Anton Melik Geographical Institute based on a1 : 400,000 map of potential natural vegetation (Zemljevid potencialne naravne vegetacije 1998) produced by theZRC SAZU Jovan Hadi Biology
Institute for theSlovenian Geographical Atlas (Geografski atlas Slovenije (Fridl et al.1998)).
Themap has sixty-two different units (communities) of potential vegetation:
OstryoQuercetum pubescentis;
Seslerio autumnalisQuercetum pubescentis;
MolinioQuercetum pubescentis;
Figure 3: Lithology layer of Slovenia with seven units. p
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Metamorphic and igneous

rocks with tuffs
Carbonate rocks
Coarse clastic rocks
Flysch
Fine clastic rocks
Carbonate sediments
Non-Carbonate sediments
Rock types
Seslerio autumnalisQuercetum petraeae;

Carici umbrosaeQuercetum petraeae var. geogr. Seslerio autumnalis;
Querco roborisCarpinetum;
PseudostellarioQuercetum roboris;
PseudostellarioCarpinetum;
Querco roborisUlmetum laevis;
Abieti albaeCarpinetum;
Helleboro nigriCarpinetum;
Ornithogalo pyrenaiciCarpinetum;
Pruno padiCarpinetum;
HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Ruscus hypoglossum;
HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Geranium nodosum;
HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia;
Vicio oroboidiFagetum;
Ornithogalo pyrenaiciFagetum;
AruncoFagetum;
Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Dentaria polyphyllos;
Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Geranium nodosum;
Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Sesleria autumnalis;
Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Dentaria pentaphyllos;
OmphalodoFagetum;
OmphalodoFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia;
Cardamine savensiFagetum;
Polysticho lonchitisFagetum var. geogr. Allium victorialis;
Polysticho lonchitisFagetum var. geogr. Salix waldsteiniana;
Anemono trifoliaeFagetum var. geogr. Helleborus niger;
Anemono trifoliaeFagetum var. geogr. Luzula nivea;
Stellario glochidiospermaeFagetum;
Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandiflora;
Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var. geogr. Hepatica nobilis;
Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var. geogr. Luzula nivea;
Homogyno sylvestrisFagetum;
Seslerio autumnalisFagetum;
OstryoFagetum var. geogr. Acer obtusatum;
OstryoFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia;
Luzulo albidaeCarpinetum;
CastaneoFagetum;
CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Hieracium rotundatum;
CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandiflora;
CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Epimedium alpinum;
LuzuloFagetum var. geogr. Cardamine trifolia;
BlechnoFagetum;
Galio rotundifoliiAbietetum;
Stellario montaniPiceetum;
HacquetioPiceetum;
SphagnoPiceetum var. geogr. Carex brizoides;
Rhytidiadelpho loreiPiceetum;
Adenostylo glabraePiceetum var. Cardamine trifolias.lat.;
Lonicero caeruleaePiceetum;
Vaccinio myrtilliPinetum;
SphagnoPinetum mugo;
RhodothamnoPinetum mugo;
Hyperico grisebachiiPinetum mugo;
QuercoOstryetum;
244
CytisanthoOstryetum;
Fraxino orni Ostryetum;
Fraxino orni Pinetum nigrae;
Carici elongataeAlnetum glutinosae;
Asplenietea, Thlaspietea rotundifolii, Seslerietea albicantis.
At thefirst level of generalization, these sixty-two basic units of potential vegetation were combined
into fifteen vegetation units:
Downy oak, European hophornbeam (OstryoQuercetum pubescentis);
Downy oak (Seslerio autumnalisQuercetum pubescentis, MolinioQuercetum pubescentis);
Durmast (Seslerio autumnalisQuercetum petraeae, Carici umbrosaeQuercetum petraeae var. geogr. Seslerio
autumnalis);
European hornbeam, oak, occasional black alder (Querco roborisCarpinetum, Carici elongataeAlnetum
glutinosae);
Oak, occasional elm (PseudostellarioQuercetum roboris, Querco roborisUlmetum laevis);
European hornbeam, fir (Abieti albaeCarpinetum);
European hornbeam (PseudostellarioCarpinetum, Helleboro nigriCarpinetum, Ornithogalo pyrenaiciCarpinetum, Pruno padiCarpinetum, Luzulo albidaeCarpinetum);
Beech (HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Ruscus hypoglossum, HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Geranium
nodosum, HacquetioFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia, Vicio oroboidiFagetum, Ornithogalo pyrenaiciFagetum, AruncoFagetum, Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Dentaria polyphyllos, Lamio
orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Geranium nodosum, Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Sesleria autumnalis,
Lamio orvalaeFagetum var. geogr. Dentaria pentaphyllos, Cardamine savensiFagetum, Polysticho lonchitisFagetum var. geogr. Allium victorialis, Polysticho lonchitisFagetum var. geogr. Salix waldsteiniana,
Anemono trifoliaeFagetum var. geogr. Helleborus niger, Anemono trifoliaeFagetum var. geogr. Luzula
nivea, Stellario glochidiospermaeFagetum, Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandiflora, Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var. geogr. Hepatica nobilis, Ranunculo platanifoliiFagetum var.
geogr. Luzula nivea, Seslerio autumnalisFagetum, LuzuloFagetum var. geogr. Cardamine trifolia,
BlechnoFagetum);
Beech, fir (OmphalodoFagetum, OmphalodoFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia, Homogyno sylvestris
Fagetum);
Beech, European hophornbeam, occasional European hophornbeam (OstryoFagetum var. geogr. Acer
obtusatum, OstryoFagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia, QuercoOstryetum, CytisanthoOstryetum, Fraxino
orni Ostryetum);
Beech, chestnut, oak (CastaneoFagetum, CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Hieracium rotundatum,
CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandiflora, CastaneoFagetum var. geogr. Epimedium alpinum);
Fir (Galio rotundifoliiAbietetum);
Spruce (Stellario montaniPiceetum, HacquetioPiceetum, SphagnoPiceetum var. geogr. Carex brizoides,
Rhytidiadelpho loreiPiceetum, Adenostylo glabraePiceetum var. Cardamine trifolia s. lat., Lonicero
caeruleaePiceetum);
Red pine (Vaccinio myrtilliPinetum, Fraxino orniPinetum nigrae);
Dwarf pine and other highland vegetation (SphagnoPinetum mugo, RhodothamnoPinetum mugo,
Hyperico grisebachiiPinetum mugo, Asplenietea, Thlaspietea rotundifolii, Seslerietea albicantis).
At thelast level of generalization, these fifteen units of potential vegetation were combined into seven
vegetation units (Figure4):
Downy oak, durmast (downy oak, European hophornbeam; downy oak; durmast);
European hornbeam, oak, red pine (European hornbeam, oak, occasional black alder; oak, occasional
elm; European hornbeam, fir; European hornbeam; red pine);
Beech (beech);
Beech, fir (beech, fir);
Beech, European hophornbeam (beech, European hophornbeam, occasional European hophornbeam);
Beech, chestnut, oak (beech, chestnut, oak);
Fir, spruce, highland vegetation (fir; spruce; dwarf pine and other highland vegetation).
Figure 4: Vegetation layer of Slovenia with seven units. p p. 246
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Fir, spruce, highland vegetation

10
Beech, chestnut, oak
Beech, European hophornbeam
Beech, fir
Beech
European hornbeam, oak, red pine
Downy oak, durmast
Vegetation types
3 Summary of theresults
Most emphasis was given to two typologies.
Thefirst, less generalized typology, is based on thespatial overlap of seven relief, fifteen lithological,
and fifteen vegetation units. Theoretically 1,575combinations are possible but in fact 713combinations
occur, of which thethirty most common combinations cover just over half of Slovenia's surface. Thecombinations were merged into twenty-seven landscape types.
Thetypology according to theactual frequency of each type (absolute importance) has five flat, nine
low hilly, ten hilly, and three mountainous types. Thetypology according to theratio between theactual
and theoretical frequency of each type (relative importance) has eleven flat, six low hilly, four hilly, and
six mountainous types.
Thesecond, more generalized typology, is based on thespatial overlap of four relief, seven lithological, and seven vegetation units. Theoretically 196units are possible but in fact 175combinations occur,
of which thethirty most common combinations cover more than two-thirds of Slovenia's surface. Thecombinations were merged into twenty-four landscape types.
Thetypology according to theactual frequency of each type (absolute importance) has four flat, eleven
low hilly, six hilly, and three mountainous types. Thetypology according to theratio between theactual
and theoretical frequency of each type (relative importance) has four flat, six low hilly, seven hilly, and
seven mountainous types.
Natural landscape types according to theactual frequency (Figure5; thetype number from thelegend
on themap is in parentheses):
Plains + non-carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (1);
Plains + non-carbonate sediments + beech, chestnut, oak (2);
Plains + carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (3);
Other plains (4);
Low hills + non-carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (5);
Low hills + non-carbonate sediments + beech, chestnut, oak (6);
Low hills + fine clastic rocks + beech, chestnut, oak (7);
Low hills + flysch + downy oak, durmast (8);
Low hills + flysch + beech, chestnut, oak (9);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + downy oak, durmast (10);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (11);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + beech (12);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + beech, fir (13);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + beech, chestnut, oak (14);
Other low hills (15);
High hills + coarse clastic rocks + beech (16);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech (17);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech, fir (18);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech, European hophornbeam (19);
High hills + metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs + beech, chestnut, oak (20);
Other high hills (21);
Mountains + carbonate rocks + beech (22);
Mountains + carbonate rocks + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (23);
Other mountains (24).
Natural landscape types according to theratio between theactual and theoretical frequency (Figure6;
thenumber of type from thelegend on themap is in parentheses):
Plains + non-carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (1);
Plains + carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine (2);
Figure 5: Natural landscape typology of Slovenia according to actual frequency with twenty-four types (the number of type in the legend corresponds
to the number of type from the first list of types in Section 3). p p. 248
Figure 6: Natural landscape typology of Slovenia according to the ratio between the actual and theoretical frequency with twenty-four types (the number
of type in the legend corresponds to the number of type from the second list of types in Section 3). p p. 249
247
248
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14
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16
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6
7
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km
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Landscape types (area)
249
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6
7
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Landscape types (ratio)
Plains + flysch + Downy oak, durmast (3);

Other plains (4);
Low hills + non-carbonate sediments + beech, chestnut, oak (5);
Low hills + fine clastic rocks + beech, chestnut, oak (6);
Low hills + flysch + downy oak, durmast (7);
Low hills + carbonate rocks + downy oak, durmast (8);
Low hills + metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (9);
Other low hills (10);
High hills + coarse clastic rocks + beech (11);
High hills + coarse clastic rocks + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (12);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech, fir (13);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech, European hophornbeam (14);
High hills + metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs + beech, chestnut, oak (15);
High hills + metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (16);
Other high hills (17);
Mountains + carbonate sediments + beech (18);
Mountains + carbonate sediments + beech, European hophornbeam (19);
Mountains + carbonate sediments + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (20);
Mountains + fine clastic rocks + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (21);
Mountains + carbonate rocks + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (22);
Mountains + metamorphic and igneous rocks with tuffs + fir, spruce, highland vegetation (23);
Other mountains (24).
Themost comprehensive natural landscape types of Slovenia are (Figure7):
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech at1,769.2 km2 (8.73% of Slovenia, 22.93% of high hills);
Plains + non-carbonate sediments + European hornbeam, oak, red pine at1,503.2 km2 (7.42% of Slovenia,
48.27% of plains);
High hills + carbonate rocks + beech, fir at1,433.5 km2 (7.07% of Slovenia, 18.58% of high hills);
Low hills + non-carbonate sediments + beech, chestnut, oak at1,348.4 km2 (6.65% of Slovenia, 18.00%
of low hills).
Themost comprehensive type between mountainous natural landscape types is:
Mountains + carbonate rocks + beech (22) at 515.2 km2 (2.54% of Slovenia, 26.35% of mountains).
Each landscape type was examined in thefield. For each landscape type, five examples of forest land
and five adjacent cases of deforested land were surveyed and thework was documented with written reports,
photographs, sketches and other materials. Areas were studied that prove problematic for various reasons;
for example, due to possible errors on thelithology and vegetation layers or inaccuracies in thedigitalization of data sources.
After theproblems were solved, several thematic maps of thenatural landscape types of Slovenia were
prepared that should be of great practical use for various purposes: as aresource for research in various
disciplines, in theregionalization of Slovenia, in spatial planning, in protecting Slovenia's natural heritage,
in regional planning, and in preserving thediversity of Slovenia's landscapes.
Themost important natural landscape types in Slovenia have been defined, analyzed, and evaluated
as relatively homogenous natural spatial units that similarly influence thesocial elements of thelandscape
and respond in asimilar way to spatial development by society and require similar protection.
4 Conclusion
Theresults are based on ageographic information system, which enables them to be improved and expanded
on an ongoing basis.
It is possible to prepare several landscape typologies at different levels with different accuracy and adifferent number of types.
Figure 7: The most important landscape type of Slovenia according to the actual frequency (1 in the legend) and the most important landscape type
according to the ratio between actual and theoretical frequency (2 in the legend). p
250
251
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20
30
2
40
50
km
Landscape types
Thefindings of theproject are applicable in anumber of fields in Slovenia, including:

Formation of national measures for more suitable management in individual natural landscape types;
Harmonizing further economic and other development relative to environment limitations and economic
needs in individual natural landscape types;
Protecting Slovenia's natural heritage;
Changing thevalue perception of people regarding thenatural landscape diversity of Slovenia as anational
asset (Cigli and Perko2013b).
Thetypologies have already been concretely applied in:
Typology of karst landscapes to determine less favorable areas for agriculture in Slovenia, which is associated with EU agriculture subsidies (Cigli et al.2012);
Slovenian legislation in determining thequality of agricultural land (Pravilnik odoloanju in vodenju
bonitete zemlji2008; Berk et al. 2012);
Preparing thestrategy for Slovenia's economic development by2020; and
Several European and bilateral projects.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This paper is based on theresearch project Determination of Natural Landscape
Types of Slovenia Using aGeographic Information System (L6-3643), financed by theSlovenian Research
Agency and co-financed by theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts.
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253
Drago Perko, Mauro Hrvatin, Rok Cigli, Metodologija naravne pokrajinske tipizacije Slovenije

UDK: 911.52(497.4)
COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEEK: Na temelju digitalnih podatkov oreliefu, kamninah in vegetaciji, ki so najpomembneje sestavine notranje strukture slovenskih pokrajin in hkrati njihove zunanje podobe, smo zuporabo geografskega
informacijskega sistema in terenskega preverjanja izdelali ve naravnih pokrajinskih tipizacij Slovenije zrazlinim tevilom tipov.
Najbolj posploena tipizacija sloni na prostorskem prekrivanju 4reliefnih, 7litolokih in 7vegetacijskih enot.
Ima 24pokrajinskih tipov: 4ravninske, 11grievnatih, 6hribovskih in 3gorske.
KLJUNE BESEDE: geografija, tipizacija, tipologija, pokrajinski tip, relief, kamnine, rastlinstvo, digitalni
model viin, geografski informacijski sistem, Slovenija
Urednitvo je prispevek prejelo 20.oktobra2014.
NASLOVI:
dr. Drago Perko
Geografski intitut Antona Melika
Znanstvenoraziskovalni center Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti
Novi trg2, SI 1000Ljubljana
E-pota: drago@zrc-sazu.si
Mauro Hrvatin
E-pota: mauro@zrc-sazu.si
dr. Rok Cigli
E-pota: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si
254
1 Uvod
Med najbolj zanimive, atudi najbolj zapletene probleme vgeografiji spadata geografska regionalizacija in
geografska tipizacija (Hammond1964; Dikau, Brabb in Mark1991; Kladnik1996; Brabyn1998; McMahon, Wiken in Gauthier2004; Natek in iberna2004; Gallant, Douglas in Hoffer2005; Iwahashi in Pike2006;
Ellison2010; Cigli2014). Regionalizacija in tipizacija Slovenije sta e posebej zapleteni, saj naa drava
slovi po izjemni pokrajinski raznolikosti, ker se prav na tem koku srednje Evrope stikajo in prepletajo
tiri velike naravne geografske enote: Alpe, Dinarsko gorovje, Panonska kotlina in Sredozemlje, pa tudi
tirje kulturni prostori: slovanski, germanski, romanski in madarski (Melik1935; Ilei1956 in1958;
Gams1983 in1998; Natek1993; Gams, Kladnik in Oroen Adami1995; Gabrovec in Hrvatin1998; Perko1998a; Perko in Kladnik1998; Plut1999; pes ssod.2004; Kladnik, Perko in Urbanc2009; Perko in
Hrvatin2009; Hrvatin in Perko2012; Cigli in Perko2012 in2013a). Mnogi znanstveniki Slovenijo upravieno oznaujejo kar za naravni geografski laboratorij, saj je svetovna redkost, da je na tako majhnem
prostoru toliko razlinih pokrajin. Pokrajinska pestrost prispeva tudi kraznolikosti naravnih nesre (Zorn,
Komac2011) in vpliva na regionalni razvoj (Nared in Ravbar2003; Kozina2010).
1.1 Regionalizacija in tipizacija

Tako pri regionalizaciji kot tipizaciji je temeljni termin pokrajina ali regija, ki je hkrati tudi osnovni predmet geografije, temeljne nacionalne vede vsakega naroda, ki ima med znanostmi prav posebno mesto, saj
povezuje naravoslovje, druboslovje in humanistiko. Pokrajina je namre sestavljena iz naravnih (kamnine, povrje, vode, podnebje, prsti, rastje, ivalstvo) in drubenih pokrajinskih sestavin (prebivalstvo, naselja,
gospodarstvo). Loimo naravno pokrajino, ki jo sestavljajo le naravne pokrajinske sestavine, in kulturno
pokrajino, ki jo poleg naravnih pokrajinskih sestavin sestavljajo tudi drubene pokrajinske sestavine in
ima dva podtipa: podeelsko ali ruralno in mestno ali urbano pokrajino (Perko1998b in1998c).
Regionalizacija ali pokrajinjenje je postopek prostorskega loevanja regij oziroma delitev zemeljskega
povrja na pokrajine in pogosto temelji na tipizaciji pokrajin, razvranju pokrajin po njihovih znailnostih vskupine, tipe pokrajin ali pokrajinske tipe. Vsaka pokrajina spada vdoloen tip pokrajin in vvsak
tip pokrajin se lahko uvra ve pokrajin. Za tipizacijo je znailno naelo podobnosti, za regionalizacijo
pa naelo posaminosti, individualnosti. Vsaka pokrajina je edinstvena in enkratna, zato njeno ime zapisujemo zveliko zaetnico, vsak tip pokrajine pa se lahko pojavi vekrat, zato ga kot obe ime piemo zmalo
zaetnico (Perko1998b in1998c). Pri nas so tip pokrajin na primer grievja, ki jih je ve in se razprostirajo
na razlinih koncih Slovenije, pokrajina Krko grievje, ki sicer spada med grievja, pa je ena sama na svetu.
Regionalizacija in tipizacija pomenita tudi hierarhino razvranje, delitev in zdruevanje pokrajin.
Vsaka pokrajina je lahko del veje pokrajine in je lahko razdeljena na manje pokrajine. Najveje pokrajine
so makroregije ali velike pokrajine, ki se delijo na mezoregije ali srednje velike pokrajine, te pa na mikroregije ali majhne pokrajine (Perko1998b in1998c).
tevilne tudije so dokazale, da so za delovanje in zunanjo podobo slovenskih pokrajin najpomembneje tri naravne pokrajinske sestavine: relief, kamnine in rastlinstvo. Zostalimi naravnimi pokrajinskimi
sestavinami so povezane tako mono, da lahko dovolj kakovostno naravno regionalizacijo ali tipizacijo izdelamo samo zupotevanjem teh treh pokrajinskih sestavin.
Ker so vSloveniji na razpolago dovolj natanni digitalni podatki oreliefu, kamninah in rastlinstvu, je
mogoe spomojo geografskega informacijskega sistema izdelati uporabno naravno pokrajinsko tipizacijo in doloiti najpomembneje naravne pokrajinske tipe kot razmeroma homogene naravne prostorske
enote.
Glavni cilj raziskave je torej zrazmeroma objektivno metodo doloiti naravne pokrajinske tipe, jih preveriti na terenu in izdelati tematski zemljevid naravne pokrajinske tipizacije Slovenije kot pripomoek pri
raziskavah, nartovanju posegov in varovanju okolja.
Vprimerjavi zgeografsko regionalizacijo Slovenije je geografska tipizacija Slovenije izrazito zapostavljena. Res pa je, da nekatere regionalizacije Slovenije upotevajo tudi naela tipizacije ali so meanica med
regionalizacijo in tipizacijo (Perko1998c).
Tuji strokovnjaki se znaravno pokrajinsko tipizacijo Slovenije niso ukvarjali. Slovenijo so preuevali
le vokviru oziroma na ravni Evrope, vendar preve posploeno (Cigli2009). Take klasifikacije dajejo napaen vtis oraznolikosti Slovenije in za aplikativne namene oziroma natanneje analize skorajda niso uporabne.
255
1.2 Pokrajinska tipizacija Slovenije iz leta1998

Prva, deloma raunalniko izdelana naravnopokrajinska tipizacija Slovenije iz leta1998 ima 9tipov (Perko1998a; slika1). Perko je jedra tipov doloil zuporabo GIS-ov sprekrivanjem digitalnih slojev naravnih
sestavin pokrajine (naprimer 100-metrski digitalni model viin, tipi kamnin, tipi vegetacije) in jih odtisnil
na zemljevid vmerilu 1 : 250.000, meje med njimi pa je izrisal rono.
Pokrajinski tipi so:
alpska gorovja,
alpska hribovja,
alpske ravnine,
pomurska grievja,
pomurske ravnine,
dinarske planote,
dinarska podolja in ravniki,
sredozemska grievja,
sredozemske planote.
2 Metodologija
lanek predstavlja predvsem metodoloki del raziskovalnega projekta Doloanje naravnih pokrajinskih
tipov Slovenije zgeografskim informacijskim sistemom.
Kot temeljni sloj vgeografskem informacijskem sistemu smo uporabili geomorfoloko testirani 25-metrski digitalni model viin (Digitalni model viin 2014), ki nudi kar 32.436.693celic zosnovnico 25 m
in povrino 6,25 ara.
Dodali smo vektorske sloje zreliefnimi, litolokimi in vegetacijskimi enotami.
Na temelju statistine analize povezanosti oziroma prostorskega sovpadanja reliefnih, litolokih in vegetacijskih enot po posameznih celicah smo doloili kombinacije povezanosti reliefnih, kamninskih in vegetacijskih enot ali naravne pokrajinske tipe. Zelo poenostavljen primer mone kombinacije oziroma monega
pokrajinskega tipa je ravnina + prod + dob, kar pomeni, da se izbrana celica na sloju reliefnih enot uvra
kravnini, da je zgrajena iz proda in jo poraa hrast dob.
Kot pomembne smo izloili tiste naravne pokrajinske tipe, katerih dejanska frekvenca (tevilo celic od
vseh celic) je velika, torej zavzemajo veje povrine Slovenije (absolutna pomembnost posameznega tipa),
in tiste naravne pokrajinske tipe, ki se pojavljajo redkeje, aje njihova dejanska frekvenca pojavljanja veja
od njihove teoretine frekvence, ki je enaka zmnoku teoretinih frekvenc reliefne, litoloke in vegetacijske enote, iz katerih je sestavljen doloen naravni pokrajinski tip (relativna pomembnost posameznega
tipa).
2.1 Reliefni sloj

Ker je vreliefno razgibani Sloveniji relief ali oblikovanost povrja pogosto najpomembneji dejavnik razlikovanja med pokrajinami in pomembna prvina pri geografskih klasifikacijah, tipizacijah in regionalizacijah,
so slovenski geografi izdelali e ve delitev ozemlja glede na relief oziroma geomorfoloke znailnosti (Melik1935; Natek1993; Gabrovec in Hrvatin1998; Perko2001).
Prvo raunalniko zasnovano tipizacijo je vsvoji doktorski disertaciji leta1993 opravil Drago Perko
(1992), ki je slovensko ozemlje razlenil na 8enot razgibanosti povrja. Razgibanost povrja je doloil spomojo reliefnega koeficienta. Ta je geometrina sredina viinskega koeficienta in naklonskega koeficienta,
ki slonita na prostorskem spreminjanju nadmorskih viin in naklonov povrja. Vgeografskem informacijskem sistemu je nato zvekratnim filtriranjem sloja zreliefnimi koeficienti dobil enotna obmoja istega
morfolokega razreda, ki jih je poimenoval morfoloke enote. Pozneje je na podoben nain doloal morfoloke enote na temelju viinskega koeficienta in ekspozicijskega koeficienta, ki slonita na prostorskem
Slika 1: Naravna pokrajinska tipizacija Slovenije z 9 tipi (Perko 2007a). p
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257
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20
30
40
50
km
sredozemske planote
sredozemska grievja
panonske ravnine
panonska grievja
dinarske planote
dinarska podolja in ravniki
alpske ravnine
alpska hribovja
alpska gorovja
spreminjanju nadmorskih viin in ekspozicij povrja, ter skupnega koeficienta, ki je geometrina sredina
prvih dveh (Perko2007b in2009).
Na tej podlagi smo pripravili vektorski zemljevid, na katerem je 8razlinih enot reliefa:
ravnine,
razgibane ravnine,
grievja,
razgibana grievja,
hribovja,
razgibana hribovja,
ire doline,
gorovja.
Na prvi stopnji generalizacije smo teh 8temeljnih enot reliefa smiselno zdruili v7enot reliefa (ire
doline smo smiselno prikljuili ostalim enotam):
ravnine,
razgibane ravnine,
grievja,
razgibana grievja,
hribovja,
razgibana hribovja,
gorovja.
Na zadnji stopnji generalizacije smo teh 7enot reliefa smiselno zdruili v4enote reliefa (slika2):
ravnine (ravnine, razgibane ravnine),
grievja (grievja, razgibana grievja),
hribovja (hribovja, razgibana hribovja),
gorovja.
2.2 Litoloki sloj

Vektorski zemljevid tipov kamnin (Zemljevid tipov kamnin2012) smo pripravili na Geografskem intitutu Antona Melika ZRC SAZU na podlagi vektorske Litostratigrafske karte Slovenije (Litostratigrafska karta
Slovenije2011), ki jo je po naroilu Agencije Republike Slovenije za okolje izdelal Geoloki zavod Slovenije, predvsem na podlagi vektoriziranih geolokih kart Slovenije vmerilu 1 : 25.000.
Na zemljevidu je 25razlinih enot (vrst) kamnin:
kvartarna glina, melj in pesek,
kvartarni silikatni prod,
kvartarni karbonatni prod,
kvartarni konglomerat,
kvartarni gru,
pleistocenski til in tilit,
neogenski in pleistocenski pesek in kremenov prod,
terciarna in pleistocenska glina,
miocenski apnenec,
terciarni peenjak in konglomerat,
terciarni laporovec,
kredni in terciarni fli,
mezozojski in oligocenski ploasti apnenec,
paleozojski, mezozojski in paleogenski plastnati apnenec,
paleozojski in mezozojski masivni apnenec,
permski in mezozojski apnenec in dolomit,
permski in mezozojski dolomit,
permske, mezozojske in paleocenske karbonatno-klastine kamnine,
Slika 2: Reliefni sloj Slovenije s 4 enotami. p
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20
30
40
50
km
gorovje
hribovje
grievje
ravnina
Reliefni tipi
karbonski, permski in mezozojski glinavec in meljevec,

karbonski in permski peenjak in konglomerat,
mezozojski in terciarni vulkanoklastiti (tufi in tufiti),
paleozojske, triasne in terciarne predornine,
permske in terciarne globonine,
paleozojske nizkometamorfne kamnine (skrilavec, filit),
predkambrijske visokometamorfne kamnine (gnajs, blestnik, amfibolit, serpentinit, eklogit).
Na prvi stopnji generalizacije smo teh25temeljnih enot kamnin smiselno zdruili v15enot kamnin:
glina in melj (kvartarna glina, melj in pesek, terciarna in pleistocenska glina),
pesek (neogenski in pleistocenski pesek in kremenov prod),
karbonatni prod, gru in til (kvartarni karbonatni prod, kvartarni gru, pleistocenski til in tilit),
silikatni prod (kvartarni silikatni prod),
glinavec in meljevec (karbonski, permski in mezozojski glinavec in meljevec),
karbonatni konglomerat (kvartarni konglomerat),
silikatni peenjak in konglomerat (terciarni peenjak in konglomerat, karbonski in permski peenjak
in konglomerat),
peenjak in laporovec (fli) (kredni in terciarni fli),
laporovec (terciarni laporovec),
karbonatno-klastine kamnine (permske, mezozojske in paleocenske karbonatno-klastine kamnine),
apnenec (miocenski apnenec, mezozojski in oligocenski ploasti apnenec, paleozojski, mezozojski in
paleogenski plastnati apnenec, paleozojski in mezozojski masivni apnenec, permski in mezozojski apnenec in dolomit),
dolomit (permski in mezozojski dolomit),
metamorfne kamnine (paleozojske nizkometamorfne kamnine (skrilavec, filit), predkambrijske visokometamorfne kamnine (gnajs, blestnik, amfibolit, serpentinit, eklogit)),
tuf in tufit (mezozojski in terciarni vulkanoklastiti (tufi in tufiti)),
magmatske kamnine (paleozojske, triasne in terciarne predornine, permske in terciarne globonine).
Na zadnji stopnji generalizacije smo teh 15enot kamnin smiselno zdruili v7enot kamnin (slika3):
nekarbonatne usedline (glina in melj, pesek, silikatni prod),
karbonatne usedline (karbonatni prod, gru in til),
drobnozrnate klastine kamnine (glinovec in meljevec, laporovec),
fli (peenjak in laporovec (fli)),
grobozrnate klastine kamnine (karbonatni konglomerat, silikatni peenjak in konglomerat),
karbonatne kamnine (apnenec, dolomit, karbonatno-klastine kamnine),
metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi (metamorfne kamnine, magmatske kamnine, tuf in tufit).
2.3 Vegetacijski sloj

Vektorski zemljevid tipov potencialne vegetacije (Zemljevid tipov potencialne vegetacije2007) smo pripravili na Geografskem intitutu Antona Melika ZRC SAZU na podlagi zemljevida potencialne naravne vegetacije
(Zemljevid potencialne naravne vegetacije1998), ki ga je vmerilu 1 : 400.000 za Geografski atlas Slovenije (Fridl ssod.1998) izdelal Bioloki intitut Jovana Hadija ZRC SAZU.
Na zemljevidu je 62razlinih enot (zdrub) potencialne vegetacije:
nizki gozd ali grmie puhastega hrasta in gabrovca (Ostryo-Quercetum pubescentis),
gozd puhastega hrasta in jesenske vilovine (Seslerio autumnalis-Quercetum pubescentis),
gozd puhastega hrasta in stoke (Molinio-Quercetum pubescentis),
gozd gradna in jesenske vilovine (Seslerio autumnalis-Quercetum petraeae),
gozd gradna in sennega aa, zemljepisna razliica zjesensko vilovino (Carici umbrosae-Quercetum petraeae var. geogr. Seslerio autumnalis),
gozd belega gabra in doba (Querco roboris-Carpinetum),
gozd doba in evropske gomoljice (Pseudostellario-Quercetum roboris),
Slika 3: Litoloki sloj Slovenije s 7 enotami. p
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261
10
20
30
40
50
km
metamorfne in magmatske
kamnine s tufi
karbonatne kamnine
grobozrnate klastine kamnine
fli
drobnozrnate klastine kamnine
karbonatne usedline
nekarbonatne usedline
Tipi kamnin
gozd belega gabra in evropske gomoljice (Pseudostellario-Carpinetum),

gozd dolgopecljatega bresta in doba (Querco roboris-Ulmetum laevis),
preddinarski gozd belega gabra in jelke (Abieti albae-Carpinetum),
predalpski gozd belega gabra in rnega teloha (Helleboro nigri-Carpinetum),
gozd belega gabra in pirenejskega ptijega mleka (Ornithogalo pyrenaici-Carpinetum),
gozd belega gabra in remse (Pruno padi-Carpinetum),
preddinarski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica sirokolistno lobodiko (Hacquetio-Fagetum var. geogr. Ruscus hypoglossum),
zahodnopreddinarski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica skolenasto krvomonico (Hacquetio-Fagetum var. geogr. Geranium nodosum),
predalpski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico (Hacquetio-Fagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia),
subpanonski podgorski gozd bukve in irokolistne graice (Vicio oroboidi-Fagetum),
submediteransko-predalpski podgorski gozd bukve in pirenejskega ptijega mleka (Ornithogalo pyrenaici-Fagetum),
gozd bukve in kresnievja (Arunco-Fagetum),
preddinarski gozd bukve in velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica zmnogolistno konopnico (Lamio
orvalae-Fagetum var. geogr. Dentaria polyphyllos),
zahodnopreddinarski gozd bukve in velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica skolenasto krvomonico
(Lamio orvalae-Fagetum var. geogr. Geranium nodosum),
submediteransko-preddinarski gozd bukve in velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica zjesensko vilovino
(Lamio orvalae-Fagetum var. geogr. Sesleria autumnalis),
preddinarsko-predalpski gozd bukve in velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica speterolistno konopnico (Lamio orvalae-Fagetum var. geogr. Dentaria pentaphyllos),
dinarski gozd bukve, jelke in pomladanske torilnice (Omphalodo-Fagetum),
predalpsko-dinarski gozd bukve, jelke in pomladanske torilnice, zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico
(Omphalodo-Fagetum var. geogr. Anemone trifolia),
gozd bukve in zasavske konopnice (Cardamine savensi-Fagetum),
dinarski subalpinski gozd bukve in kopjaste podlesnice, zemljepisna razliica zvaneem (Polysticho lonchitis-Fagetum var. geogr. Allium victorialis),
predalpski subalpinski gozd bukve in kopjaste podlesnice, zemljepisna razliica zWaldsteinovo vrbo (Polysticho lonchitis-Fagetum var. geogr. Salix waldsteiniana),
gozd bukve in trilistne vetrnice, zemljepisna razliica srnim telohom (Anemono trifoliae-Fagetum var.
geogr. Helleborus niger),
gozd bukve in trilistne vetrnice, zemljepisna razliica ssneno belo bekico (Anemono trifoliae-Fagetum
var. geogr. Luzula nivea),
dinarski gozd bukve, javora in kljukastosemenaste zvezdice (Stellario glochidiospermae-Fagetum),
dinarski gozd bukve in platanolistne zlatice, zemljepisna razliica zvelecvetnim obrom (Ranunculo platanifolii-Fagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandif lora),
predalpski gozd bukve in platanolistne zlatice, zemljepisna razliica znavadnim jetrnikom (Ranunculo
platanifolii-Fagetum var. geogr. Hepatica nobilis),
predalpski gozd bukve in platanolistne zlatice, zemljepisna razliica ssneno belo bekico (Ranunculo
platanifolii-Fagetum var. geogr. Luzula nivea),
predalpski gozd bukve, jelke in gozdnega planinka (Homogyno sylvestris-Fagetum),
primorski gozd bukve in jesenske vilovine (Seslerio autumnalis-Fagetum),
toploljubni gozd bukve in gabrovca, zemljepisna razliica stopokrpim javorom (Ostryo-Fagetum var.
geogr. Acer obtusatum),
toploljubni gozd bukve in gabrovca, zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico (Ostryo-Fagetum var. geogr.
Anemone trifolia),
kisloljubni gozd belega gabra in belkaste bekice (Luzulo albidae-Carpinetum),
kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov (Castaneo-Fagetum),
Slika 4: Vegetacijski sloj Slovenije s 7 enotami. p
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30
40
50
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jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje
bukev, kostanj, hrasti
bukev, gabrovec
bukev, jelka
bukev
beli gaber, dob, rdei bor
puhasti hrast, graden
Tipi rastlinstva
kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, zemljepisna razliica zokroglolistno krolico (Castaneo-Fagetum var. geogr. Hieracium rotundatum),
kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, zemljepisna razliica zvelecvetnim obrom (Castaneo-Fagetum var. geogr. Calamintha grandif lora),
kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, zemljepisna razliica zalpskim vimkom (Castaneo-Fagetum var. geogr. Epimedium alpinum),
kisloljubni vijegorski gozd bukve in bekic, zemljepisna razliica strilistno penuo (Luzulo-Fagetum var.
geogr. Cardamine trifolia),
gozd bukve in rebrenjae (Blechno-Fagetum),
gozd jelke in okroglolistne lakote (Galio rotundifolii-Abietetum),
gozd smreke in kljukastosemenaste zvezdice (Stellario montani-Piceetum),
gozd smreke in navadnega tevja (Hacquetio-Piceetum),
gozd smreke in otnih mahov, zemljepisna razliica zmigalinim aem (Sphagno-Piceetum var. geogr.
Carex brizoides),
gozd smreke in smrenega resnika (Rhytidiadelpho lorei-Piceetum),
gozd smreke in golega lepena (Adenostylo glabrae-Piceetum var. Cardamine trifolias.lat.),
gozd smreke in modrega kostenievja (Lonicero caeruleae-Piceetum),
gozd rdeega bora in borovnievja (Vaccinio myrtilli-Pinetum),
grmie ruevja in otnih mahov (Sphagno-Pinetum mugo),
subalpsko grmie ruevja in navadnega slenika (Rhodothamno-Pinetum mugo),
dinarsko grmie ruevja (Hyperico grisebachii-Pinetum mugo),
nizki gozd ali grmie gabrovca in hrastov (Querco-Ostryetum),
nizki gozd ali grmie gabrovca in omelike (Cytisantho-Ostryetum),
nizki gozd ali grmie gabrovca in malega jesena (Fraxino orni-Ostryetum),
junoalpski bazoljubni gozd rdeega in rnega bora ter malega jesena (Fraxino orni-Pinetum nigrae),
grmie rne jele in podaljanega aa (Carici elongatae-Alnetum glutinosae),
vegetacija skalnih razpok, alpskih meli in prodi, subalpinskih in alpinskih travi (Asplenietea, Thlaspietea rotundifolii, Seslerietea albicantis).
Na prvi stopnji generalizacije smo teh 62temeljnih enot potencialne vegetacije smiselno zdruili v15enot
potencialne vegetacije:
puhasti hrast, gabrovec (nizki gozd ali grmie puhastega hrasta in gabrovca),
puhasti hrast (gozd puhastega hrasta in jesenske vilovine, gozd puhastega hrasta in stoke),
graden (gozd gradna in jesenske vilovine, gozd gradna in sennega aa, zemljepisna razliica zjesensko vilovino),
beli gaber, dob, ponekod rna jela (gozd belega gabra in doba, grmie rne jele in podaljanega aa),
dob, ponekod zbrestom (gozd doba in evropske gomoljice, gozd dolgopecljatega bresta in doba),
beli gaber, jelka (preddinarski gozd belega gabra in jelke),
beli gaber (gozd belega gabra in evropske gomoljice, predalpski gozd belega gabra in rnega teloha, gozd
belega gabra in pirenejskega ptijega mleka, gozd belega gabra in remse, kisloljubni gozd belega gabra
in belkaste bekice),
bukev (preddinarski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica sirokolistno lobodiko, zahodnopreddinarski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica skolenasto
krvomonico, predalpski podgorski gozd bukve in navadnega tevja, zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico,
subpanonski podgorski gozd bukve in irokolistne graice, submediteransko-predalpski podgorski gozd
bukve in pirenejskega ptijega mleka, gozd bukve in kresnievja, preddinarski gozd bukve in velike mrtve
koprive, zemljepisna razliica zmnogolistno konopnico, zahodnopreddinarski gozd bukve in velike mrtve
koprive, zemljepisna razliica skolenasto krvomonico, submediteransko-preddinarski gozd bukve in
velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica zjesensko vilovino, preddinarsko-predalpski gozd bukve in
velike mrtve koprive, zemljepisna razliica speterolistno konopnico, gozd bukve in zasavske konopnice,
dinarski subalpinski gozd bukve in kopjaste podlesnice, zemljepisna razliica zvaneem, predalpski subalpinski gozd bukve in kopjaste podlesnice, zemljepisna razliica zWaldsteinovo vrbo, gozd bukve in trilistne
vetrnice, zemljepisna razliica srnim telohom, gozd bukve in trilistne vetrnice, zemljepisna razliica
ssneno belo bekico, dinarski gozd bukve, javora in kljukastosemenaste zvezdice, dinarski gozd bukve
in platanolistne zlatice, zemljepisna razliica zvelecvetnim obrom, predalpski gozd bukve in platanolistne zlatice, zemljepisna razliica znavadnim jetrnikom, predalpski gozd bukve in platanolistne zlatice,
zemljepisna razliica ssneno belo bekico, primorski gozd bukve in jesenske vilovine, kisloljubni vijegorski gozd bukve in bekic, zemljepisna razliica strilistno penuo, gozd bukve in rebrenjae),
264
bukev, jelka (dinarski gozd bukve, jelke in pomladanske torilnice, predalpsko-dinarski gozd bukve, jelke in
pomladanske torilnice zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico, predalpski gozd bukve, jelke in gozdnega
planinka),
bukev, gabrovec, ponekod gabrovec (toploljubni gozd bukve in gabrovca, zemljepisna razliica stopokrpim
javorom, toploljubni gozd bukve in gabrovca, zemljepisna razliica strilistno vetrnico, nizki gozd ali grmie
gabrovca in hrastov, nizki gozd ali grmie gabrovca in omelike, nizki gozd ali grmie gabrovca in malega
jesena),
bukev, kostanj, hrasti (kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in
hrastov, zemljepisna razliica zokroglolistno krolico, kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, zemljepisna razliica zvelecvetnim obrom, kisloljubni gozd bukve, kostanja in hrastov, zemljepisna razliica
zalpskim vimkom),
jelka (gozd jelke in okroglolistne lakote),
smreka (gozd smreke in kljukastosemenaste zvezdice, gozd smreke in navadnega tevja, gozd smreke in
otnih mahov, zemljepisna razliica zmigalinim aem, gozd smreke in smrenega resnika, gozd smreke
in golega lepena, gozd smreke in modrega kostenievja),
rdei bor (gozd rdeega bora in borovnievja, junoalpski bazoljubni gozd rdeega in rnega bora ter malega
jesena),
ruevje in drugo visokogorsko rastje (grmie ruevja in otnih mahov, subalpsko grmie ruevja in
navadnega slenika, dinarsko grmie ruevja, vegetacija skalnih razpok, alpskih meli in prodi, subalpinskih in alpinskih travi).
Na zadnji stopnji generalizacije smo teh 15enot potencialne vegetacije smiselno zdruili v7enot potencialne vegetacije (slika4):
puhasti hrast, graden (puhasti hrast, gabrovec, puhasti hrast, graden),
beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (beli gaber, dob, ponekod rna jela, dob, ponekod zbrestom, beli gaber, jelka,
beli gaber, rdei bor),
bukev (bukev),
bukev, jelka (bukev, jelka),
bukev, gabrovec (bukev, gabrovec, ponekod gabrovec),
bukev, kostanj, hrasti (bukev, kostanj, hrasti),
jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (jelka, smreka, ruevje in drugo visokogorsko rastje).
3 Povzetek rezultatov
Poudarek smo namenili dvema tipizacijama.
Prva, manj posploena sloni na prostorskem prekrivanju 7reliefnih, 15litolokih in 15vegetacijskih
enot. Teoretino je monih 1575kombinacij, dejansko se jih pojavlja 713, od tega 30najbolj pogostih zavzema dobro polovico povrja Slovenije. Kombinacije smo zdruili v27pokrajinskih tipov.
Tipizacija glede na dejansko frekvenco posameznega tipa (absolutna pomembnost) ima 5ravninskih,
9grievnatih, 10hribovskih tipov in 3gorske tipe, tipizacija glede na razmerje med dejansko in teoretino
frekvenco posameznega tipa (relativna pomembnost) pa 11ravninskih in 6grievnatih tipov, 4hribovske
tipe ter 6gorskih tipov.
Druga, bolj posploena tipizacija sloni na prostorskem prekrivanju 4reliefnih, 7litolokih in 7vegetacijskih enot. Teoretino je monih 196enot, dejansko se pojavlja 175kombinacij, od tega 30najbolj pogostih
zavzema ve kot dve tretjini povrja Slovenije. Kombinacije smo zdruili v24pokrajinskih tipov.
Tipizacija glede na dejansko frekvenco posameznega tipa (absolutna pomembnost) ima 4ravninske
tipe, 11grievnatih in 6hribovskih tipov ter 3gorske tipe, tipizacija glede na razmerje med dejansko in
teoretino frekvenco posameznega tipa (relativna pomembnost) pa 4ravninske tipe ter 6grievnatih, 7hribovskih in 7gorskih tipov.
Slika 5: Naravna pokrajinska tipizacija Slovenije glede na dejansko frekvenco s 24 tipi (tevilka tipa v legendi ustreza tevilki tipa iz prvega seznama
tipov v poglavju 3). p s. 266
Slika 6: Naravna pokrajinska tipizacija Slovenije glede na razmerje med dejansko in teoretino frekvenco s 24 tipi (tevilka tipa v legendi ustreza tevilki
tipa iz drugega seznama tipov v poglavju 3). p s. 267
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Pokrajinski tipi (razmerje)
Naravni pokrajinski tipi glede na dejansko frekvenco so (slika5, voklepaju je tevilka tipa iz legende
na zemljevidu):
ravnina + nekarbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (1),
ravnina + nekarbonatne usedline + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (2),
ravnina + karbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (3),
ostale ravnine (4),
grievje + nekarbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (5),
grievje + nekarbonatne usedline + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (6),
grievje + drobnozrnate klastine kamnine + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (7),
grievje + fli + puhasti hrast, graden (8),
grievje + fli + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (9),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + puhasti hrast, graden (10),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (11),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev (12),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, jelka (13),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (14),
ostala grievja (15),
hribovje + grobozrnate klastine kamnine + bukev (16),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev (17),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, jelka (18),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, gabrovec (19),
hribovje + metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (20),
ostala hribovja (21),
gorovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev (22),
gorovje + karbonatne kamnine + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (23),
ostala gorovja (24).
Naravni pokrajinski tipi glede na razmerje med dejansko in teoretino frekvenco so (slika6, voklepaju
je tevilka tipa iz legende na zemljevidu):
ravnina + nekarbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (1),
ravnina + karbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor (2),
ravnina + fli + puhasti hrast, graden (3),
ostale ravnine (4),
grievje + nekarbonatne usedline + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (5),
grievje + drobnozrnate klastine kamnine + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (6),
grievje + fli + puhasti hrast, graden (7),
grievje + karbonatne kamnine + puhasti hrast, graden (8),
grievje + metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (9),
ostala grievja (10),
hribovje + grobozrnate klastine kamnine + bukev (11),
hribovje + grobozrnate klastine kamnine + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (12),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, jelka (13),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, gabrovec (14),
hribovje + metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi + bukev, kostanj, hrasti (15),
hribovje + metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (16),
ostala hribovja (17),
gorovje + karbonatne usedline + bukev (18),
gorovje + karbonatne usedline + bukev, gabrovec (19),
gorovje + karbonatne usedline + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (20),
gorovje + drobnozrnate klastine kamnine + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (21),
gorovje + karbonatne kamnine + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (22),
Slika 7: Najpomembneji pokrajinski tip Slovenije glede na dejansko frekvenco (1 v legendi) in najpomembneji pokrajinski tip glede na razmerje med
dejansko in teoretino frekvenco (2 v legendi). p
268
269
10
20
30
2
40
50
km
Pokrajinska tipa
gorovje + metamorfne in magmatske kamnine stufi + jelka, smreka, visokogorsko rastje (23),
ostala gorovja (24).
Najobseneji naravni pokrajinski tipi Slovenije so (slika7):
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev s1769,2 km2 (8,73 % Slovenije, 22,93 % hribovij),
ravnina + nekarbonatne usedline + beli gaber, dob, rdei bor s1503,2 km2 (7,42 % Slovenije, 48,27 % ravnin),
hribovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev, jelka s1433,5 km2 (7,07 % Slovenije, 18,58 % hribovij),
grievje + nekarbonatne usedline + bukev, kostanj, hrasti s1348,4 km2 (6,65 % Slovenije, 18,00 % grievij).
Med gorskimi naravnimi pokrajinskimi tipi je najobseneji:
gorovje + karbonatne kamnine + bukev s515,2 km2 (2,54 % Slovenije, 26,35 % gorovij).
Na terenu smo za vsak pokrajinski tip pregledali 5primerov na gozdnih zemljiih in 5sosednjih primerov na e izkrenih zemljiih in delo dokumentirali spisnimi poroili, fotografijami, skicami in drugim
gradivom. Raziskali smo obmoja, ki so bila zaradi razlinih vzrokov problematina, na primer zaradi morebitnih napak na litolokem in vegetacijskem sloju ali nenatannosti pri digitalizaciji podatkovnih virov.
Po razreitvi problemov smo pripravili ve tematskih zemljevidov naravnih pokrajinskih tipov Slovenije, ki jih odlikuje velika praktina uporabnost za razline namene: kot pripomoek pri raziskavah vokviru
tevilnih znanstvenih ved, pri regionalizacijah Slovenije, nartovanih posegih vprostor, varovanju slovenske naravne dediine, regionalnem planiranju in ohranjanju izjemne pokrajinske pestrosti Slovenije.
Najpomembneje naravne pokrajinske tipe vSloveniji smo opredelili, analizirali in ovrednotili kot razmeroma homogene naravne prostorske enote, ki podobno vplivajo na drubene sestavine pokrajine, se
podobno odzivajo pri posegih loveka vprostor in zahtevajo podobno varovanje.
4 Sklep
Rezultati projekta temeljijo na geografskemu informacijskemu sistemu, zato je mono njihovo stalno dopolnjevanje in razirjanje.
Pokrajinske tipizacije je mono izdelati na razlinih ravneh, zrazlino natannostjo in razlinim tevilom tipov.
Izsledki projekta vSloveniji so uporabni na ve podrojih, na primer:
pri oblikovanju dravnih ukrepov za smotrneje gospodarjenje vposameznih naravnih pokrajinskih tipih,
pri usklajevanju nadaljnjega gospodarskega in drugega razvoja glede na okoljske omejitve in gospodarske
potrebe vposameznih naravnih pokrajinskih tipih,
pri varovanju slovenske naravne dediine,
pri spreminjanju vrednostnega dojemanja ljudi onaravni pokrajinski raznolikosti Slovenije kot bogastvu
drave (Cigli in Perko2013b).
Tipizacije so bile e konkretno uporabljene:
pri tipizaciji krakih pokrajinskih tipov za doloanje manj ugodnih obmoij za kmetijstvo vSloveniji,
kar je povezano zevropskimi subvencijami za kmetijstvo (Ciglis sod.2012),
vslovenski zakonodaji na podroju ugotavljanja bonitete kmetijskih zemlji (Pravilnik odoloanju in
vodenju bonitete zemlji2008),
pri pripravi strategije gospodarskega razvoja Slovenije do leta2020 ter
vve evropskih in bilateralnih projektih.
ZAHVALA: Prispevek temelji na raziskovalnem projektu Doloanje naravnih pokrajinskih tipov Slovenije zgeografskim informacijskim sistemom (L6-3643), ki ga je financirala Javna agencija za raziskovalno
dejavnost Republike Slovenije in sofinancirala Slovenska akademija znanosti in umetnosti.
5 Viri in literatura
270
stRUCtURal dYnaMiCs oF teRtiaRY

aCtivities in indUstRial PaRKs
in bUChaRest, RoMania
ANDREEA-LORETA CERCLEUX
Andreea-Loreta Cercleux, Daniel Peptenatu, Florentina-Cristina Merciu
SEMA PARC industrial park in Bucharest.
Andreea-Loreta Cercleux, Daniel Peptenatu, Florentina-Cristina Merciu, Structural dynamics of tertiary activities in
Structural dynamics of tertiary activities in industrial parks

in Bucharest, Romania
UDC: 911.375:338.46(498.11)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Thestudy is an analysis of tertiarization in Bucharest, aprocess that tends to become dominant inside an economic system that has faced thehardships of transition and reorganization. Thestudy
deals with tertiarization inside theindustrial parks in thecapital city, in close connection with deindustrialization and industrial delocalization. Thestudy highlights theforms tertiarization has taken inside
those areas, former industrial platforms of theutmost importance for theindustry of theCommunist era.
Thetrends in theevolution of tertiarization are analyzed in comparison as well as from theperspective of
theevolution of thecompanies inside thethree industrial parks; in addition, two scenarios for thefuture
course of tertiarization are included.
KEY WORDS: geography, structural dynamics, tertiarization, industrial parks, Bucharest
Thearticle was submitted for publication on October 7th,2012.
ADDRESSES:
Andreea-Loreta Cercleux, Ph.D.
Faculty of geography and theinterdisciplinary center for advanced researches on territorial dynamics,
University of Bucharest
4-12, Blvd. Regina Elisabeta, Bucharest, Romania
E-mail: loretacepoiu@yahoo.com
Daniel Peptenatu, Ph.D.
Faculty of geography and theinterdisciplinary center for advanced researches on territorial dynamics,
E-mail: peptenatu@yahoo.fr
Florentina-Cristina Merciu, Ph.D.
Theinterdisciplinary center for advanced researches on territorial dynamics, University of Bucharest
E-mail: krysten1009@yahoo.com
272
1 Introduction
Tertiarization can be defined as thepredominant result of themajor socio-economic changes, with an extremely visible impact at thelevel of economies that undergone transition processes (Ferrao and Domingues1995;
Peneder et al. 2003; Cuadrado-Roura et al. 2003; Hutton 2004; Sanchez-Moral et al. 2008; Genaro and
Melchor2010). Deindustrialization and tertiarization are two economic processes that interact, with theformer preceding thelatter and that in time have effects on thestructure of economic life (Graham and Spence1995;
Montresor and Marzetti2011). No matter what we might call them, deindustrialization or tertiarization, they
will always involve adecline of theproduction sector and acorresponding ascension of thetertiary sector
(Polse1988,13) and in which culture ought to support its development (Bole2008,257; Merciu et al.2011).
Post-1990 changes in thewake of thecollapse of theformer political system in Eastern-Central Europe
brought about important structural mutations at thelevel of territorial systems, with theeconomic element undergoing themost spectacular transformations (Kovacs1994). Theeconomy in many areas shifted
closer to thesectoral structure of theeconomy found in thedeveloped countries of theEuropean Union,
relying, in most cases, on thelocal specificity (Kovacs1994; Gabrielova1996; Tammaru2001; Gritsai2004;
Hadzic2009; Rbonu and Todoru2009; Balina and Mickevica2012). Visible changes occurred both at
thelevel of theindustrial platforms in thebig cities, Bucharest included (privatization of state enterprises, bankruptcy or gradual closure/transformation/relocation of theactivities, production reconversion and,
thefinal stage, tertiarization) and in their territorial systems (Urbanc and Breg2005; Iano et al.2009;
Peptenatu et al.2012) where economic enterprises were relocated from inside thecities or new economic enterprises emerged, benefitting from numerous competitive advantages (including thepremises of thenew
industrial parks which replaced theold industrial platforms or relied on greenfield investments).
Theprincipal findings of thepaper concern: highlighting theconditions in which thetertiarization
process occurred inside theindustrial parks; analyzing therelation between deindustrialization and tertiarization in those economic areas; identifying thecriteria differentiating thethree industrial parks studied;
delineating thescenarios on thefuture course of tertiarization in industrial parks in Bucharest.
2 Methodology
Theanalysis methods used in elaborating thepresent article are included in thecategory of quantitative
and comparative methods, applied with thehelp of cartographic methods and through thefilter of thephenomena the Romanian capitalist economy undergoes: deindustrialization, industrial relocation and
tertiarization. Thetheory of tertiarization is interpreted using theadvantages offered by themethod of
modelization and by submitting evolution forecasts.
Thestructural dynamics at thelevel of industrial parks was achieved with thesupport of statistical information at the level of CANE (Classification of the activities from the national economy) codes for
the20072011time span. This statistical information was extracted from thecompany database (List
firme2012), aprogram containing statistical data from theOfficial gazette, theFinance ministry, theTrade
register, theNational agency for tax administration and theInsolvency bulletin. Theindicators analyzed
were: theevolution of thenumber of companies, theevolution of thenumber of employees, theevolution
of profit and of theglobal turnover. For an increased relevance of theanalysis, thecross-sections were drawn
at thelevel of thethree major sectors of theeconomy. Later on, aclassification was created in terms of
theintensity of thetertiarization process, measured by thecomplexity or diversity of thetertiary enterprises, as well as by their weight in theoverall economic enterprises.
3 Results
Theforms of industrial reorganization encountered are typical of thetransition and adaptation to themarket economy (deindustrialization, industrial relocation, decentralization, economic reconversion; Cercleux,
Merciu and Merciu2012). Thegoals pursued in theshort run led to thetransformation of major production
factories into average-sized production facilities and later on to their very dissolution. In themore fortunate situations, technology upgrades were conducted, but at alimited scale, and sometimes branching off
into arelated field of activity or into aspecialization completely different from theinitial one. Under these
273
conditions, theindustry-services ratio evolved, predominantly after2000, to thebenefit of thetertiary sector, as aresult of thechanges brought about by thefree-market economy and mainly conjoined with therise
of thenumber of failures in theprivatization of theindustry, difficulties to adapt to competition-oriented conditions or thelack of experience. Theprocess to reorganize Bucharest industry, sometimes belated
and incompatible, brought about important mutations at thelevel of theform of ownership, organizational
and financial structure and thenature of theenterprises (Cepoiu2009a). Tertiarization in thecity of Bucharest
took three forms: it either developed ex-nihilo, or it replaced theancient service distribution structures
(borough-sized shopping centers and, at asmaller scale, district-sized shopping centres) or on thecontrary,
it replaced theformer industrial enterprises.
Nowadays, theplace of theformer industrial platforms or groups in Bucharest was taken by industrial parks, whose organization is radically different and not based on cooperation in terms of production
operations, even more so as tertiary activities predominate or, occasionally, where theindustrial influence
was strong enough, acombination of industry-and-services predominates. Theconduct of thenew activities on thepremises of theformer industrial complexes is not uniform across thecity and thenumber
of spaces with industrial-park status is limited. This situation is due to theprerequisites that need to be
satisfied when setting up an industrial park, aconcept increasingly assimilated to aform adapted to thecurrent economy, that of association and cohabitation of complex activities. Early in2012, there were 3industrial
parks in Bucharest recognized by theMinistry of Administration and Interior (Figure1), with thetitles
granted by aminister's decree or set up according to thestipulations of article23, paragraph2 of Government
decree115/2003: theMetav industrial park (16.576 ha, set up in2002), Faur industrial park (68 ha, set up
in2003) and Sema Parc industrial park (16.928 ha, set up in2004) on whose premises operate production facilities alongside companies involved in services and trade.
Theanalysis conducted on thedeindustrialization/tertiarization relationship within industrial parks
in Bucharest resulted in identifying three situations: incipient tertiarization; gradual, but definite tertiarization;
advanced tertiarization. Thecriteria that resulted in highlighting thethree instances were: theratio of tertiary activities in theoverall activities conducted, identifying three landmarks, function of theevolution
during thetime span studied (20072011): less than 50%, 5080% and more than 80%; thecomplexity of
thetertiary activities conducted within each industrial park, measured by their degree of diversity; thepresence of services in association with theresidential and research destination of that area.
3.1 Incipient tertiarization theFAUR industrial park

What was to be theFAUR industrial park is thecreation of engineer Nicolae Malaxa, considered thecreator of theRomanian heavy industry. During19271928, he built theMalaxa factories on theEastern outskirts
of Bucharest, initially specialized in repair and then in production of locomotives. One of themost important machine-producing factories in thecountry, theenterprise manufactured theprototype of thefirst
Romanian self-propelled train carriage in1931, and it was nationalized in1948, when its name was also
changed into23August (aday with aspecial historical significance for theCommunist period); after1990
it was renamed into Faur.
In thecase of theFAUR industrial park, tertiarization is in an incipient phase (with an average ratio
of 47% tertiary activities during20072011) and it is therepresentation of long-term industrialization in
thearea. Standing out as theoldest industrial area among theareas analyzed and with thehighest number
of enterprises hosted, FAUR introduces itself as an eminently industrial space, with tendencies of tertiarization
if one takes into consideration thevalues registered in thepast five years. With about23% increase in thenumber of companies in2011 compared to2007, FAUR continues to carry on theindustrial identity of theplace,
afact proved by themore than 30% of thecompanies specializing in activities that have earned it fame in
time: tube and pipe production, hardware production, general or mobile mechanical operations, alongside light-industry specializations: thefood industry, textiles or soap and perfume production. However,
atrend can be observed, starting2010, thedevelopment of tertiary activities (Figure2), especially trade,
but services as well. At thesame time, there can be noticed astronger diversification of services in thecase
of FAUR, represented not merely by activities from among theservices that ensure thefunctioning of acity,
but also covering fields such as culture, healthcare and social assistance (since2008 thepremises have
hosted Romanian non-profit association Ateliere fr Frontiere (Workshops without Borders) whose purpose is fighting themarginalization and exclusion of thevery underprivileged).
274
Figure 1: Location of the industrial parks in the city of Bucharest.
275
Scale:
Author of the contents: Merciu Cristina

Author of map: Peptenatu Daniel
Source: Ministry of Administration and Interior, 2012
6 km
SEMA
INDUSTRIAL
PARK
METAV
INDUSTRIAL
PARK
FAUR
INDUSTRIAL
PARK
Legend:
Administrative
Border
Lakes
Roads
Railways
Rivers
Industrial Parks
BUCHAREST
45
2007
40
2008
35
2009
30
2011
2010
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
11
12
13
Figure 2: Evolution of the fields of activity inside the FAUR industrial park.
1 = processing industry; 2 = constructions; 3 = waste management; 4 = retail; 5 = professional, scientific and technical enterprises; 6 = real-estate
transactions; 7 = show-business, cultural and leisure enterprises; 8 = information and communication; 9 = transport; 10 = financial brokerage and
insurance; 11 = healthcare and social assistance; 12 = administrative service and support service enterprises; 13 = other service enterprises (List
firme 2012).
3.2 Gradual, but definite tertiarization theMETAV industrial park

Adjustment to thedemands of thefree-market economy meant for METAVS. A., theformer Bucharest
Romanian Aeronautical Metallurgical Company, established in1980, arepositioning within theRomanian
economic landscape. METAV BUCURETI was meant to be aresearch and production center for cast and
forged parts for theRomanian aeronautical industry (Cepoiu2009b,260). At thepresent moment, out of
atotal 57economic enterprises working on thepremises of theMETAV industrial park (created in2002 in
thewake of theprivatization of theMETAVS.A. company in2000), anumber around 30% higher than in2007,
64% conduct operations in thefield of services, predominantly in trade and professional, scientific and technical activities (that is advertising agencies). In thecase of thesecondary sector, thenumber of industrial
and construction companies did not decline during20072011 (Figure3), on contrary it registered aconstant rise, but much smaller when compared to theother branches. Nevertheless, although thezone is not
undergoing deindustrialization, it is slowly engulfed by new investments in theservice sector (with an average ratio of less than 70% during the20072011span), which might be equated with agradual, but definite
tertiarization, also helped along by thebenefits of thepositioning (intheNorthern part of thecapital, an
area rich in natural resources forests, lakes, leisure areas, etc. offering access routes to central Romania)
and associated with theremarkable investments in thereal-estate sector made in thepast few years.
3.3 Advanced tertiarization theSEMA PARC industrial park

The third industrial park in Bucharest, SEMA PARC (Figure 4) represents the transformation of the
SEMNTOAREA factory, specialized in machines and farm machinery production and created in1949
as asuccessor of theformer FICHET Company, aFrench company specializing in money safe production. Thetransformation into an industrial park, after theprivatization from1999, meant adiversification
of theeconomic activities unfolded. Nowadays, there are 64% more companies than by thebeginning of
276
14
2007
12
2008
2009
2010
10
2011
8
6
4
2
0
10
11
Figure 3: Evolution of the fields of activity within the METAV industrial park.
1 = agriculture; 2 = processing industry; 3 = constructions; 4 = electricity generation; 5 = trade; 6 = professional, scientific and technical enterprises;
7 = information and communication; 8 = real-estate transactions; 9 = hotels and restaurants; 10 = financial brokerage and insurance; 11 = other
service enterprises (List firme 2012).
30
2007
2008
25
2009
2010
20
2011
15
10
5
0
10
11
12
Figure 4: Evolution of the fields of activity within the SEMA PARC industrial park.
1 = processing industry; 2 = constructions; 3 = wastewater collection and treatment; 4 = trade; 5 = information and communication; 6 = professional,
scientific and technical enterprises; 7 = administrative service and support service enterprises; 8 = real-estate transactions; 9 = hotels and
restaurants; 10 = show-business, cultural and leisure enterprises; 11 = other service enterprises; 12 = education (List firme 2012).
277
thetime span analyzed, that is2007, theboom being due to trade and to information and communication
enterprises. 2011 was agood year for theeconomic activity in SEMA PARC, as far as production of custom-made software was concerned, asituation reflected in thenumber of employees hired during20102011.
SEMA PARC is different from thetwo other industrial parks analyzed because of thehighest average
ratio of tertiary activities registered during the20072011 time span, that is more than 80%, as well as because
of theinvestment premises it offered on theone hand to continuing production activity (but at amuch
lower rate than theinitial output, that is on amere2 ha out of thetotal of 40 ha) and, on theother hand,
to theopportunity to coordinate them with investments in real estate (residential and office space) and
retail into alarge-scale project expected to be completed in2015.
All but exclusively based on what thereputation of theSEMNTOAREA factory used to mean up
to ashort time ago theonly company to manufacture self-propelled harvesting combines in Romania,
but nowadays facing thethreat of Austrian competitors in thefield thedecision was made afew years
ago to relocate production as an alternative to certain failure in theface of thephenomenon of globalization. Thestatistics indicate asignificant drop in thenumber of employees after1990, so that by thebeginning
of thetime span analyzed (2007) it had124, and by2011 it had around14 employees. This space, once known
because of thereputation it had acquired because of having control of themost important enterprise of
its type in South-Eastern Europe and grown into asymbol of national economy, is nowadays atertiary
space, where tertiarization managed to respond to thenatural transformation that theeconomy of acapitalist city tries to negotiate. Moreover, it is aspace that attracts because of thepresence of aproductionresearch-education cooperation (thePolytechnical University), favoring in thelong run thedevelopment
of ever more higher-tertiary enterprises.
4 Discussions and conclusions

Theconditions under which tertiarization unfolded inside theindustrial parks of Bucharest are similar
to those in other capitals in Eastern-Central Europe, but thedevelopment of theprocess was in general
different from one instance to thenext, depending mainly on thehistory of theeconomic areas, industrial label and localization. Nevertheless, theCzech Industrial Park (CIP) localized in thedistrict of Tabor,
South Bohemia, and developed starting from theSILON Company founded in1950 as apolyamide filament yarn producer knew asimilar transformation as SEMA PARK. Today, theprofile activity includes
chemical industry, plastics processing, electric logistic, engineering and various services (Internet1). DOLNI
VTKOVICE industrial park, localized in thelower area of Vitkovice (Ostrava), in thevicinity of themost
important European area in steel production, combines today, after theclosure of thecoal mine and pig
iron production in1998, thedevelopment of many projects focused on educational services, cultural and
social events (with theremarkable Landen Park) and relying on theindustrial history of theplace which
started in1828 (Internet2). In Slovakia, theEuropean funds played an important role in therefurbishment of thebrownfield industrial parks (Annual Report SARIO2010).
In order to emphasize and understand theroute taken by theindustrial parks in Bucharest (Table1)
theyears chosen for analysis were important. However, these years can explain only part of thedynamic
activities within industrial parks (external environment context), because their evolution depended also
on the management strategies of companies (internal environment context): 2007 was the year of
Romania's accession to theEuropean Union and, for theeconomy, thepeak of theinvestment boom; 2008
and2009 were characterised by theeffects of anew economic recession, which started off in thereal-estate
sector, spread to theheavy-industry sector and then on to services; theglobal economic crisis from2008
brought about, for many companies, theend or thecutback of credit lines in thewake of thenationwide
financial deadlock, considerable layoffs, as well as thedecline of production and theshut-down of certain
production lines and services; 2010 and2011 were years with atemporary recovery in terms of thenumber of companies and global turnover, but not in terms of thenumber of employees and global net profit.
Taking into account thetertiarization dynamic in thepast five years in theindustrial parks, we may
suggest two scenarios for their evolution, positive and negative, relying on different socio-economic aspects
determined by theinternal and external environment context (Figure5).
In theessential contribution of services to thedevelopment of theBucharest territorial system, which
relies on aset of interactions and connections between thecity and surrounding areas, theinfluence exerted
278
on thetertiary sector emergence until now inside theindustrial parks by theinternal environment is quantified by means of four parameters: a)thelocalization (one of themain factors when planning economic
activities): theindustrial parks position in distinct areas of thecapital meant no room for theapparition of
competition because of proximity, but competition at thescale of thecapital city, in terms of therent and
infrastructure prices charged, both among themselves and against business and logistic parks; b)thehistory of theplace (offering information on measuring thechances of success of theinvestment, as themark
left on theplace): thethree factories represented an important part of theBucharest's economy before1990;
c)thevicinity (which may act as an economic advantage from theperspective of supplies and sales-related strengths, but also, by improving cooperation relations later on transposed into competition): theindustrial
parks are near to important transport routes ensuring connections with thecapital city's exterior (Faur
thering road and theA2 BucharestConstanahighway; Sema Parc theA1 Bucharest- Piteti highway;
Table 1: Ranking of the three industrial parks according to some indicators values from largest to smallest (List firme 2012).
Indicators
Total number of companies
FAUR
SEMA PARC
METAV
Total number of employees
SEMA PARC
FAUR
METAV
Global turnover (in euro)
SEMA PARC
METAV
FAUR
Global net profit (in euro)
METAV
FAUR
SEMA PARC
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
95
56
44
101
67
47
109
75
53
109
80
44
117
92
57
4,670
3,397
1,175
5,181
3,358
1,778
6,434
3,087
1,681
6,504
3,061
1,667
8,102
2,548
1,735
345,533,938
213,548,927
167,283,624
339,832,897
241,256,060
183,284,087
319,519,103
195,584,135
152,971,652
332,766,552
164,521,887
158,645,566
355,923,635
173,216,407
159,554,454
22,208,340
10,682,051
6,737,494
14,037,393
3,362,219
30,492,837
8,793,923
77,418
33,362,752
1,515,627
898,318
16,190,752
2,954,797
1,909,566
2,308,818
Economical policies
Localization
Investments
Workforce
and
population
External environment
Internal environment
Jobs
Positive
scenario
Abandon
Actions
of territorial
planning
Destruction
actions
Vicinity
Social policies
History of the place
Positive
scenario
Residential
fluctuations
Repulsive
image
Local economy
Policies in territorial planning
Figure 5: Forecast scenarios for tertiarization in industrial parks in Bucharest.
279
Metav theA3 BucharestPloieti highway); d)thelocal economy (analysed in terms of viability and meaning to respect theprinciple of economic heterogeneity in aterritorial system): thethree brownfield investments
influenced thelocal economy evolution in time, today theindustry continuing in association with services. Even if these parameters had an important impact in thetertiarization process beginning, they still
may introduce changes, influencing theirs evolution trajectories. Not in direct relation with themanagement strategies of theindustrial parks, theinfluence of theexternal environment is even greater and may
bring in, due to its variation in time difficult to predict, theshaping of new perspectives of tertiarization
evolution by means of thepolicies enforced in thesocial and economic fields, as well as in other fields pertaining to territorial planning.
In their way of increasing competition, attempt to best satisfy thedemand/offer ratio, need for accessibility or to elaborate sustainable development strategies, thedynamic forecast in terms of tertiarization
of theindustrial parks in Bucharest is hard to be appreciated. Thecontribution of thetwo scenarios proposed is to shape thegeneral internal and external factors in which context, opportune or restrictive,
theevolution of theindustrial parks may be associated to investments, jobs and development or, on thecontrary, to important residential fluctuations and abandoned economic areas.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS: This work was supported by theproject Territorial Management Based on Growth
Poles Theory (UEFICSU-PNII Idei,1950) and UB1322 Integrative and sectoral analysis in thetranscalar
territorial dynamics.
5 References
Annual report SARIO,2010. Internet: http://www.sario.sk/sites/default/files/content/files/annual_report_
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282
eURoPean CaPital oF CUltURe:

Residents' PeRCePtion oF soCial
beneFits and Costs
MaRiboR2012 Case stUdY
evRoPsKa PRestolniCa KUltURe:
MnenJe PRebivalCev odRUbenih
KoRistih in stRoKih dogodKa
PRiMeR MaRiboRa2012
ANELA BUI
Vanja Dragievi, David Bole, Anela Bui, Aleksandra Prodanovi
Maribor European capital of culture.

Maribor Evropska prestolnica kulture.
Vanja Dragievi, David Bole, Anela Bui, Aleksandra Prodanovi, European capital of culture: residents' perception
European capital of culture: residents' perception of social benefits

and costs Maribor2012 case study
UDC: 911.3:008(497.4MARIBOR)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: This study assessed Maribor residents' attitudes towards social impacts of theEuropean capital of culture, using FSIAS scale. Theresults showed that residents perceived more social benefits than
social costs of theevent. They agreed that theevent had positive impacts primary on thepromotion of Slovenia,
as well as on community cultural life and image in general, which is also consistent with thepurpose and
theaims of theevent. In residents' opinion theevent did not cause any negative impacts. Theresults provide
residents, event organizers, and local authorities with important community perceptions pertaining to the event.
KEY WORDS: Slovenia, geography of tourism, events, European capital of culture, social impacts
Thearticle was submitted for publication on February24th,2014.
ADDRESSES:
Vanja Dragievi, Ph.D.
University of Novi Sad, Faculty of Sciences,
Department of Geography, Tourism and Hotel Management
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 3, 21 000Novi Sad, Serbia
E-mail: vanja.dragicevic@dgt.uns.ac.rs
David Bole, Ph.D.
Scientific Research Center of theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Gosposka ulica13, SI 1000Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: david.bole@zrc-sazu.si
Anela Bui
E-mail: andjela_90@yahoo.com
Aleksandra Prodanovi
E-mail: aleksandra_prodanovic@yahoo.com
284
1 Introduction
Cultural events are an important motivator of tourism, and figure prominently in thedevelopment and
marketing plans of most destinations (Getz2008). They are being used more and more as amedium of
urban transformation and as an element to attract economic activities, new residents (Herrero et al.2006)
and tourists. Cultural industry is anew form of economic activities, which has attracted much attention
during thepast years. It is seen as themain feature of modern urban economy (Montgomery2007; Bole2008).
Just how important cultural industry can be is demonstrated by theevolution of theEuropean cultural
capital event sponsored by theEuropean Union. Theevent has developed beyond its mainly cultural origins to form an important part of urban economic and cultural reconstruction strategies for deindustrialising
cities in Europe (Richards2000).
As events are seen as akey motivator of cities economy, there is an increasing interest in thevarious
benefits as well as costs associated with cultural events. While there are anumber of studies regarding theeconomic impact of cultural events on host communities (Anderson and Solberg1999; Dwyer et al.2000;
Richards2000; Herrero et al.2006; Jackson et al.2005; Dwyer, Forsyth and Spurr2005; Dwyer, Forsyth and
Spurr2006), there is asmall number of studies which focus on thesocial, cultural, and/or political impacts
of events.
All events have adirect social and cultural impact on their participants, and sometimes on their wider
host communities (Getz2005). However, local governments and event organizers usually focus on theeconomic benefits of attracting as many visitors as possible. Many municipalities are concerned with event
attendance and financial impacts as primary criteria for decisions relating to financial and other support.
Theeconomic impacts of events are important, but thesocial impacts may have an even more profound
effect upon thelocal community (Delamere1999). Sacco, Ferilli and Pedrini (2008) argue that measurement models need to take account of theimpact that agiven local development model brings about upon
intangible local assets such as social and identity capital. Richards and Wilson (2004) noted that cultural
events add life to city and give citizens renewed pride in their home city. Bowdin et al. (2006) also state
that all events produce impacts, both positive and negative. They add that social and cultural impacts may
involve ashared experience, increased pride, widening of cultural horizons and or new and challenging
ideas. However, different social problems can be raised from events: loss of amenity owing to noise or crowds,
resentment of inequitable distribution of costs and benefits, cost inflation of goods and services. Therole of
communities is often marginalized and governments often make thecrucial decision of whether to host theevent
without adequate community consultation. In theSwedish city of Umea, thebid to stage theEuropean
capital of culture in2014 was run on an open source principle, meaning that, instead of theprogramme
designed by experts in thecultural sector, theevent was planned and programmed with direct involvement of local people. By implementing thebid, it was hoped that amultitude of stakeholders would come
together in anetwork of co-creation, and enhance an image of thecity as acreative place with endless
development possibilities (kerlund and Mller2012). Therefore, to achieve thebest balance for all parties (local community, visitors and event organizers), it is suggested that organizers should not lose sight
of community interests.
Therefore, thepurpose of this research was to measure Maribor residents' attitudes toward thesocial
impacts of European capital of culture2012, which is atitle awarded by theEuropean Union for aperiod
of one year to one or more cities that carry out number of cultural events throughout whole year.
Thestudy has two objectives. Thefirst objective, drawing on Delamere (1999 and2001) and Delamereetal.
(2001) is to develop alisting of social benefits and costs and then ask residents of Maribor to evaluate it,
in order to determine theprimary social impacts, positive and negative, of European capital of culture event.
Thesecond objective is to examine if there are any differences in attitudes toward thesocial impacts of
European capital of culture among residents divided into groups according to socio-demographic characteristics (gender, age, education level, occupation, monthly income).
2 European capital of culture

TheEuropean capital of culture is atitle awarded according to acertain procedure by theEuropean Union
for aperiod of one year to one or more cities. Thecity holding this prestigious title carries out number of
important cultural events (Internet1).
285
Theidea for theevent was put forward in1983 by theGreek minister for culture Melina Mercouri,
and theproject was introduced in1985 by theCouncil of ministers of theEuropean Union. Theevent was
designed to help bring thepeoples of themember states closer together through theexpression of aculture which, in its historical emergence and contemporary development, is characterized by having both
common elements and arichness born of diversity' (European Commission1985; Richards2000).
Thecity is awarded thetitle mostly because of thepreparation of special cultural events that should
be an opportunity to strengthen European cultural cooperation and should encourage asustainable dialogue at theEuropean level (Internet1). Theevent management generally implies theshared participation
of several official bodies (institutions) and private economic agents, with interesting experiences of
thebusiness sponsorship context and thecivil society's participation via voluntary-service organizations. Along with thecreation of diverse and wide-ranging cultural program there is aneed for an effort
in creating new cultural facilities, urban redesign, tourist infrastructure and communications in thecity
(Herrero et al.2006).
Richards (2000) stated that economic investment in theevent has grown significantly since theevent
began, and particularly since1990. Larger financial investments in theevent are justified largely by theeconomic returns it is expected to generate, rather than thecultural benefits theevent may produce. Richards
and Wilson (2004) discussed that theEuropean capital of culture event is also attractive not only as ameans
of developing thecultural infrastructure of acity, but as an economic development tool and ameans of
enhancing theimage of thecity. They added that these were also thebasic arguments used by Rotterdam,
when thecity began bidding for theevent. Thecity was European capital of culture in2001.
Herrero et al. (2006) discussed that European capital of culture represents an event of remarkable importance as city nomination makes headlines on national and European level, so that cities and countries compete
for this designation, with theaim of confirming their cultural image and their position on European (tourist)
map. Herrero et al. (2006) stated that economic return on themedium and long run of city nomination is
of great importance.
2.1 Maribor2012 European capital of culture

Maribor is thesecond largest city in Slovenia and regional capital, with more than100,000inhabitants.
Thecity is cultural and economic centre of thenorth-eastern Slovenia. For many years Maribor was
one of theleading industrial cities in ex Yugoslavia. But now it faces structural changes, above average
unemployment rates and deindustrialization, so policy-makers are putting more focus on tourism and
culture.
In2012 Maribor held thetitle of theEuropean capital of culture and in2013 thecity is theEuropean
capital of youth (Internet2). TheEuropean capital of culture event had three main dimensions: European
dimension (networking and cooperation at theEuropean level), sustainable dimension (positive economic,
socio-cultural and environmental effects are expected after2012) and innovativeness (based on digital
culture). Theevent was based on theintegrated approach, combining creativity, heritage, education, research,
digital literacy, cultural tourism, economy and ecology. Some of basic goals of this event were:
thesustainable development of theregion,
theenhancement of local identities,
thepromotion of European cultural cooperation, international recognition of Maribor and of Slovenia
itself,
therenovation of cultural and industrial heritage,
theupgrading of theexisting and building of anew tourism, recreational and transport infrastructure,
theintegration of all social groups of people, especially thevulnerable ones (Internet1).
TheEuropean capital of culture event was supported by over 87volunteers, between16 and 68years
old, among them high school students, college students, employed, unemployed, and retirees. Throughout
whole2012 there has been over 5230events that were visited by over two million guests and even more
participants. Domestic guests lead thenumbers with 54% over theforeigners with 45%, among them Austrians
have shown themost interest (other guests include French, Brits, Spaniards, Americans, New Zealand,
Vietnam, and Australians) (Internet1).
286
3 Methodology
Thestudy was comprised of two stages. First, acomprehensive listing of thesocial benefits and costs of
European capital of culture was generated based on Festival social impact attitude scale (FSIAS) developed
by Delamere (1999 and2001) and Delamere et al. (2001). Theresult of this first stage of thestudy was thequestionnaire composed of two parts. In thefirst part socio-demographic characteristics of therespondents
were examined and thesecond part of thequestionnaire consists of 32items, thus extending the25item
FSIAS scale. Theitems were grouped into two categories: social benefits (Figure1) and social costs (Figure2),
as proposed by Delamere (1999 and2001) and Delamere et al. (2001).
Table2 presents thereliabilities for thesocial benefits and social costs scales. Thehigh alpha values
> 0.7 (DeVellis2003; Pallant2011) indicate good internal consistency among items within each category.
Table 1: Reliabilities () for the social benefits and social costs.
Variables
Social benefits
Social costs
Number of items
23
9
0.955
0.581
Second stage of thestudy refers to testing thescale on residents of Maribor in December2012. ASlovenian
version of thequestionnaire was used to measure theresidents' attitudes regarding each identified social
benefit and cost based on a5point Likert scale (i.e.,from1 strongly disagree to 5strongly agree).
An on-line survey was designed and sent to residents of Maribor with the help of students from
theUniversity of Maribor. Thesurvey resulted in 71valid questionnaires that were used in thestatistical
procedure. Some authors believe that theassessment will be good only if thesample contains aminimum
of 51units (Bagozzi1981), while other think that at least 30observations will be sufficient (Pallant2011).
In order to explore social benefits and costs of Maribor2012 European capital of culture descriptive
statistics, independent samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were employed.
To examine if certain groups of respondents differ in their attitudes theauthors divided therespondents into groups according to socio-demographic characteristics trying to provide groups of similar size.
Thedata was processed with thestatistical package SPSS20.
4 Study results
4.1 Sample characteristics
Thesample taken for this research consists of 71respondents. Their other socio-demographic characteristics are shown in more details in Table2.
4.2 Descriptive statistics

Thecommunity attitudes toward thesocial benefits and social costs of theMaribor2012 European capital of culture are presented at Figure1 and Figure2.
Respondents assigned thehighest rating to thefollowing social benefits: promotion of thecity outside
Slovenia, festival acts as ashowcase for new ideas, variety of cultural experiences, sense of community well-being,
visitors behave properly. Also, they agree that theevent brought opportunities to experience new activities, to learn new things, and it had positive cultural impact in thecommunity. Surprisingly, items improved
quality of life in thecommunity was rated relatively low (M = 3.15). Also, respondents were undecided when
asked about positive effects of theevent on their personal health and well-being (M = 3.20) and they were
not sure that city infrastructure was improved thanks to theevent.
When residents of Maribor were asked about social costs of theEuropean capital of culture, they disagreed with all of thestatements (Figure2). Thelowest rating (M = 1.75) was assigned to item increased
crime rate. Therefore, it can be concluded that in residents' opinion theevent did not cause increase in
287
Table 2: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents.

Characteristic
Gender
Female
Male
Age
Up to 20
2130
3140
4150
over 50
Occupation
Student
Employee
Unemployed
Pensioner
Education
High school
College
Master/Phd degree
Monthly income
Up to 200
201400
401600
More than 600
Frequency
41
30
58
42
27
25
8
5
6
38
35
11
7
9
46
22
2
1
65
31
3
1
48
18
5
68
25
7
30
13
7
21
42
18
10
30
crime rates, noise, litter, nor disruption of normal routine, traffic jams, crowd. However, residents were
somewhat undecided when asked about increase of prices of services and goods (M = 2.69).
In general, respondents perceived that theevent had more social benefits than social costs. Category
social benefits composed of 23items was rated relatively good (M = 3.54) with small standard deviation
( = 0.69), which indicates quite ahigh level of agreement between therespondents. Regarding social costs
(9items), respondents disagreed that theevent had negative impacts on community (M = 2.20, = 0.64).
4.3 Results of T-test independent samples and one-way ANOVA

T-test independent samples was used for testing differences in mean values of social impacts between
therespondents regarding their gender. Theresults (Table3) indicate that there are no statistically relevant differences in mean values of social impacts between two groups of respondents of different gender
(for social benefits t = 0.234, p = 0.815; for social costs t = 1.557, p = 0.124), meaning that female and male
respondents share same attitudes regarding social impacts of theEuropean capital of culture.
Table 3: Results of T-test independent samples. Test variables: social benefits and social costs. Grouping variable: gender.
Variable
Social benefits
Social costs
Gender
Mean
Std. Deviation
Female
Male
Female
Male
41
30
41
30
3,561
3,522
2,295
2,059
0,597
0,815
0,664
0,583
0,234
0,815
1,557
0,124
Nnumberofrespondents,tvaluetstatistics,psignificanceofpstatisticsiflowerthan0.05thereis95%ofcertaintythatthereisstatisticallysignificantdifference
betweenthegroups
288
1,06
Promotion of the city outside Slovenia
4,03
0,96
Festival acts as a showcase for new ideas
4,01
0,73
Variety of cultural experiences
3,92
0,85
Sense of community well-being
3,86
Visitors behave properly
0,87
Opportunity to experience new activities
0,88
Having the opportunity to learn new things
0,94
Positive cultural impact in the community
0,89
3,86
3,77
3,70
0,99
High level safety of visitors
The event is of great importance

to know the local customs and culture
3,61
1,01
3,61
0,85
Community gains positive recognition
3,61
0,95
Community is unique and special

The content of the program of the event
is extremely rich and varied
1,07
Opportunities for residents

to gain additional income
1,02
3,48
3,45
3,44
0,92
Community identity enhanced
3,38
1,00
Opportunities to create new jobs for residents

Personal sense of pride and recognition
through participating in the festival
0,96
Residents are involved

in the organization of the program
0,93
Positive effects on residents'

personal health and well-being
0,95
3,37
3,37
3,30
3,20
1,06
Improved quality of life in the community
3,15
1,09
Quality of products and services is excellent
3,07
1,24
City infrastructure is improved

Std. deviation
3,65
1,09
Enhanced image of the community
Mean
3,75
2,96
2
Figure 1: Mean values and standard deviations for social benefits of Maribor 2012 European capital of culture.
289
1,05
Prices of goods and services increased
1,13
Local traffic overloaded
2,41
0,91
City cleanliness impared litter increased
2,17
0,99
Noise levels increased
2,13
0,81
Community recreation
and cultural facilities overused
2,10
0,90
Disruption of normal routines

of community residents
Influx of visitors reduces privacy
within the community
2,04
0,81
0,91
Increased crime rates

Std. deviation
2,45
0,95
Community overcrowded
Mean
2,69
2,03
1,75
2
Figure 2: Mean values and standard deviations for social costs of Maribor 2012 European capital of culture.
Regarding their occupation, therespondents were divided into two groups: students and non students.
From theresults in Table4, it can be concluded that there are statistically significant mean differences (p<0.05)
between students and non students.
Non students assigned higher ratings to social benefits, indicating they agreed that theevent had positive social impacts on community, while students were more undecided about it. Non students perceived
less social costs of theevent compared to students. Consequently, theresults in table5show statistically
significant mean differences (p < 0.05) between group of respondents regarding their education level.
Regarding their age, therespondents were divided into three groups: up to20, 2130 and over 30years,
in order to provide groups of quite thesame size. Using theone-way ANOVA method for investigation
of significance of mean value differences, it can be concluded with 95% accuracy that, between three groups
of respondents of different age, there are statistically significant dissimilarities in their attitudes towards
social benefits (F = 3.840, p = 0.026) and social costs (F = 4.755, p = 0.012). Post-hoc Scheffe test was applied
in order to find out which groups are significantly different from others. Theresults show that respondents
over 30years assigned higher ratings to social benefits compared to residents in2130age group. Regarding
social costs, respondents over 30years perceived less negative impacts compared to theyoungest respondents (upto20years).
Theresults of one-way ANOVA in Table7 show that there are statistically significant differences between
groups of respondents according to their monthly income in their attitudes towards social benefits and
social costs of theEuropean capital of culture. Post-hoc Scheffe test show that respondents with more than
600 monthly income assigned higher ratings to social benefits and were less aware of negative impacts
compared to other two groups.
290
Table 4: Results of T-test independent samples. Test variables: social benefits and social costs. Grouping variable: occupation.
Variable
Social benefits
Social costs
Occupation
Mean
Std. Deviation
Student
Non student
Student
Non student
46
25
46
25
3,396
3,817
2,394
1,831
0,647
0,701
0,542
0,649
2,544
0,013
3,894
0,000
betweenthegroups
Table 5: Results of T-test independent samples. Test variables: social benefits and social costs. Grouping variable: education.
Variable
Social benefits
Social costs
Education
Mean
Std. Deviation
High school
College, Master, PhD
High school
College, Master, PhD
48
23
48
23
3,374
3,899
2,357
1,860
0,671
0,605
0,576
0,641
3,185
0,002
3,278
0,002
betweenthegroups
Table 6: Compare means one-way ANOVA. Dependent list: social benefits and social costs. Factor: age of the respondents.
Variable
Social benefits
Social costs
Age
Mean
Std. Deviation
to 20
2130
more than 30
to 20
2130
more than 30
27
25
19
27
25
19
3,443
3,381
3,904
2,440
2,169
1,883
0,622
0,674
0,713
0,565
0,062
0,648
F*
p*
3,840
0,026
4,755
0,012
*p < 0,05;F 3,19
Table 7: Compare means one-way ANOVA. Dependent list: social benefits and social costs. Factor: monthly income.
Variable
Social benefits
Social costs
Income
Mean
Std. Deviation
up to 200
201600
more than 600
up to 200
201600
more than 600
30
20
21
30
20
21
3,581
3,117
3,899
2,322
2,417
1,804
0,562
0,649
0,708
0,598
0,488
0,667
*p < 0,05;F 3,19
291
F*
p*
7,900
0,001
6,684
0,002
5 Conclusion
This study assessed Maribor residents' attitudes towards social impacts of theEuropean capital of culture,
using FSIAS scale. Theresults showed that residents expected more social benefits than social costs of
theevent. They agreed that theevent had positive impacts primary on thepromotion of Slovenia, which
was one of theevent's aims, as well as on community cultural life and image in general, which is also consistent with thepurpose of theevent. However, therespondents did not agree that theevent improved quality
of their life or city infrastructure. In years to come maybe they will be more aware of theevent effects on
life quality in thecommunity. Also, they were undecided about positive impacts on employment, on opportunities for gaining additional income, on personal sense of pride, enhancement of community identity.
In residents' opinion theevent did not cause any negative impacts such as increase in crime rates, noise,
litter, disruption of normal routine, traffic jams, overcrowded streets and facilities.
Although thesample is small, this study makes asignificant contribution in understanding of residents'
attitudes toward thesocial impacts of theEuropean capital of culture. Theresults provide residents, event
organizers, and local authorities with important community perceptions pertaining to theevent. Also,
theresults could be valuable for cities which are in thebidding process for European capital of culture title.
In thecase of Maribor, it can be confirmed that cultural investment (European capital of culture) proved
to have desired positive effects on theperceived quality of life of residents. There are significant differences of this perception among thepopulation, since older and non-student residents perceive positive
effects to astronger degree.
Social and cultural impacts of theevents should be assessed continuously in order to enable constructive
decisions to be made during thefuture event planning and management. Residents and organizers both
have arole in maximizing thesocial benefits and minimizing thesocial costs of theevent, in order to provide sustainable development of theevent and community.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT: This research is part of the project 114-451-3602/2013-01 financed by
theProvincial Secretariat for Science and Technological Development of theVojvodina Province, Serbia.
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293
Vanja Dragievi, David Bole, Anela Bui, Aleksandra Prodanovi, Evropska prestolnica kulture: mnenje prebivalcev
Evropska prestolnica kulture: mnenje prebivalcev odrubenih

koristih in strokih dogodka primer Maribora2012
UDK: 911.3:008(497.4MARIBOR)
COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEEK: Vraziskavi smo ocenili razmerje prebivalcev Maribora do drubenih vplivov, izhajajoih iz
naziva Evropska prestolnica kulture, in sicer po lestvici FSIAS. Raziskava je pokazala, da anketiranci menijo, da je projekt mestu prinesel veje drubene ugodnosti kot pa stroke. Anketiranci so se strinjali, da je
projekt primarno pozitivno vplival zlasti na promocijo Slovenije, kot tudi na kulturno razvitost skupnosti
in ugled mesta na splono, kar je skladno zvsemi cilji in namenom samega projekta. Po mnenju anketirancev projekt ni imel negativnih vplivov. Rezultati raziskave nudijo prebivalcem, organizatorjem projekta
in lokalni skupnosti vpogled vpomembne podatke oodnosu skupnosti do tega projekta.
KLJUNE BESEDE: geografija, geografija turizma, dogodki, Evropska prestolnica kulture, drubeni vplivi,
Slovenija
Urednitvo je prejelo prispevek 24.februarja2014.
NASLOVI:
dr. Vanja Dragievi
Naravoslovno-matematina fakulteta Univerze vNovem Sadu
Oddelek za geografijo, turizem in hotelski menedment
Trg Dositeja Obradovia 3, 21 000Novi Sad, Srbija
E-pota: vanja.dragicevic@dgt.uns.ac.rs
dr. David Bole
Gosposka ulica13, 1000Ljubljana, Slovenija
E-pota: david.bole@zrc-sazu.si
Anela Bui
E-pota: andjela_90@yahoo.com
Aleksandra Prodanovi
E-pota: aleksandra_prodanovic@yahoo.com
294
1 Uvod
Kulturni dogodki so pomemben motivacijski dejavnik za turizem ter imajo pomembno vlogo vrazvojnih in trnih nartih veine turistinih destinacij (Getz2008). Kulturni dogodki se vedalje veji meri
uporabljajo kot sredstva za preobrazbo mest ter dejavniki, skaterimi elijo mesta pritegniti nove gospodarske dejavnosti, novo delovno silo (Herrero s sod.2006) in turiste. Kulturna industrija je nova oblika
gospodarskih dejavnosti, ki je vzadnjih nekaj letih precej pridobila pomen. Mnogi jo oznaujejo kot poglavitno znailnost sodobnega urbanega gospodarstva (Montgomery 2007; Bole 2008). Pomen kulturne
industrije odseva tudi vprojektu Evropske unije Evropska prestolnica kulture. Projekt je presegel kulturne okvire in postal pomemben del urbanih gospodarskih in kulturnih strategij vprocesu deindustrializacije
evropskih mest (Richards2000).
Tovrstni dogodki so eden od kljunih elementov mestnih gospodarstev, zato zanimanje ire javnosti budi vpraanje dobikov in strokov, povezanih znjihovo pripravo. Na voljo je veliko raziskav ogospodarskih uinkih kulturnih dogodkov na skupnost, ki tak dogodek gosti (Anderson in Solber1999;
Dwyer s sod.2000; Richards2000; Herrero s sod.2006; Jackson s sod.2005; Dwyer, Forsyth in Spurr2005;
Dwyer, Forsyth in Spurr2006), manj pa je raziskav, ki se osredotoajo na drubene, kulturne in/ali politine vplive.
Vsak dogodek ima neposreden drubeni in kulturni vpliv na udeleence, vasih pa tudi na iro okolico prireditelja (Getz2005). Kljub temu krajevne oblasti in organizatorji dogodka veino pozornosti posvetijo
gospodarskim koristim, ki so odvisne od im vejega tevila obiskovalcev. Vmnogih obinah je glavno
merilo odloanja ofinannih in drugih oblikah podpore obiskanost dogodka in njegov finanni uinek.
Gospodarski uinek, ki spremlja dogodek, je vsekakor pomemben, toda drubeni vplivi na lokalno skupnost so lahko dosti moneji (Delamere1999). Sacco, Ferilli in Pedrini (2008) menijo, da bi morali meritveni
modeli upotevati vpliv, ki ga posamezen model lokalnega razvoja povzroi na neotipljive lokalne dobrine, kot sta socialni in osebnostni kapital. Richards in Wilson (2004) trdita, da kulturni dogodki vdahnejo
mestu sveo ivljenjsko energijo, prebivalcem pa obutek ponosa na domae mesto. Bowdin in ostali (2006)
prav tako pritrjujejo dejstvu, da vsak dogodek povzroa pozitivne ali negativne uinke, hkrati pa poudarjajo, da socialni in kulturni uinki lahko prinaajo skupne izkunje, ponos, irjenje kulturnih obzorij ter/ali
nove ideje in izzive. Kljub temu pa razne dogodke spremljajo razline socialne teave, kot so izguba privlanosti zaradi hrupa ali gnee, nezadovoljstvo zaradi nepravine delitve strokov in koristi, napihovanje
cen storitev in izdelkov. Vloga skupnosti je velikokrat potisnjena vozadje, kljuno odloitev oorganizaciji dogodka pa brez ustreznega posvetovanja sskupnostjo prevzame javna oblast. Vvedskem mestu Umea
je bila nominacija za Evropsko prestolnico kulture organizirana po naelu odprte kode, kar pomeni, da
programa niso zasnovali strokovnjaki spodroja kulture, temve je nastal zneposredno udelebo domainov. Stakno izvedbo nominacije so eleli tevilne delenike povezati vmreo, vkateri bi soustvarjali
podobo mesta kot ustvarjalnega kraja zneomejenimi monostmi razvoja (kerlund in Mller2012). Da
bi dosegli najbolji izid za vse vpletene (lokalna skupnost, obiskovalci in organizatorji dogodka) naj organizatorji ne zanemarijo interesov skupnosti.
Namen te raziskave je bil ugotoviti odnos prebivalcev Maribora do drubenih vplivov, nastalih spodelitvijo naziva Evropske prestolnice kulture2012 Mariboru, ki ga Evropska unija podeli za obdobje enega
leta enemu ali ve mestom, ki skozi celo leto izvedejo ve kulturnih dogodkov. Raziskava vkljuuje dva
cilja. Prvi cilj, ki se nanaa na Delamera (1999 in2001) in Delamera in ostali (2001), nartuje pripravo
seznama drubenih koristi in strokov, ki bi ga prebivalci Maribora nato ocenili, stem pa bi se doloili poglavitni pozitivni in negativni drubeni vplivi programa Evropske prestolnice kulture. Drugi cilj je ugotoviti,
e med prebivalci, glede na drubeno-demografske lastnosti (spol, starost, stopnja izobrazbe, poklic, meseni dohodek), obstajajo razlini odnosi do drubenih vplivov projekta Evropske prestolnice kulture.
2 Evropska prestolnica kulture

Evropska prestolnica kulture je naziv, ki ga na podlagi posebnega postopka Evropska unija za obdobje enega leta podeli enemu ali ve mestom. Vmestu, ki mu pripade ta laskavi naziv, se odvije ve pomembnih
kulturnih dogodkov (Internet1).
295
Idejo programa je leta1983 zartal grki minister za kulturo Melina Mercouri, projekt pa je leta1985
predstavil Svet ministrov Evropske unije. Program so zasnovali, da bi zdruil ljudi drav lanic spomojo kulturnega izraanja, kjer sta zgodovina in sodobni razvoj oznaena sskupnimi prvinami in bogastvom,
ki izhaja iz raznolikosti' (Evropska komisija1985; Richards2000).
Mesto pridobi naziv zaradi priprave posebnih kulturnih dogodkov, ki predstavljajo prilonost za krepitev evropskih kulturnih vezi in obenem spodbujajo trajnostni dialog na evropski ravni (Internet1). Pri
organizaciji programa obiajno sodeluje ve uradnih ustanov in zasebnih gospodarskih subjektov zbogatimi izkunjami na podroju poslovnega sponzorstva, prebivalstvo pa sodeluje prek prostovoljnih
organizacij. Obiajno se zraznolikima in obirnima kulturnim programom pojavi potreba po novih kulturnih objektih, mestni prenovi, turistini infrastrukturi in nadgradnji komunikacij znotraj mesta (Herrero
s sod.2006).
Richards (2000) poudarja, da se je gospodarska naloba vprojekt od zaetka, predvsem pa po letu1990,
obutno poveala. Veje finanne nalobe so upraviene predvsem spriakovanim gospodarskim donosom in ne zmorebitnimi kulturnimi koristmi programa. Richards in Wilson (2004) menita, da je program
Evropske prestolnice kulture privlaen in sicer ne le zvidika sredstev za razvoj kulturne infrastrukture mesta,
temve tudi zvidika gospodarskega razvoja ter sredstev za izboljanje podobe mesta. Dodajata, da so bili
to tudi temeljni argumenti mesta Rotterdam, ko se je potegovalo za naziv, ki ga je tudi osvojilo leta2001.
Herrero in ostali (2006) trdijo, da je Evropska prestolnica kulture izredno pomemben program, saj dodelitev naziva mestu odzvanja na naslovnicah dravnih in evropskih asopisov, stem pa spodbuja tekmovanje
za laskavi naziv med mesti in dravami, ki si elijo potrditve svoje kulturne podobe in poloaja na evropskem (turistinem) zemljevidu. Herrero in ostali (2006) pripisujejo na srednji in dolgi rok velik pomen
gospodarskemu prihodku ob nominaciji mesta.
2.1 Maribor Evropska prestolnica kulture2012

Maribor je drugo najveje mesto vSloveniji in regionalna prestolnica zve kot100.000prebivalci. Je kulturno in gospodarsko sredie severovzhodne Slovenije. Dolgo je bil vodilno industrijsko mesto nekdanje
Jugoslavije, danes pa se sooa zstrukturnimi spremembami, nadpovpreno stopnjo brezposelnosti in deindustrializacijo, zato lokalni politiki posveajo vse ve pozornosti turizmu in kulturi.
Leta2012 je Maribor pridobil naziv Evropske prestolnice kulture, leta2013 pa je mesto postalo Evropska prestolnica mladih (Internet2). Program Evropske prestolnice kulture so sestavljale tri razsenosti,
in sicer evropska (povezovanje in sodelovanje na evropski ravni), trajnostna (pozitivni ekonomski, drubeno-kulturoloki in okoljski vplivi so priakovani po letu2012) in inovativnost (temelji na digitalni kulturi).
Program je bil zasnovan na integriranem pristopu, ki sestoji iz ustvarjalnosti, dediine, izobrazbe, raziskovanja, digitalne pismenosti, kulturnega turizma, ekonomije in ekologije. Nekaj osnovnih ciljev tega programa:
trajnostni razvoj regije,
okrepitev lokalnih identitet,
promocija evropskega kulturnega sodelovanja, mednarodna prepoznavnost Maribora in Slovenije,
obnova kulturne in industrijske dediine,
nadgradnja obstojee in postavitev nove turistine, rekreacijske in prometne infrastrukture,
integracija vseh drubenih skupin, predvsem najbolj ranljivih (Internet1).
Program Evropske prestolnice kulture je podprlo ve kot 87prostovoljcev od16.do 68.leta starosti,
med katerimi so srednjeolci, tudenti, zaposleni, brezposelni ter upokojenci. Skozi celotno leto2012 se
je odvilo ve kot 5230dogodkov, ki jih je obiskalo ve kot dva milijona gostov in veliko sodelujoih. Vudelebi s54 % prevladujejo domai obiskovalci pred 46 % tujih, izmed katerih so najve zanimanja pokazali
Avstrijci pred Francozi, Britanci, panci, Ameriani, Novozelandci, Vietnamci in Avstralci (Internet1).
3 Metodologija
Raziskava obsega dve stopnji. Na prvi stopnji je bil narejen obiren seznam drubenih koristi in strokov
programa Evropske prestolnice kulture na podlagi ocenjevalne lestvice drubenih vplivov festivalov FSIAS,
ki jo je razvil Delamere (1999 in2001) in Delamere in ostali (2001). Rezultat prve stopnje raziskave je bil
dvodelni vpraalnik. Prvi del vpraalnika je obsegal raziskavo drubeno-demografskih lastnosti anketi-
296
rancev, drugi del pa 32vpraanj, skaterimi smo dodatno razirili25tok FSIAS lestvice. Toke smo razdelili vdve kategoriji: drubene koristi (Slika1) ter drubeni stroki (Slika2), kot predlagajo Delamere (1999
in2001) ter Delamere s sod. (2001).
Preglednica1 prikazuje zanesljivost lestvice drubenih koristi in drubenih strokov. Visoke alfa vrednosti (> 0,7) (DeVellis2003; Pallant2011) nakazujejo dobro notranjo skladnost med tokami vsake kategorije.
Preglednica 1: Zanesljivost () drubenih koristi in strokov.
spremenljivke
tevilo tok
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
23
9
0,955
0,581
Druga stopnja raziskave je obsegala testiranje lestvice na prebivalcih Maribora decembra2012. Za raziskavo stali prebivalcev do vsake posamezne drubene koristi in stroka smo uporabili slovensko razliico
vpraalnika na podlagi 5-stopenjske Likertove lestvice (od1 sploh se ne strinjam do 5popolnoma se
strinjam).
Vspletni raziskavi med prebivalci Maribora, ki smo jo izvedli spomojo tudentov Univerze vMariboru,
je bilo pridobljenih 71veljavnih vpraalnikov, ki so bili statistino obdelani. Nekateri avtorji predvidevajo,
da je ocena merodajna le, e je vzorec sestavljen iz najmanj 51enot (Bagozzi1981), medtem ko drugi menijo, da zadoa e vsaj 30opazovanj (Pallant2011).
Za oceno drubenih koristi in strokov programa Maribor Evropska prestolnica kulture2012 smo uporabili metode opisne statistike ter samostojne vzorce, t-test in enosmerno analizo variance ANOVA. Zdelitvijo
anketirancev vpodobno velike skupine in glede na njihove drubeno-demografske lastnosti, so avtorji eleli
ugotoviti, e se doloene skupine anketirancev med seboj razlikujejo glede na stalia. Podatki so bili obdelani spomojo programa za obdelavo podatkov SPSS20.
4 Rezultati raziskave
4.1 Lastnosti vzorca raziskave
Vzorec raziskave vkljuuje 71anketirancev. Drubeno-demografske znailnosti so podrobneje predstavljene
vpreglednici2.
4.2 Opisna statistika

Mnenje skupnosti odrubenih koristih in strokih projekta Maribor2012 Evropska prestolnica kulture predstavljata sliki1 in2.
Anketiranci so najveji pomen pripisali naslednjim drubenim koristim: promocija mesta zunaj Slovenije, dogodek kot odskona deska za nove ideje, raznolikost kulturnih izkuenj, obutek pripadnosti skupnosti,
blagostanje prebivalstva,kulturno obnaanje obiskovalcev. Strinjali so se tudi, da je bil dogodek prilonost
za nove aktivnosti in pridobivanje novega znanja ter da je imel pozitiven vpliv na kulturo in na celotno skupnost. Nenavadno je, da so anketiranci relativno nizko ovrednotili izboljanje kakovosti bivanja vskupnosti
(M = 3,15). Prav tako so bili neodloeni, ko smo jih povpraali opozitivnih uinkih dogodka na njihovo
osebno zdravje in dobro poutje (M = 3,20) in niso bili prepriani, da je dogodek pripomogel kizboljanju
mestne infrastrukture.
Ko smo prebivalce Maribora povpraali odrubenih strokih projekta Evropska prestolnica kulture,
so izrazili nestrinjanje zvsemi trditvami (Slika2). Najnijo vrednost (M = 1,75) so pripisali poveani stopnji kriminala. Sklenemo lahko torej, da po mnenju prebivalcev dogodek ni povzroil poveanja kriminala,
hrupa, smetenja, prav tako pa ni posegel vvsakdanjo rutino prebivalstva, povzroil prometnih zastojev
in gnee. Po drugi strani so bili prebivalci nekoliko neodloeni, ko smo jih povpraali opoviani ceni storitev in dobrin (M = 2,69).
297
Preglednica 2: Drubeno-demografske lastnosti anketirancev.

lastnost
spol
enski
moki
starost
do 20
2130
3140
4150
nad 50
poklic
tudent
zaposleni
nezaposleni
upokojenec
izobrazba
srednja ola
visokoolska ali univerzitetna izobrazba 1. stopnje
magisterij ali doktorat
meseni dohodek
do 200
201400
401600
nad 600
tevilo
41
30
58
42
27
25
8
5
6
38
35
11
7
9
46
22
2
1
65
31
3
1
48
18
5
68
25
7
30
13
7
21
42
18
10
30
Vsplonem so anketiranci menili, da je imel dogodek ve drubenih koristi kot strokov. Kategorija
drubenih koristi, ki jo je sestavljalo 23tok, je bila ocenjena relativno visoko (M = 3,54), znizko standardno deviacijo ( = 0,69), kar kae na visoko stopnjo strinjanja med anketiranci. Kar se tie drubenih
strokov (9tok), se anketiranci niso strinjali, da je dogodek negativno vplival na skupnost (M=2,20, =0,64).
4.3 Rezultati T-testa neodvisnih vzorcev in enosmerne analize variance ANOVA

T-test neodvisnih vzorcev je bil opravljen za testiranje razlikovanja aritmetinih sredin drubenih vplivov
glede na spol anketirancev. Rezultati (preglednica3) kaejo, da ni prilo do statistino pomembnih razlik
varitmetinih sredinah drubenih vplivov med dvema skupinama anketirancev razlinih spolov (zadrubene koristi t = 0,234, p = 0,815; za drubene stroke t = 1,557, p = 0,124), kar pomeni, da imajo anketiranci
enskega in mokega spola enake poglede na drubene vplive projekta Evropska prestolnica kulture.
Preglednica 3: Rezultati T-testa neodvisnih vzorcev za testne spremenljivke drubene koristi in drubeni stroki ter spol kot skupinsko spremenljivko.
spremenljivka
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
spol
aritmetina sredina
standardni odklon
enski
moki
enski
moki
41
30
41
30
3,561
3,522
2,295
2,059
0,597
0,815
0,664
0,583
0,234
0,815
1,557
0,124
Nteviloanketirancev,tstatistinavrednostt,pstatistinavrednostpejenijaod0,0595 %verjetnost,daobstajastatistinopomembnarazlikamedskupinama
Po poklicih smo anketirance razvrstili vdve temeljni skupini: tudente in netudente. Glede na rezultate
iz preglednice 4 sklepamo, da so med tudenti in netudenti statistino pomembne razlike med aritmetinima
298
1,06
promocija mesta v tujini
4,03
0,96
dogodek kot odskona deska za nove ideje
4,01
0,73
raznovrstnost kulturnih izkuenj
3,92
0,85
obutek blagostanja v skupnosti
3,86
kulturno obnaanje obiskovalcev
0,87
monost sodelovanja v novih dejavnostih
0,88
monost pridobivanja novih znanj
0,94
pozitivni kulturoloki uinki v skupnosti
0,89
3,86
3,77
3,70
0,99
visok nivo varnosti obiskovalcev
pomembnost dogodka za spoznavanje

lokalnih obiajev in kulture
3,61
1,01
3,61
0,85
poveanje prepoznavnosti skupnosti
3,61
0,95
skupnost je edinstvena in izjemna

vsebina programa je izredno
bogata in raznovrstna
3,48
1,07
3,45
1,02
monosti dodatnega zasluka za prebivalce
3,44
0,92
krepitev identitete skupnosti
3,38
1,00
monosti novih delovnih mest za prebivalce

obutek ponosa in zadovoljstva
ob sodelovanju pri projektu
0,96
prebivalci so vkljueni v pripravo programa
0,93
pozitivni uinki na zdravje

in blagostanje prebivalstva
0,95
3,37
3,37
3,30
3,20
1,06
izboljanje kakovosti ivljenja v skupnosti
3,15
1,09
kakovost dobrin in storitev je izredno visoka
3,07
1,24
izboljanje mestne infrastrukture
standardni
odklon
3,65
1,09
poveanje ugleda skupnosti
aritmetina
sredina
3,75
2,96
2
Slika 1: Aritmetine sredine in standardni odkloni za drubene koristi projekta Maribor 2012 Evropska prestolnica kulture.
299
1,05
rast cen dobrin in storitev
1,13
preobremenjenost lokalnega prometa

prenatrpanost v skupnosti
0,95
zmanjanje istoe v mestu

poveanje koliine odpadkov
0,91
preobremenjenost rekreacijskih
in kulturnih prostorov
2,41
2,17
2,13
0,81
motenje ustaljenih aktivnosti

prebivalcev skupnosti
2,10
0,90
zmanjanje zasebnosti zaradi

velikega tevila obiskovalcev
2,04
0,81
0,91
poveana stopnja kriminala
standardni
odklon
2,45
0,99
poveanje hrupa
aritmetina
sredina
2,69
2,03
1,75
2
Slika 2: Aritmetine sredine in standardni odkloni za drubene stroke projekta Maribor 2012 Evropska prestolnica kulture.
sredinama (p < 0,05). Netudenti so vije vrednosti pripisali drubenim koristim, kar pomeni, da so izrazili
strinjanje opozitivnem vplivu dogodka na skupnost, medtem ko so bili tudenti bolj neodloeni. Netudenti
so vprimerjavi studenti zaznali manj drubenih strokov dogodka. Posledino rezultati vpreglednici5
prikazujejo statistino pomembno razlikovanje aritmetinih sredin (p < 0,05) med skupinama glede na stopnjo izobrazbe.
Glede na starost smo anketirance razvrstili vtri skupine, in sicer do20, 2130 in nad 30 let, da bi dobili
skupine priblino enakih velikosti. Spomojo enosmerne analize variance ANOVA za doloanje pomembnosti razlik med aritmetinimi sredinami lahko s95 % gotovostjo sklepamo, da so med tremi skupinami
anketirancev razlinih starosti statistino pomembna razhajanja vnjihovem pogledu na drubene koristi (F = 3,840, p = 0,026) in drubene stroke (F = 4,755, p = 0,012) dogodka. Spost-hoc Scheffejevim testom
smo e ugotavljali, katere skupine se bistveno razlikujejo od drugih. Anketiranci, stareji od 30 let, so vprimerjavi sskupino anketirancev, starih od21do 30 let, pripisali vije vrednosti drubenim koristim. Kar se tie
drubenih strokov, so anketiranci, stareji od 30 let, vprimerjavi zmlajimi anketiranci (do20 let) zasledili manj negativnih uinkov.
Rezultati enosmerne ANOVA vpreglednici7 kaejo, na statistino pomembna razhajanja vpogledih
na drubene koristi in drubene stroke projekta Evropska prestolnica kulture med skupinami anketirancev, razvrenimi glede na meseni dohodek. Post-hoc Scheffejev test je pokazal, da so anketiranci zmesenim
dohodkom nad 600 EUR vprimerjavi zostalima dvema skupinama pripisali vije vrednosti drubenim koristim in so se manj zavedali negativnih uinkov projekta.
300
Preglednica 4: Rezultati T-testa neodvisnih vzorcev za testne spremenljivke drubene koristi in drubeni stroki ter za skupinsko spremenljivko poklic.
spremenljivka
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
poklic
aritmetina sredina
standardni odklon
tudent
netudent
tudent
netudent
46
25
46
25
3,396
3,817
2,394
1,831
0,647
0,701
0,542
0,649
2,544
0,013
3,894
0,000
Nteviloanketirancev,tstatistinavrednostt,pstatistinavrednostpejenijaod0.0595 %verjetnost,daobstajastatistinopomembnarazlikamed
skupinama
Preglednica 5: Rezultati T-testa neodvisnih vzorcev za testne spremenljivke drubene koristi in drubeni stroki ter za skupinsko spremenljivko izobrazba.
spremenljivka
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
izobrazba
aritmetina sredina
standardni odklon
srednja ola
visokoolska, magisterij, doktorat
srednja ola
visokoolska, magisterij, doktorat
48
23
48
23
3,374
3,899
2,357
1,860
0,671
0,605
0,576
0,641
3,185
0,002
3,278
0,002
Nteviloanketirancev,tstatistinavrednostt,pstatistinavrednostpejenijaod0.0595 %verjetnost,daobstajastatistinopomembnarazlikamed
skupinama
Preglednica 6: Primerjava aritmetinih sredin enosmerna analiza variance ANOVA z odvisnima spremenljivkama drubene koristi in drubeni
stroki ter faktorjem starost anketirancev.
spremenljivka
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
starost
aritmetina sredina
standardni odklon
do 20
2130
nad 30
do 20
2130
nad 30
27
25
19
27
25
19
3,443
3,381
3,904
2,440
2,169
1,883
0,622
0,674
0,713
0,565
0,062
0,648
F*
p*
3,840
0,026
4,755
0,012
*p < 0,05;F 3,19
Preglednica 7: Primerjava aritmetinih sredin enosmerna ANOVA z odvisnima spremenljivkama drubene koristi in drubeni stroki ter faktorjem
meseni dohodek.
spremenljivka
drubene koristi
drubeni stroki
dohodek
aritmetina sredina
std. deviacija
do 200
201600
nad 600
do 200
201600
nad 600
30
20
21
30
20
21
3,581
3,117
3,899
2,322
2,417
1,804
0,562
0,649
0,708
0,598
0,488
0,667
*p < 0,05;F 3,19
301
F*
p*
7,900
0,001
6,684
0,002
5 Sklep
Vraziskavi smo ocenjevali stalia prebivalcev Maribora do drubenih vplivov projekta Evropska prestolnica
kulture spomojo lestvice FSIAS. Glede na rezultate lahko sklepamo, da so prebivalci od dogodka priakovali ve drubenih koristi kot drubenih strokov. Strinjali so se, da je dogodek vprvi vrsti pozitivno vplival
tako na promocijo Slovenije, kar je bil tudi eden od ciljev dogodka, kot tudi na kulturno ivljenje skupnosti in njeno splono javno podobo, kar je prav tako skladno znamenom dogodka. Vendar se anketiranci
niso strinjali zoceno, da je dogodek izboljal njihovo kakovost ivljenja ali mestno infrastrukturo. Prav
tako so bili neodloeni opozitivnih uinkih na zaposlovanje, prilonosti za dodaten zasluek, osebni ponos
in krepitev identitete skupnosti. Po mnenju anketirancev dogodek ni imel negativnih uinkov vsmislu poveanja kriminala, hrupa, smetenja, motenja vsakdanje rutine, prometnih zastojev, gnee na ulicah in vobjektih.
Kljub majhnosti vzorca je raziskava pomembno prispevala krazumevanju mnenja prebivalcev odrubenih vplivih projekta Evropska prestolnica kulture. Njeni rezultati so pomemben vir informacij odojemanju
tega dogodka sstrani skupnosti za prebivalce, organizatorje dogodkov in lokalne oblasti. Rezultati so koristni tudi za mesta, ki se potegujejo za naziv Evropska prestolnica kulture. Vprimeru Maribora lahko potrdimo,
da je kulturna investicija (Evropska prestolnica kulture) dosegla elene pozitivne uinke na zaznano kvaliteto ivljenja prebivalcev. Vtem pogledu sicer prihaja do pomembnih razlik med prebivalstvom, saj stareji
prebivalci in netudenti moneje zaznavajo pozitivne vplive.
Da bi lahko zagotovili konstruktivno sklepanje odloitev ob prihodnjem nartovanju in izvedbi dogodkov,
se morajo drubeni in kulturni vplivi dogodka ocenjevati kontinuirano. Tako prebivalci kot organizatorji
igrajo pomembno vlogo pri maksimiranju drubenih koristi in minimaliziranju drubenih strokov dogodkov, da bi zagotovili trajnostni razvoj dogodka in celotne skupnosti.
ZAHVALA: Raziskava je potekala vsklopu projekta 114-451-3602/2013-01, ki ga financira Provincialni
sekretariat za znanost in tehnoloki razvoj province Vojvodina, Srbija.
6 Literatura
302
PoPUlation aging in slovenia:

asPatial PeRsPeCtive
staRanJe PRebivalstva vsloveniJi:
PRostoRsKi vidiK
BOTJAN KERBLER
Botjan Kerbler
The most prominent demographic process in modern society is population aging.

Najbolj prepoznaven demografski proces sodobne drube je staranje prebivalstva.
Botjan Kerbler, Population aging in Slovenia: Aspatial perspective
Population aging in Slovenia: Aspatial perspective

UDC: 913:314.117-053.9(497.4)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: TheSlovenian population is aging. In order to best adapt to this demographic change, it is
necessary to face this issue and to study it from theperspective of various disciplines, including geography. This article therefore especially focuses on thespatial characteristics of population aging in Slovenia
in addition to general characteristics. Thefindings show that population aging in Slovenia is not uniform;
instead, there are large differences in population aging in Slovenia. In addition to general social processes such as falling birthrates and increasing life expectancy, these are primarily theresult of spatial movement
of thepopulation. Theconclusion presents some consequences that will arise in Slovenian territory and
society in thefuture due to population aging.
KEY WORDS: population aging, aging indicators, spatial analysis, Slovenia
Thearticle was submitted for publication on July 5th,2013.
ADDRESS:
Botjan Kerbler, Ph.D.
Urban Planning institute of theRepublic of Slovenia
Trnovski pristan2, SI 1000Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: bostjan.kerbler@uirs.si
304
1 Introduction
Themost prominent demographic process in modern society is population aging. It is characterized by
an increase of theshare of theelderly in society and an increase in theaverage age of thepopulation. According
to Malai (2006), thedemographic age of asociety is measured as theshare of people over sixty-five (or,
according to some definitions, over sixty) in theentire population. Themost important causes of population aging are adecreasing birthrate and acorresponding decrease in thenumber of children under fifteen,
and increasing life expectancy. Thefirst is aresult of changing lifestyle, and thesecond aresult of improvements in quality of life and healthcare. This is also influenced by migration because of selectivity by age; that
is, it is primarily young people that decide to move, which means that migration results in ayounger population in areas that people move to and an older population in areas that people move from (Josipovi2003;
Javornik2006).
Population aging presents agreat challenge for society. Thedemographic changes that lead to aging
are long-term and cannot be changed quickly. Societies with an aging population must therefore confront
this issue and adapt to thechanges as quickly as possible. In order to be able to do so, it is necessary to
study population aging in detail, especially from theperspective of various disciplines, including geography. This article therefore first analyzes thegeneral characteristics of population aging in Slovenia and then
its spatial characteristics, presenting thereasons for thephenomenon. It is presumed that population aging
is not auniform process, but that there are significant differences in this process throughout Slovenia. In
addition to general social processes such as falling birthrates and increasing life expectancy, these are primarily theresult of migration of thepopulation.
2 Methods
Thebasis for theanalysis is census statistical data, thelatest data from theStatistical Office of theRepublic
of Slovenia, and data from other European and global databases (e.g.,Eurostat and UNDESA Population
Division of theDepartment of Economic and Social Affairs of theUnited Nations). Thespatial analysis
focuses on comparing thecharacteristics of population aging in Slovenia at thebeginning of the1980s
and1990s and afterwards because at this time changes occurred in theexisting spatial patterns of population movement (see Ravbar2000; Klemeni2001). Thespatial situation in2013 is described and presented
based on211municipalities. Thecomparison of data from previous censuses combines spatial data such
that thespatial units analyzed are comparable with one another. For example, data for themunicipalities
from1981 and1991 is compared with data from today's administrative units.
3 Characteristics of population aging in Slovenia

In line with thetheory and demographic models, population aging (already) begins with ademographic
shift or with that part of theshift that begins when thebirthrate in asociety begins to fall. In Slovenia this
occurred around1900 (Malai2006). As shown in Figure1, from1869 to1910both theshare of people
over sixty-four and theshare of children (upto fourteen years old) increased. Theshare of children in
thepopulation decreased and theshare of elderly increased until1953. In Slovenia, in line with thetheory thedemographic shift ended between the1953 and1961censuses (Malai1989). Since then there
has been accelerated aging of theSlovenian population. Thefact that population aging has not stopped
during thetime since thedemographic shift despite periods with ahigher birthrate and higher net migration is aconsequence of increased life expectancy. From1961 to2012, life expectancy increased by more
than ten years, from 69.2 to 79.5, and it is continuing to grow (see UNDESA2013).
As shown in Figure1, 16.8% of theSlovenian population was elderly in2012 (in2013 theshare was17.1%),
which is somewhat below theEuropean Union average (17.8%), but it places Slovenia (immediately behind
Lithuania and Latvia) among thecountries in which theshare of elderly has grown themost in thepast
twenty years (see Eurostat2013). As theEuropop2010Eurostat projections (Statistini urad 2011) show,
population aging will continue or intensify in Slovenia in thecoming decades. Theshare of theelderly population will nearly double in comparison to2010 and will reach 31.6% in2060, which will be above theEuropean
305
40
120
014 years/let
65 years and more/let in ve
35
100
Aging index/indeks staranja
80
25
60
20
15
40
Aging index/indeks staranja
Share/dele (%)
30
10
20
5
0
1869
1910
1931
1953
1961
1971
1981
1991
2002
2012
Year/leto
Figure 1: Share of individual population groups in Slovenia from 1869 to 2012 (%) and population aging index (Vertot 2010; Statistini urad 2013).
Union average (29.5%) based on predictions by theEuropean Commission (2011). This means that nearly
one out of every three people in Slovenia will be sixty-five or older.
4 Spatial analysis of population aging in Slovenia

Population aging as manifested in thespatial aspect involves not only general trends such as adecreasing
birthrate and increasing life expectancy, but is especially aresult of thepopulation's mobility. Following
thedemographic shift, two forms of migration were characteristic for Slovenia: in the1960s and1970s
migration flows were oriented from marginal, economically less developed areas with poor traffic connections with towns and other employment centers (Klemeni1991), whereas from thesecond half of
the1980s onwards these flows (including from town centers) started to redirect themselves toward theoutskirts of towns and nearby periurban areas, as well as to other somewhat more distant settlements that
offered good accessibility to towns within an acceptable timeframe (Ravbar2000). Both forms of migration have influenced thespatial pattern of population aging in Slovenia; specifically, areas that people move
from are marked by accelerated population aging, whereas this is less pronounced in areas that people move
to (Figure2).
In addition to aging in large urban settlements, Figure2 also shows other areas where population aging
is accelerated. This primarily involves marginal areas that people are moving away from or that they moved
away from in greater numbers in thepast, thereby weakening their demographic potential. However, among
these areas one must differentiate between those in which theaging indicators were already high in1981
Figure 2: Population aging index by Slovenian municipality at the beginning of 2013 (average = 117.1; Statistini urad 2013). p
306
307
30
60 km
Author of the map/avtor zemljevida: Botjan Kerbler

Source/vir: Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia, 2013
Urban Planning Institute of the Republic of Slovenia
100.1117.1
117.2149.9
150
0100
(i.e.,old areas of population aging) and those in which accelerated aging started after this (i.e.,new
areas of population aging).
Among fifty-eight former municipalities (current administrative units) that had abelow-average share
of theelderly in1981, fifteen or one-quarter underwent aging to theextent that by2013 theshare of
theelderly was already higher than average. This share increased themost (by10.3 percentage points) in
theRavne na Korokem administrative unit, which includes themunicipalities of rna na Korokem, Meica,
Prevalje, and Ravne. Theshare also grew significantly in theadministrative units (and at thesame time
municipalities) of Hrastnik, Trbovlje, and Zagorje ob Savi specifically, by 9.5percentage points to19.5%
in Hrastnik, by 8.4percentage points to19.3% in Trbovlje, and by 7.4percentage points to17.5% in Zagorje
ob Savi. In theJesenice administrative unit, which encompasses themunicipalities in theUpper Savinja
Valley (Kranjska Gora, Jesenice, and irovnica), theshare amounted to18.0% (+ 7.1percentage points),
in which it must be emphasized that in theterritory of thecurrent Municipality of Kranjska Gora theshare
of elderly was also already above average in1981, and therefore this area receives special attention below.
All of theadministrative units listed encompass areas with economic sectors and industries that encountered acrisis at theend of the1980s and especially in the1990s (e.g.,heavy industry, metalworking, mining,
textiles, etc.) and failed to restructure. Such areas also include Maribor, which, in comparison with other
large urban settlements, additionally explains theexceptionally high share of elderly people (19.4%) and
its growth by 9.4% as well as themuch less obvious lower aging indicators in thesurrounding municipalities
that would point to large shifts in migration flows into nearby nonurban settlements or municipalities
than in thecase of Ljubljana (see Figure2). Asimilar but less pronounced example is theformerly considerably industrially oriented Celje administrative unit with themunicipalities of tore, Celje, Dobrna,
and Vojnik, in which theshare of theelderly increased by 7.7percentage points to18.1%. For theadministrative units of Koevje (themunicipalities of Koevje, Kostel, and Osilnica) and Rue (themunicipalities
of Lovrenc na Pohorju, Selnica ob Dravi, and Rue), in which theshare of theelderly climbed above theSlovenian
average, it can be concluded that these are areas with structural difficulties even though more detailed analysis of theaging indicators for these areas shows that some of themore marginal ones already had ahigh
share of elderly people in1981. This means that following thereduction in industrial jobs in nearby places
(Koevje, Rue, and Maribor) people also started moving away from other settlements, thus advancing
theaging process. In addition to thedeclining birthrate, in thelast three decades (and especially after1991)
people actually also started moving away from all administrative units where primarily old industries had
developed; this is shown by thefact that in2013 themajority of administrative units with such aging areas
had less population than in1991: Ravne na Korokem lost1,994inhabitants, Hrastnik1,346, Trbovlje2,449,
Maribor2,932 (and in comparison with1981 afull 4,049), Celje1,064, Koevje1,104, Jesenice 804, and
Rue 592). Both thenumber of young people and theworking-age population fell, whereas thenumber
of elderly increased. In addition to this type of new aging area, all coastal administrative units (municipalities) also belong to this category, especially thePiran administrative unit, which moved thirty-six places
up thescale, from fifty-fourth place with 8.7% elderly in1981 to eighteenth place with18% elderly in2013.
In Izola theshare rose by 9.4percentage points, which is thefourth-highest with regard to growth (behind
theRavne na Korokem, Hrastnik, and Maribor administrative units), and in Koper by 8.5percentage points,
which is sixth place with regard to growth (behind Piran). However, in comparison with thefirst type of
areas, in which thepopulation decreased, thepopulation in all three coastal administrative units increased
in comparison with1981. Because theshare of young people decreased (inall administrative units there
were fewer in2013 and2002 in comparison to1981, and in Koper and Piran also in1991), thetotal population primarily increased due to agreater number of people in theage group between fifteen and sixty-four
and those sixty-five and older. In all three administrative units alarge share of theincrease in population
was contributed by those over sixty-four (intheKoper administrative unit 40.9% of thetotal increase, in
theIzola administrative unit 44.2%, and in thePiran administrative unit 48.5%). From this it can be concluded that this group of thepopulation moved into these administrative units, which (inaddition to aging
of thenative population) caused (such) alarge increase in theshare of theelderly. However, this phenomenon
is not only significant for thecoastal areas, but also for thecurrent Municipality of Kranjska Gora. Kranjska
Gora may be designated as an old area of population aging, although aging increased in it after1981
due to theworking-age population moving away (and probably also due to structural difficulties in Jesenice's
industrial activity) and older people moving in. Specifically, theshare of theelderly increased simultaneously with thedecrease in theyoung population and an insignificant increase in theworking-age population.
308
In comparison to1981, by2013 afull 84.4% of thetotal increase in population fell into thegroup over
sixty-four years old. Because thecoastal area and theMunicipality of Kranjska Gora have alarge share of
vacation homes, it can be concluded that theelderly moved to them (probably after retirement) or that
they purchased real estate in these tourism areas and made their permanent homes there.
Among theadministrative units or former municipalities that had an above-average share of elderly
in thetwo years observed, Tolmin (comprising themunicipalities of Bovec, Kobarid, and Tolmin) stands
out themost; in1981 its share of elderly was already thehighest, at17.6% (theaging index was 91.3at
thetime). In2013 this administrative unit still had thehighest share of elderly in thetotal population (20.6%).
In both years, theadministrative unit (and also now municipality) of Ilirska Bistrica was in second place,
with15.9% of theelderly in1981 and19.9% in2013. Other administrative units that belong to old areas
of population aging include Idrija (themunicipalities of Idrija and Cerkno), Nova Gorica (themunicipalities
of Brda, Kanal, MirenKostanjevica, Nova Gorica, empeterVrtojba, and ReneVogrsko), Seana
(themunicipalities of Divaa, HrpeljeKozina, Komen, and Seana), Cerknica (themunicipalities of Bloke,
Cerknica, and Loka Dolina), Metlika, Breice, Lako (themunicipalities of Lako and Radee), Sevnica,
Ormo (themunicipalities of Ormo, Sredie ob Dravi, and Sveti Toma), Ljutomer (themunicipalities
of Krievci, Ljutomer, Razkrije, and Verej), Gornja Radgona (themunicipalities of Gornja Radgona,
Radenci, Sveti Jurij ob avnici, and Apae), Murska Sobota and Lendava (encompassing all of themunicipalities in Prekmurje), Mozirje (themunicipalities of Gornji Grad, Ljubno, Lue, Mozirje, Nazarje, Solava,
and Reica ob Savinji), and Radovljica (themunicipalities of Bled, Bohinj, Radovljica, and Gorje). In thelast
administrative unit, in theperiod from1981 to2013 Radovljica had thehighest share of growth, 7.9%,
primarily because of theincrease in theshare of theelderly in today's municipalities of Bohinj and Bled.
Just as for Kranjska Gora, for these municipalities it is characteristic that thetotal population grew even
though there was adecline in theyoung and working-age population due to theincrease in thenumber
of elderly (primarily in theMunicipality of Bled), which indicates that older people moved to thearea.
Similar examples can be found for other areas, especially thewine regions in eastern and northeast Slovenia;
for example, in theBreice, Gornja Radgona, and Ljutomer administrative units, although even more detailed
analyses would be needed for these. Because some administrative units include various types of aging areas,
thedifferences are hidden, especially if adifferent type is characteristic for only asmall area within theadministrative unit. Such an area is theMunicipality of Kozje, with an18.4% share of theelderly, and Bistrica
ob Sotli, with a19.6% share. Both of them belong to themarje pri Jelah administrative unit, where thetotal
share of theelderly is somewhat below average because of its low values in other areas (even though it was
above average in1981). More detailed analysis also shows that theareas of both municipalities fell among
theareas of population aging during theentire period studied. Such old areas of aging are also found
in other administrative units; for example, in theSlovenska Bistrica administrative unit these are themunicipalities of Poljane and Makole in thearea of theDravinje Hills, theHaloze Hills, and Mount Bo, other
municipalities in theHaloze Hills and in thesouthern part of theDrava Plain that belong to thePtuj administrative unit, and in theKranj administrative unit these are themunicipalities of Jezersko and Preddvor
in thearea of theKamnik Alps and theKarawank Mountains. Even more detailed spatial analyses (e.g.,at
thesettlement level) would reveal still other such areas of aging within municipalities (especially in larger ones, such as theMunicipality of Krko).
5 Conclusion
Slovenia's population is aging at ahigher rate. However, as predicted and demonstrated, this process is
not uniform, but is taking place with varying intensities and continuity across Slovenia. Although policy-makers and decision-makers in various sectors ought to be taking this into account, so far they have
all too often deliberated about population aging and made plans only at thegeneral level. Many consequences of aging that experts anticipate in various areas (such as labor, employment, retirement, pensions,
health and long-term care, general welfare, etc.) will be expressed differently in areas with varying intensity and continuity of aging. Adaptations to these changes must proceed from thecharacteristics of aging
and theassociated needs of each area individually. Agreat difficulty in this is represented by thelack of
asecond level of local government (i.e.,regions), where plans could be made with greater detail than at
thenational level and at thesame time more comprehensively than at thelevel of municipalities, which
309
are mostly too small to be able to deal with theissue in all areas, especially if their population is aging at
an accelerated rate.
Theimportance of presenting thefeatures of population aging in Slovenia at thespatial level also lies
in thefact that theconsequences of aging have so far all too often only been viewed from theeconomic
perspective, especially with regard to public finances, and much too little with regard to how theconsequences of population aging will be reflected spatially. This primarily concerns thegradual emptying of
settlements, especially in strategically sensitive areas of thecountry, thedegradation of infrastructure and
architectural and cultural heritage, theabandonment of farming and theovergrowth of thecultural landscape, and so on. Not least of all, this also involves theloss of thecreative potential of these areas (see
Ravbar2011,2012). If all of these consequences were economically evaluated, they would surely be even
more alarming and have more long-term negative effects than theissue of financial sustainability of, for
example, theretirement and healthcare systems, which has recently been discussed themost. In thefuture
it will therefore be necessary to increase thenumber of studies on population aging in Slovenia from theperspective of spatial analyses and to place even greater emphasis on evaluating thespatial consequences of
population aging.
6 References
Eurostat2013: Population database. Internet: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/population/
data/database (30. 6. 2013).
European Commission2011: The2012 ageing report: underlying assumptions and projection methodologies.
Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/economy_finance/publications/european_economy/2011/pdf/ee-2011-4_en.pdf
Javornik, J. S.2006: Socialni razgledni2006. Ljubljana.
Josipovi, D.2003: Geografski dejavniki rodnosti prebivalstva. Acta geographica Slovenica43-1. DOI:
Klemeni, V.1991: Tendence spreminjanja slovenskega podeelja. Geografski vestnik63.
Klemeni, V.2001: Procesi deagrarizacije in urbanizacije slovenskega podeelja. Dela17.
Malai, J.1989: Staranje prebivalstva ter njegove socialne in ekonomske posledice. Elaborat, Ekonomska
fakulteta, Ljubljana.
Malai, J.2006: Demografija: teorija, analiza, metode in modeli. Ljubljana.
Ravbar, M.2000: Regionalni razvoj slovenskih pokrajin. Geographica Slovenica33.
Ravbar, M.2011: Ustvarjalne socialne skupine vSloveniji: prispevek hgeografskemu prouevanju lovekih
virov. Acta geographica Slovenica51-2. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS51204
Ravbar, M.2012: Vloga ustvarjalnosti pri geografskemu preuevanju lovekih virov vSloveniji. Geografski
vestnik84-1.
Statistini urad Republike Slovenije 2011: Prebivalstvo Slovenije po projekcijah prebivalstva Europop2010,
20102060. Internet: http://www.stat.si (1. 7. 2013).
Statistini urad Republike Slovenije 2013: SI-STAT podatkovni portal. Demografsko in socialno podroje.
Internet: http://www.stat.si (1. 7. 2013)
UNDESA Population division of thedepartment of economic and social affairs of theUnited Nations2013:
World population prospects. Internet: http://www.esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_population.htm
(1. 7. 2013).
Vertot, N.2010: Stareje prebivalstvo vSloveniji. Ljubljana.
310
311
Botjan Kerbler, Staranje prebivalstva vSloveniji: prostorski vidik

UDK: 913:314.117-053.9(497.4)
COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEEK: Za slovensko prebivalstvo je znailno, da se stara. Da bi se lahko tem demografskim spremembam imbolj prilagodili, se je treba sproblematiko sooiti in jo preuiti zvidika razlinih strok, tudi geografske.
Vlanku so zato poleg splonih analizirane zlasti prostorske znailnosti staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji.
Ugotovitve kaejo, da staranje prebivalstva vSloveniji ni enovito, ampak da obstajajo vslovenskem prostoru
glede tega velike razlike, ki so poleg splonih procesov vdrubi kot sta upadanje rodnosti in podaljevanje
priakovanega trajanja ivljenja predvsem odraz prostorskih gibanj prebivalstva. Vzakljuku so predstavljene
nekatere posledice, ki bodo zaradi staranja prebivalstva prisotne vslovenskem prostoru in drubi vprihodnje.
KLJUNE BESEDE: staranje prebivalstva, kazalniki staranja, prostorska analiza, Slovenija
Urednitvo je prejelo prispevek 5.julija2013.
NASLOV:
dr. Botjan Kerbler
Urbanistini intitut Republike Slovenije
Trnovski pristan2, SI 1000Ljubljana, Slovenija
E-pota: bostjan.kerbler@uirs.si
312
1 Uvod
Najbolj prepoznaven demografski proces sodobne drube je staranje prebivalstva. Zanj je znailno veanje delea starejih vdrubi in poveevanje povprene starosti prebivalstva. Po Malaiu (2006) merimo
demografsko starost drube zdeleem starejih od 65 let (ponekaterih opredelitvah nad 60 let) vcelotnem prebivalstvu. Najpomembneja vzroka staranja prebivalstva sta upadanje rodnosti in stem zmanjevanje
tevila otrok, starih do15 let, in podaljevanje priakovanega trajanja ivljenja. Prvi je posledica spremenjenega ivljenjskega sloga, drugi izboljanja kakovosti ivljenja in zdravstvenega varstva. Vplivajo pa tudi
selitve, in sicer zaradi svoje selektivnosti po starosti obiajno se za selitve odloajo predvsem mladi, kar
pomeni, da selitve vplivajo na pomlajevanje prebivalstva na priselitvenih obmojih in na staranje prebivalstva na odselitvenih (Josipovi2003; Javornik2006).
Staranje prebivalstva je velik izziv za drubo. Demografske spremembe, ki so vodile do staranja, so bile
namre dolgotrajne in jih ni mogoe na hitro spremeniti. Drube sstarajoim se prebivalstvom se morajo
zato sproblematiko sooiti in se spremembam im bolj prilagoditi. Da pa bi to lahko storile je treba staranje prebivalstva podrobno preuiti, zlasti zvidika razlinih strok, tudi geografske. Vlanku bomo zato najprej
analizirali splone in nato pa prostorske znailnosti staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji in predstavili vzroke
zanje. Predpostavljamo, da staranje prebivalstva ni enovito, ampak da obstajajo vslovenskem prostoru glede
tega velike razlike, ki so poleg splonih procesov vdrubi kot sta upadanje rodnosti in podaljevanje priakovanega trajanja ivljenja predvsem posledica selitvenih gibanj prebivalstva.
2 Metode
Kot osnova za analizo nam bodo sluili statistini podatki popisov prebivalstva, najnoveji podatki Statistinega urada Republike Slovenije in podatki drugih evropskih in svetovnih podatkovnih baz (naprimer
Eurostat in UNDESA Population division of thedepartment of economic and social affairs of theUnited
nations). Pri prostorski analizi se bomo osredotoili na primerjavo med znailnostmi staranja prebivalstva
po Sloveniji vzaetku osemdesetih oziroma devetdesetih let prejnjega stoletja in po tem, saj je takrat prilo do sprememb vobstojeih vzorcih gibanja prebivalstva vprostoru (glej Ravbar2000; Klemeni2001).
Stanje vprostoru leta2013 bomo opisali in prikazali po211 obinah, pri primerjavi podatkov iz prejnjih
popisov pa bomo prostorske podatke med seboj zdruili, in sicer tako, da bodo analizirane prostorsko enote med seboj primerljive. Na primer, podatke za obine iz leta1981 in1991 bomo primerjali spodatki
dananjih upravnih enot.
3 Znailnosti staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji

Vskladu steorijo in demografskimi modeli se staranje prebivalstva zane (e) zdemografskim prehodom
oziroma stistim delom tega prehoda, ko se zane vdrubi rodnost prebivalstva zmanjevati. VSloveniji
se je to zgodilo ob koncu 19.stoletja in zaetku 20.stoletja (Malai2006). Kot je prikazano na sliki1 sta
se od leta1869 do leta1910 sicer poveala tako dele starih od 64 let, vendar se je hkrati poveal tudi
dele otrok (014 let). Do leta1953 se nato dele otrok vdrubi zmanjuje, dele starejih pa poveuje.
VSloveniji se je vskladu steorijo demografski prehod konal vobdobju med popisoma1953 in1961 (Malai1989). Od takrat sledimo vse bolj pospeenemu staranju prebivalstva Slovenije. Dejstvo, da se vasu
od demografskega prehoda kljub obdobjem zvijo rodnostjo in vijim selitvenim prirastom proces staranja prebivalstva ni ustavil, je posledica podaljevanja priakovanega trajanja ivljenja ob rojstvu. To se
je pri nas vobdobju19612012 podaljalo za ve kot deset let, z69,2 na 79,5 let, in e vedno naraa (glej
UNDESA2013).
Slika 1: Dele posameznih skupin prebivalstva Slovenije v obdobju 18692012 (v odstotkih) in indeks staranja prebivalstva (Vertot 2010; Statistini
urad 2013).
313
Kot je razvidno sslike1, je bilo leta2012 vSloveniji 16,8 % starejih ljudi (leta2013 e17,1 %), kar je
sicer nekoliko manj od povpreja drav lanic Evropske unije (17,8 %), vendar pa sodi Slovenija (takoj za
Litvo in Latvijo) med drave, vkaterih je dele starejih vzadnjih dvajsetih letih najbolj narasel (glej Eurostat 2013). Kot za prihodnja desetletja kaejo Eurostatove projekcije Europop2010 (glej Statistini
urad 2011), se bo staranje prebivalstva vSloveniji nadaljevalo oziroma e intenziviralo. Dele starejih
vdrubi se bo glede na stanje iz leta2010 skoraj podvojil in bo leta2060 znaal e 31,6 %, kar bo glede na
napovedi Evropske komisije (European Comission 2011) nad evropskim povprejem (29,5 %). To pomeni, da bo e skoraj vsak tretji prebivalec Slovenije star vsaj 65 let.
4 Prostorska analiza staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji

Staranje prebivalstva, ki se kae vprostoru, je poleg splonih trendov, kot sta upadanja rodnosti in podaljevanje priakovanega trajanja ivljenja, predvsem odraz selitvene mobilnosti prebivalstva. Vasu po
demografskem prehodu sta bila za Slovenijo znailni dve obliki selitev: vestdesetih in sedemdesetih letih
so bili selitveni tokovi prebivalstva usmerjeni iz obrobnih, gospodarsko manj razvitih in prometno odmaknjenih obmoij vmesta in druga zaposlitvena sredia (Klemeni1991), od druge polovice osemdesetih
pa se zanejo ti tokovi (tudi iz mestnih sredi) preusmerjati na mestno obrobje in blinja obmestna, pa
tudi druga, nekoliko oddaljeneja naselja, za katere je znailna dobra in asovno sprejemljiva dostopnost
do mest (Ravbar2000). Obe obliki selitev sta vplivali na prostorsko sliko staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji,
in sicer je za obmoja odseljevanja znailno pospeeno staranje prebivalstva, medtem ko je na obmojih
priseljevanja staranje manj izrazito (slika2).
Slika 2: Indeks staranja prebivalstva po slovenskih obina v zaetku leta 2013 (povpreje = 117,1; Statistini urad 2013).
Poleg staranja vvejih mestnih naseljih so na sliki2 vidna tudi druga obmoja, na katerih se prebivalstvo pospeeno stara. Gre predvsem za obrobna obmoja, iz katerih se prebivalstvo odseljuje oziroma
se je iz njih pospeeno odseljevalo vpreteklih obdobjih, zaradi esar se je poslabal njihov demografski
potencial. Vendar pa moramo med temi obmoji loiti tista, vkaterih je so bili kazalniki staranja visoki
e leta1981 (t. i.stara obmoja staranja prebivalstva) in tista, ki so se zaela pospeeno starati po tem
(t. i.noveja obmoja staranja prebivalstva).
Med 58nekdanjimi obinami (sedanjimi upravnimi enotami), ki so imele leta1981 podpovpreen dele
starejih, je 15oziroma etrtina taknih, vkaterih se je prebivalstvo tako postaralo, da so imele leta2013
dele starejih e viji kot je znaalo povpreje. Najbolj se je dele poveal vupravni enoti Ravnah na Korokem, ki vkljuuje obine rna na Korokem, Meica, Prevalje in Ravne, in sicer za10,3odstotne tok. Prav
tako je dele zelo porasel vupravnih enotah (hkrati tudi obinah) Hrastnik, Trbovlje in Zagorje ob Savi,
in sicer za 9,5odstotne toke na19,5 % vHrastniku, vTrbovljah za 8,4odstotne toke na19,3 %, vZagorju ob Savi pa za 7,4odstotne toke na17,5 %. Vupravni enoti Jesenice, ki obsega obine vZgornjesavski
dolini (Kranjska gora, Jesenice, irovnica) je znaal dele 18 % (+ 7,1odstotne toke), pri emer je treba
poudariti, da je bil na obmoju sedanje obine Kranjska gora dele starejih nad povprejem tudi e leta1981,
zato je to obmoje posebej obravnavano vnadaljevanju. Vse natete upravne enote zajemajo obmoja, ki
so imela vpreteklosti zelo razvite tiste sektorje in gospodarske panoge, ki so se ob koncu osemdesetih,
zlasti pa vdevetdesetih let 20.stoletja znali vkrizi (npr. teko in kovinsko industrijo, rudarstvo, tekstilno industrijo itd.) in se niso uspeno prestrukturirale. Med takna obmoja lahko tejemo tudi Maribor,
kar vprimerjavi zdrugimi vejimi mestnimi naselji e (dodatno) pojasni izredno visok dele starejih ljudi (19,4 %) in njegov porast za 9,4 %, po drugi strani pa tudi mnogo manj oitne nije kazalnike staranja
vobinah vokolici, ki bi nakazovali velike premike selitvenih tokov vokolika nemestna naselja oziroma
obine kot pri Ljubljani (glej sliko2). Podoben, amanj izrazit primer je nekdaj precej industrijsko usmerjana upravna enota Celje zobinami tore, Celje, Dobrna in Vojnik, vkateri se je dele starejih poveal
za 7,7odstotne toke na18,1 %. Za upravni enot Koevje (obine Koevje, Kostel, Osilnica) in Rue (Lovrenc na Pohorju, Selnica ob Dravi, Rue), vkaterih se je dele starejih povzpel nad slovensko povpreje,
sklepamo, da gre prav tako za obmoja sstrukturnimi teavami, eprav lahko iz podrobneje analize kazalnikov staranja po naseljih ugotovimo, da so imela nekatera obrobneja visok dele starejih e leta1981.
314
To pomeni, da se je po zmanjanju zaposlitvenih mest vindustriji vblinjih krajih (Koevje, Rue in Maribor,) prebivalstvo zaelo odseljevati tudi iz drugih naselij, stem pa se je proces staranja okrepil. Da se je
poleg zmanjane rodnosti iz vseh upravnih enot, ki so imele razvite predvsem stare industrijske panoge,
prebivalstvo vzadnjih treh desetletjih res tudi odseljevalo (zlasti po letu1991), kae podatek, da jih je bilo
leta 2013 v veini upravnih enotah tega tipa obmoij staranja manj kot leta 1991 (Ravne na Korokem 1994 prebivalcev, Hrastnik 1346, Trbovlje 2449, Maribor 2932 (v primerjavi z leto 1981
celo4049prebivalcev), Celje1064, Koevje1104, Jesenice804, Rue592). Zmanjalo se je tako tevilo mladih kot tudi tevilo delovno sposobnih prebivalcev, povealo pa tevilo starejih. Poleg tega tipa
novejih obmoij staranja sodijo mednje tudi vse priobalne upravne enote (obine), e posebej upravna enota Piran, ki se je po deleu starejih povzpela za 36mest, iz 54.mesta z8,7 % starejih leta1981
na18.mesto z18 % starejih leta2013. VIzoli je dele narasel za 9,4odstotne toke, kar je 4.mesto glede na porast (zaupravnimi enotami Ravne na Korokem, Hrastnik in Maribor), vKopru pa za 8,5odstotnih
tok, 6.mesto glede na porast (pred njim je Piran). Vendar pa se je vprimerjavi sprvim tipom obmoij,
vkaterih se je tevilo prebivalstva zmanjalo, prebivalstvo vvseh treh priobalnih upravnih enotah vprimerjavi zletom1981 povealo. Ker se zmanjalo tevilo mladih (vvseh upravnih enotah jih je bilo vprimerjavi
zletom1981 manj leta2013 in leta2002, vKopru in Piranu tudi leta1991), se je skupno tevilo prebivalcev povealo predvsem zaradi vejega tevila prebivalcev iz starostnih skupin 1564 let in 65in ve let.
Pri tem je vvseh treh upravnih enotah velik del kpoveanju prebivalstva prispevalo prebivalstvo staro
nad 64 let (vupravni enoti Koper 40,9 % od skupnega porasta, vupravni enoti Izola 44,2 % in vupravni
enoti Piran 48,5 %). Iz tega lahko sklepamo, da se je ta skupina prebivalstva vte upravne enote priseljevala, kar je (poleg staranja domaega prebivalstva) povzroilo (tako) velik porast delea starejih. Vendar
pa ta pojav ni znailen le za obalna obmoja, ampak tudi za sedanjo obino Kranjska gora. Kranjsko goro
sicer lahko oznaimo kot staro obmoje staranja prebivalstva, vendar pa se je vnjem staranje po letu1981
e okrepilo zaradi odseljevanja delovno aktivnega prebivalstva (tudi najverjetneje zaradi strukturnih teav
jesenike industrije) in priseljevanja starejega. Dele starejih se je namre poveal ob soasnem zmanjanju mladega prebivalstva in le neznatnem poveanju delavno sposobnega prebivalstva. Vprimerjavi
zletom1981 je leta2013 kar 84,4 % skupnega porasta odpadlo na poveanje prebivalstva vstarostni skupini nad 64let. Ker je za obalno obmoje in za obino Kranjska gora znailno, da imata velik dele sekundarnih
bivali lahko sklepamo, da so se stareji (najverjetneje po upokojitvi) vanje za stalno preselili oziroma da
so vteh turistinih obmojih kupili nepreminine in si uredili stalno prebivalie.
Med upravnimi enotami oziroma nekdanjimi obinami, ki so imele vobeh opazovanih letih nadpovpreen dele starejih, najbolj izstopa Tolmin (zajema obine Bovec, Kobarid in Tolmin), vkateri je bil e
leta1981 dele starejih najviji in je znaal 17,6 % (indeks staranja je bil e takrat 91,3). Leta2013 je imela ta upravna enota e vedno najve starejih vcelotni sestavi prebivalstva (20,6 %). Vobeh letih je bila na
drugem mestu upravna enota (tudi sedanja obina) Ilirska Bistrica, s15,9 % leta1981 in 19,9 % leta2013.
Druge upravne enote, ki sodijo med stara obmoja staranja prebivalstva so e Idrija (obini Idrija in Cerkno), Nova Gorica (obine Brda, Kanal, Miren-Kostanjevica, Nova Gorica, empeter-Vrtojba, Rene-Vogrsko),
Seana (obine Divaa, Hrpelje-Kozina, Komen, Seana), Cerknica (obine Bloke, Cerknica, Loka dolina), Metlika, Breice, Lako (obini Lako in Radee), Sevnica, Ormo (obine Ormo, Sredie ob Dravi,
Sveti Toma), Ljutomer (obine Krievci, Ljutomer, Razkrije, Verej), Gornja Radgona (obine Gornja
Radgona, Radenci, Sveti Jurij ob avnici, Apae), Murska Sobota in Lendava (zajemate vse obine vPrekmurju), Mozirje (Gornji Grad, Ljubno, Lue, Mozirje, Nazarje, Solava, Reica ob Savinji) in Radovljica
(obine Bled, Bohinj, Radovljica, Gorje). Prav vslednji je bil med natetimi upravnimi enotami dele porasta vobdobju19812013najviji, in sicer 7,9 %, predvsem zaradi poveanja delea starejih na obmoju
sedanjih obin Bohinj in Bled. Enako kot za Kranjsko goro je namre tudi za ti obini znailno, da je skupno tevilo prebivalstva naraslo, eprav je tevilo mladega in delovno sposobnega prebivalstva nazadovalo,
povealo pa se je tevilo starejih (predvsem vobini Bled), kar nakazuje na priselitve starejega prebivalstva. Podobne primere bi lahko nali e na drugih, zlasti vinorodnih obmojih vzhodne in severovzhodne
Slovenije, na primer vupravnih enotah Breice, Gornja Radgona, Ljutomer, vendar bi bile za to potrebne e podrobneje analize. Ker vkljuujejo nekatere upravne enote razline tipe obmoij staranja, se te razlike
zakrijejo, e zlasti e je drugaen tip znailen le za manje obmoje vupravni enoti. Takno obmoje sta
obini Kozje, s18,4-odstotnim deleem starejih in Bistrica ob Sotli z19,6-odstotnim deleem. Obe sodita vupravno enoto marje pri Jelah, ki pa ima zaradi nijih vrednosti vdrugih obmojih nekoliko niji
skupen dele starejih, kot znaa povpreje (eprav je e leta1981 imela nadpovprenega). Podrobneja
315
analiza tudi kae, da sta obmoji obeh obin spadali med obmoja staranja prebivalstva e ves as preuevanega obdobja. Takna stara obmoja staranja najdemo tudi vdrugih upravnih enotah, na primer,
vupravni enoti Slovenska Bistrica sta to obini Poljane in Makole na obmoju Dravinjskih goric, Haloz
in Boa, druge obine vHalozah in na junem delu Dravskega polja, ki sodijo vupravno enoto Ptuj, vupravni
enoti Kranj sta takni obini Jezersko in Preddvor na obmoju Kamnikih Alp in Karavank. e bolj podrobne prostorske analize (naprimer na ravni naselij), bi tudi znotraj obin (zlasti vejih, kot je, na primer,
Krko) razkrila e druga takna obmoja staranja.
5 Sklep
Prebivalstvo Slovenije se pospeeno stara. Vendar kot smo predvideli in tudi dokazali, ta proces ni enovit,
ampak poteka vslovenskem prostoru zrazlino intenziteto in kontinuiteto. eprav bi morali oblikovalci
politik in odloevalci iz razlinih sektorjev to upotevati, se je do sedaj ostaranju prebivalstva vSloveniji
prepogosto razglabljalo in nartovalo le na sploni ravni. tevilne posledice staranja, ki jih strokovnjaki
predvidevajo na razlinih podrojih (napodroju dela in zaposlenosti, upokojevanja in pokojninskega sistema, zdravstva in dolgotrajne oskrbe, blaginje itd.), se bodo namre na obmojih zrazlino intenziteto in
kontinuiteto staranja odraale razlino. Prilagoditve na te spremembe bi morale zato izhajati iz znailnosti
staranja in stem povezanih potreb vsakega obmoja posebej. Pri tem veliko teavo predstavlja neobstoj
druge stopnje lokalne samouprave (t. i.pokrajin), na kateri bi lahko nartovali bolj podrobno kot na nivoju drave, ahkrati bolj celostno kot na nivoju obin, ki so poveini premajhne, da bi se lahko sproblematiko
sooile na vseh podrojih, e zlasti pa, e se vnjih prebivalstvo pospeeno stara.
Pomen predstavitve znailnosti staranja prebivalstva vSloveniji na prostorski ravni je tudi vtem, da
se je oposledicah staranja doslej vse preve gledalo le iz ekonomskega vidika, zlasti zvidika javnih financ,
mnogo premalo pa, kako se bodo posledice staranja prebivalstva odraale vprostoru. Pri tem gre predvsem za postopno praznjenje naselij, zlasti na strateko obutljivih obmojih drave, propadanje infrastrukture
ter stavbne in kulturne dediine, opuanje kmetijstva in zaraanje kulturne pokrajine itd. Nenazadnje
gre tudi za izgubljanje ustvarjalnega potenciala teh obmojih (glej Ravbar2011,2012). e bi vse te posledice ovrednotili ekonomsko, bi bile zagotovo e bolj zaskrbljujoe in zdolgotrajnejimi negativnimi uinki,
kot je vpraanje finanne vzdrnosti, na primer, pokojninskega in zdravstvenega sistema, oemer je vzadnjem asu najve razprav. Vprihodnje bi bilo zato treba poveati tevilo raziskav ostaranju prebivalstva
vSloveniji zvidika prostorskih analiz in dati e poseben poudarek ovrednotenju posledic staranja prebivalstva, ki se odraajo vprostoru.
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Opportunities for developing mountain biking in theMunicipality

of Bohinj
UDC: 913:796.6(497.4BOHINJ)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Due to therelatively short travel distances between places, awide variety of natural and cultural sites in thearea, thewell-preserved environment, and alarge number of forest roads, skid trails, field
trails, and hiking trails through the mountains, the Municipality of Bohinj, much of which lies in
Slovenia's largest protected area, Triglav National Park, has great potential for thedevelopment of mountain biking. In order to outline theguidelines for effective environmental protection and provide abasis
for harmonizing theneeds of various users, this article evaluates theprudence of and theneed for establishing an appropriate mountain biking management system in theBohinj Valley, one of themost popular
tourism areas in Upper Carniola. Atentative system of trails suitable for this leisure activity is proposed
based on an overview of therelevant literature, asurvey, and cooperation with various individuals involved
with mountain biking. It would also make sense to include these trails in themunicipal development plan.
KEYWORDS: regional geography, Municipality of Bohinj, mountain biking, recreation, regional development, Slovenia
Thearticle was submitted for publication on July1st,2013.
ADDRESS:
Katarina Polajnar Horvat, Ph.D.
Anton Melik geographical institute
Research Centre of the Slovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
Gosposka ulica 13, SI 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: katarina.polajnar@zrc-sazu.si
Urka Drofenik
Mokrka ulica 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
E-mail: ursa@ursha.si
318
1 Introduction
1.1 Presentation of theissue in thestudy area
URKA DROfENIK
TheMunicipality of Bohinj has always attracted alarge number of visitors. It is one of themost important Slovenian mountain tourism areas, much of which (66%) lies in Slovenia's largest protected area, Triglav
National Park (TNP) (Internet1). Initially, this area was primarily thedomain of loggers, ore prospectors,
and charcoal burners, and its peaks were first climbed by shepherds and hunters (Glavnik et al.2011). Later
on, Slovenia's alpine areas were discovered by naturalists (primarily for reasons of nature conservation)
and others attracted to themountains due to national-awakening, cultural, or aesthetic impulses (Rejec
Brancelj and Smrekar2000). Today people visit this area for tourism, entertainment, and recreational reasons, as well as for more strenuous mountain hiking and other reasons (Rejec Brancelj and Smrekar2000;
Glavnik et al.2011). With improved trails and mountain lodges, an increasing number of people started hiking in themountains. Initially, this activity was limited to Sundays and areas near towns, with train stations
serving as starting points. Important changes occurred in parallel with thedevelopment of motor traffic.
As thenumber of cars increased and thequality of theroad network gradually improved, recreational mobility increased significantly. People began engaging in recreational activities in more remote places. In addition,
due to improved living standards, therapid shift from farming to non-farming activities, thesubsequent
division of life into work and free time, and gradual urbanization, new types of leisure activities were established (Jeri1998; Rejec Brancelj and Smrekar2000). Traditional sports and recreation activities were joined
by new, alternative activities, including mountain biking as an increasingly popular sport (olar1994).
Mountain biking began developing in the1970s and is amodern form of recreation on natural trails
(Internet2). It is asustainable sports, recreational, and tourism activity (Obu and Zajc2012) that has become
increasingly popular in recent years in theBohinj Valley (Obina Bohinj2014).
Recreation affects both living nature and the landscape, or non-living nature (Komac, Zorn and
Erharti2011). Theimpact of mountain biking on thenatural environment is comparable to other types
of outdoor recreation, such as hiking in themountains (Wilson and Seney1994; Bjorkman1996; Goeft
Figure 1: Mountain bikers use trails at random due to the small number of official and legal mountain-bike trails available.
319
and Adler2001; White et al.2006). Properly done, theconsequences of biking on well-maintained trails
are small; nonetheless theenvironment in Bohinj is becoming overburdened, especially due to large-scale
mountain biking and hiking (Drofenik2012).
Due to attractive natural settings and thedevelopment of bike technology, mountain bikers also use
mountain trails (Rovan2011a), which causes conflicts with hikers, who feel threatened because they are
theones that build, manage, and use thetrails (Drofenik2012). In2007, theSlovenian Alpine Association
founded theBicycle Touring Committee (Internet2), which recognizes mountain biking as an equal outdoor activity that should be accepted and systematically regulated.
This activity lacks thenecessary systemic regulation, especially from theviewpoint of individual non-harmonized and contradictory laws and regulations. TheNature Conservation Act (Zakon ospremembah2014)
generally allows biking on established trails in thenatural environment, but only if theowner or manager agrees with this (Internet3). An established trail is astrip of land that is used for walking or driving
and is maintained. However, theFarmland Act (Zakon okmetijskih zemljiih2012) prohibits biking on
routes through fields and only allows these routes to be used for farming. In addition, in line with theForest
Act (Zakon ospremembah 2013), biking is only possible on marked skid trails and other trails, but only
in areas specified in thespatial planning part of regional development plans. In line with theMountain
Trail Act (Zakon oplaninskih poteh2007) and thecriteria for thedual use of mountain trails, biking is
only allowed on routes through fields and main forest roads provided that it is not prohibited by nature
conservation, forestry, or hunting regulations, and on other mountain trails only if they are explicitly intended for dual use. Because thestudy area is largely located in TNP, restrictions specified in theTriglav National
Park Act (Zakon oTriglavskem narodnem parku 2010) also have to be taken into account. This act allows
biking on forest, field, mountain, and other trails and forest roads that are not categorized as public roads,
but only on those that are specified in theTriglav National Park Management Plan (Nart upravljanja 2012).
However, to date this plan has failed to define such trails. Hence in practice outdoor biking within themajor
part of thestudy area remains prohibited despite recent legal changes that took astep towards solving this
issue. Due to thesmall number of official mountain bike trails, bike riders use thetrails at random and can
be found even in themost vulnerable natural areas and in areas that are inappropriate in terms of nature
conservation and sustainable development, as well as thesafety of all users.
In countries neighboring Slovenia, this activity is regulated by law and in practice. In Italy, driving in
the natural environment is permitted everywhere, except in areas where expressly prohibited. There are
only afew areas where driving is forbidden, mostly in protected zones. Prohibited areas are clearly marked,
surveillance is effective, and thefines are substantial. Wider roads are largely open to everyone, and in some
places biking is allowed if escorted by aguide. Off-road biking and biking on extremely steep hiking trails
is prohibited (Rovan2011b).
In Germany, bikers cannot ride on themost popular trails and on specific trails within protected areas,
and in some federal states biking is not allowed on trails that are less than two meters wide. Biking on private trails is allowed if they are wide enough and maintained. Riding bikes on inappropriate trails and off-road
is forbidden and fined. Theauthorities can restrict or prohibit biking on natural trails in aspecific area
that are otherwise appropriate if this is incompatible with theinterests of another type of recreation or if
threatens thenatural balance. If an area has an above-average number of mountain bikers, this can be solved
through guided tours (Drofenik2012).
In Austria, mountain biking is prohibited on all mountain trails, except on those specified and marked
separately. Thelaw only allows biking on forest trails and through theforest with thepermission of theowner
of theforest and trails. TheHunting Act prohibits access to and riding in areas with protected animal species.
In agreement with theforest owners, athird of all hiking trails in Tyrol were made available for biking
and marked in auniform way (Drofenik2012). Surveillance over theactivity is effective and fines are heavy.
Trails that are overburdened by hikers or mountain bikers may be temporarily closed (Rovan2008).
1.2 Research design and methods

In order to protect theenvironment and effectively harmonize theneeds of various users, theneed to establish amountain biking management system in theMunicipality of Bohinj was evaluated. Themountain
biking infrastructure is limited there because biking in thenatural environment is prohibited in most of
themunicipality. Despite this, bike riders continue to use this area. An online survey (Anketa 2012) was
320
conducted with 504active mountain bikers to collect as much information as possible about where and
when they bike, which trails they usually use, what they experience on these trails, and what their habits
and preferences are regarding mountain biking.
Themost popular areas were established based on aliterature overview, research, and interviews.
Theissues associated with these areas are presented below. It is presumed that mountain bikers in theBohinj
area use trails that are vulnerable from theenvironmental protection viewpoint and that they often find
themselves in conflict with other users. Based on themethodology developed specifically for this study
and used for evaluating selected very frequently used trails, it explored which area with mountain bike
trails that mountain bikers find attractive is also suitable from theenvironmental protection perspective
and appropriately located from theviewpoint of other users.
Aquantitative assessment of areas' suitability for developing mountain bike trails was produced by analyzing theareas' vulnerability, frequency of use, and appeal. Vulnerability was determined based on thedegree
of environment protection within themunicipality. Thecriteria used include thetrails' location within or
outside TNP and location within individual TNP Protection Zones (Javni zavod 2013). Frequency of
use was determined based on thesurvey (Anketa 2012), in which respondents listed thetrails they most
often use. Based on these data, thefrequency of use on thetrails was established.
Theappeal of individual trail areas was determined based on four criteria that were specified using
therespondents' replies regarding their mountain biking preferences. These criteria included thefollowing:
Distance from motorized traffic;
Circular routes and opportunity to cross over into theneighboring valley;
Scenic views;
Natural assets along thetrails.
Themaximum score was100. Ahigher score shows that thearea is more suitable for thetype of leisure
activity.
Table 1: Quantitative assessment of the area's suitability for mountain biking
Suitability assessment criteria
Score
1 Vulnerability in terms of environmental protection

1.1 Trails located within TNP Protection Zone 1
1.4 Trails located outside TNP
2 Frequency of use
2.1 Trails used very heavily
2.2 Trails used moderately heavily
2.3 Trails used less heavily
2.4 Trails not heavily used
3 Appeal to mountain bikers
3.1 High appeal
3.2 Medium appeal
3.3 Low appeal
3.4 No appeal
0
10
20
40
0
10
20
30
30
20
10
0
2 Characteristics of mountain biking in theMunicipality of Bohinj

Mountain bikers use arelatively narrow range of trails, which is surprising considering thelarge number
of forest and field trails, skid trails, and bridle paths crisscrossing thearea. Thetrails were grouped into thefollowing areas: Vogar Pastures, Mount Vogel, Mount Komna, Mount Uskovnica, and Eastern Lower Bohinj
Mountains.
Theneeds and preferences of active mountain bikers were examined in order to prepare guidelines
for setting up an effective mountain biking management system in theMunicipality of Bohinj. Respondents
321
Figure 2: Map of areas with mountain bike trails.
322
Mount Vogel/obmoje poti Vogel
LISEC LISEC
Mount Komna/obmoje poti Komna
2 LJUBINJ LJUBINJ
4
6
8 km
TEMLJINE
PODMELEC PODMELEC
MODREJCE
N TOLMIN
POLJE
NOMENJ
PODBRDO
PODPOREZEN
Road/cesta
Waters/vodovje
Sava
SV
ROVT
OSOJNIK
ZALA ZALA
MARTINJ VRH
POTOK
zemljie
LENART N
The third TNP protected area/tretje varstveno obmoje TNPDAVA DAVA Built land/pozidano POTOK
OBLOKE OBLOKE
OSOJNIK
Authors/avtorici: Katarina Polajnar Horvat, Urka Drofenik
ZA
HUDAJUNA
HUDAJUNA
Source/vir: Anketa o gorskem kolesarstvu 2012; ARSO 2013; Zakon o Triglavskem narodnem parku (2010);
Planinska
zveza
Slovenije
2013;
GIAM
ZRC
SAZU
2013;
Geodetska
uprava
RS
2013;
ZAKOJCA ZAKOJCA
GORENJA ETINA
KORITNICA
POD
The second TNP protected

area/drugo varstveno obmoje TNP
POREZEN POREZEN
LESCE
Bohinj Municipality/obina Bohinj
SPODNJA SORICA
ZGORNJA SORICA
PETROVO BRDO
BAA PRI PODBRDU
NEMKI ROVT
BOHINJSKA BISTRICA
BITNJE
The first TNP protectedKUK

area/prvo varstveno obmoje TNP
ZNOJILE ZNOJILE
TNP border/meja TNP
Sava Bohinjka
STARA FUINA
Eastern Lower Bohinj Mountains/obmoje poti V Sp. Bohinjske gore
ABE
POLJUBINJ
Vogar
Pastures/obmoje poti Vogar s planinami
LOJE LOJE
ABE
POLJUBINJ
SELA NAD PODMELCEM
Pokljuka
Plateau/obmoje poti Pokljuka
E PRAPETNO PRAPETNO
SELA NAD PODMELCEM
JE
RIBEV LAZ
Bohinjsko jezero
Areas with mountain bike trails/Obmoja poti gorskih kolesarjev
UKANC
SREDNJA VAS
STUDOR
BOHINJSKA ENJICA
BOHINJSKA BELA
Blejsko
jezero
BLED
Sava Dolinjka
SPODNJE GORJE
ZGORNJE GORJE
selected answers divided into five levels (aLikert scale). Four criteria were specified based on theresults
and used as abasis for defining areas suitable for further development of mountain biking.
The flows of mountain bikers within the municipality are directed towards TNP, where they use
themarked or unmarked upland trails that include forest trails, bridle trails, or hiking trails (Anketa 2012).
In terms of thediversity and uniqueness of natural assets, theselected trail areas are among themost important in themunicipality. Thetrails have scenic views, are away from motorized traffic, and offer circular
routes. TheMount Komna and Eastern Lower Bohinj Mountains areas are especially appealing because
they can be used to cross over to theneighboring valley. However, only theMount Vogel area is partially
set up for mountain bikers.
Thetrail areas pose aspatial problem primarily in terms of legislation. Most of thetrails are not open
to bike riders and so riders commit an offence simply by appearing on them. Only part of theMount Vogel
area is set up for mountain bikers and, even so, it can only be climbed using acable-car lift, which is not
very appealing to mountain bikers.
TheVogar Pastures and Mount Komna mountain biking areas are located in TNP Protection Zones1
and2, which poses apotential threat from theviewpoint of protecting natural assets. TheMount Vogel
and Pokljuka Plateau areas, which are located in Protection Zones2 and 3, are less problematic in this regard.
Theleast problematic is theEastern Lower Bohinj Mountains area, which lies outside thepark.
Areas located at theheart of TNP and in areas of exceptional natural assets and popular hiking trails
are theleast suitable for focused development of mountain bike trails, both in terms of environmental protection and opposition from other users. TheVogar Pastures and Mount Komna areas are theleast suitable;
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
Very unimportant/
zelo nepomembno
50%
Unimportant/
nepomembno
40%
Neither important
neither unimportant/
niti pomembno
niti nepomembno
30%
20%
Important/
pomembno
10%
Very important/
zelo pomembno
0%
Distance from
motorized traffic/
odmaknjenost od
motornega prometa
Circular routes
and cross over into
the neighboring valley/
kronost poti in preenje
v sosednjo dolino
Scenic views/
razglednost poti
Natural assets along

the trails/doivljanje
naravnih vrednot ob poti
Figure 3: Needs and preferences of active mountain bikers (Anketa o gorskem kolesarstvu 2012).
323
their potentials for developing mountain bike trails using theassessment methodology described above
had ascore of30. They were followed by thePokljuka Plateau with ascore of40, and Mount Vogel with
ascore of50. Themost suitable are theEastern Lower Bohinj Mountains, which are appealing to mountain bikers, are located in an environmentally least vulnerable area, and are also not especially popular among
other users. Its final score was90.
Table 2: Scoring and evaluating areas' suitability for developing mountain bike trails
Area
Frequency of use
(30 points)
Appeal
(30 points)
Total score
(maximum 100 points)
0
10
0
10
40
0
10
0
0
20
30
30
30
30
30
30
50
30
40
90
URKA DROfENIK
Vogar Pastures
Mount Vogel
Mount Komna
Pokljuka Plateau
Eastern Lower Bohinj Mountains
Vulnerability
(40 points)
Figure 4: The Vogar Pastures area is especially popular in the summer, when various users visit in large numbers.
3 Conclusion
Thehypothesis that cycling infrastructure is limited in theMunicipality of Bohinj was partially confirmed.
Biking is especially prohibited on hiking trails and many other trails, but bike riders use these areas nonetheless. Alist of trail areas that mountain bikers use most often was produced, based on which thesecond
part of thehypothesis was confirmed: mountain bikers use thenatural environment despite theprohibition.
The most popular trails in the municipality are concentrated within TNP and are also among
themost frequently used in terms of other types of recreation. Conflicts with other users are common and
were already experienced by aquarter of respondents. Hence thehypothesis is confirmed that in theBohinj
area mountain bikers often find themselves in conflict with other users. At thesame time, it is confirmed
that social conflicts occur due to intolerance of not only mountain bikers, but also other users. It should
be added that this intolerance is often blown out of proportion.
It would make sense to redirect mountain bikers to thetrails in theEastern Lower Bohinj Mountains,
which are unproblematic both in terms of nature protection and other users. Theproposed trails largely
lie outside TNP and mainly include upland uncategorized gravel roads, forest roads, field trails, and skid
324
Figure 5: Proposed area for mountain bike trails.
325
RIBEV LAZ
Bohinjsko jezero
STARA FUINA
POLJE
NOMENJ
BINJ
0
2
4
TEMLJINE
PODMELEC PODMELEC
KNEA
KLAVE
SELA NAD PODMELCEM

SELA NAD PODMELCEM
KORITNICA
8 km
ZAKOJCA ZAKOJCA
OBLOKE OBLOKE
HUDAJUNA
HUDAJUNA
LOJE
The thirdLOJE
TNP
protected area/tretje varstveno obmoje TNP
POREZEN POREZEN
The second TNP protected area/drugo varstveno obmoje TNP
KUK
The first TNP

area/prvo varstveno
obmoje
TNP
LISEC
LISECprotected
ZNOJILE
ZNOJILE
BLED
LESCE
Sava Dolinjka
SV. LENART
Sava
ZAPREVAL ZAPREVAL
Authors/avtorici: Katarina Polajnar Horvat, Urka Drofenik
MLAKA NAD LUO
Source/vir: Anketa o gorskem kolesarstvu 2012; ARSO GORENJA
2013; Zakon
o Triglavskem narodnem parku (2010);
ETINA
Planinska zveza Slovenije 2013; GIAM ZRC SAZU 2013; Geodetska uprava
RS 2013;JARJE BRDO
PODVRH
ZGORN
SP
STIRPNIK STIRPNI
SV. LENART
ELEZNIKI
RADOVLJICA
ROVTE V SELKI DOLINI

OSOJNIK
MARTINJ VRH
ZGORNJA LUA
POTOK
LENART NAD LUO
POTOK
Built land/pozidano
zemljie
OSOJNIK
ZALA ZALA
TNP border/meja
TNP
Road/cesta
Waters/vodovje
Bohinj Municipality/obina Bohinj
DAVA DAVA
PODPOREZEN
Proposed area Eastern Lower Bohinj Mountains/predlog obmoja poti V Sp. Bohinjske gore
SPODNJA SORICA
ZGORNJA SORICA
PETROVO BRDO
BAA PRI PODBRDU
NEMKI ROVT
BOHINJSKA BISTRICA
Sava Bohinjka
BITNJE
Proposed area for mountain bike trails/Predlog obmoja poti

gorskih kolesarjev
PODBRDO
UKANC
SREDNJA VAS
STUDOR
BOHINJSKA ENJICA
BOHINJSKA BELA
Blejsko
jezero
ZGORNJE GORJE
URKA DROfENIK
Figure 6: More demanding riders should be directed to mountain bike parks.

trails. They are away from motorized traffic, and run across dynamic but not overly steep terrain, which
allows suitable climbs and descents. They are practically empty in terms of recreation because thelong
distances make them unattractive to hikers. In fact, they can be most easily traveled by mountain bike.
Thetrails are circular, very scenic, and can be used to cross over to theneighboring areas, such as theBaa
Gorge and theSorica Mountain Pasture. Great potential also lies in including local mountain bike guides
that could offer guided bike tours along these lesser-known trails and raise their profile.
Considering that there are only afew bike parks in theBohinj area, more demanding mountain bikers should be directed towards theplanned2864 Ski Resort above Bohinjska Bistrica. Theconstruction
of this ski resort is one of thesolutions to theissues discussed because it is planned on thealready environmentally degraded site of thecurrently closed Kobla ski run. In addition, directing mountain bikers
to this already built-up landscape would relieve theenvironmentally vulnerable and socially problematic areas around Lake Bohinj. Ultimately, this would be an important leisure activity in themunicipality
and diversify therange of tourism activities, which may contribute significantly to developing thecountryside (mid Hribar and Ledinek Lozej2013). In addition to organic farming, tourism also offers new
development opportunities for rural areas (traus et al.2011).
Atransparent management system based on long-term sustainable development (Komac and Zorn2009;
mid Hribar and Lisec2011) and aparticipatory approach (Breg Valjavec and Polajnar Horvat2011) should
be put in place in thearea studied. It is crucial to bring together therepresentatives of theprotected area,
themunicipality, landowners, foresters, hunters, hiking trail managers, and mountain bike enthusiasts.
Outdoor mountain-biking rules should be introduced along with more rigid surveillance to prevent inappropriate biking on trails, environmental degradation, and threats to other users. Other users should be
educated and taught about nature protection and mountain biking in general (Polajnar2008; Smrekar2011)
to raise awareness about theenvironment, spatial issues, related values, and conservation (Breg et al.2007;
Fridl et al.2009), and to reorient environmentally friendly behavior in thedirection of sustainability (Polajnar
Horvat2012). Thefindings of astudy on TNP visitors' environmentally friendly behavior (Stubelj Ars2013)
show that education is amajor factor influencing sustainable environmentally friendly behavior, which
is theonly acceptable behavior in avulnerable environment like TNP. Based on its favorable location at
theheart of theAlps on theedge of Slovenia's largest protected area, Triglav National Park, and close to
infrastructure and traffic connections, Bohinjska Bistrica can become astarting point for mountain biking and aversatile sports center in theBohinj Valley.
326
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Zakon okmetijskih zemljiih. Uradni listi Republike Slovenije71/2011, 58/2012. Ljubljana.
Zakon oplaninskih poteh. Uradni list Republike Slovenije61/2007. Ljubljana.
Zakon spremembah in dopolnitvah Zakona ogozdovih. Uradni list Republike Slovenije14/2014. Ljubljana.
Zakon spremembah in dopolnitvah Zakona oohranjanju narave. Uradni list Republike Slovenije46/2014.
Ljubljana.
Zakon oTriglavskem narodnem parku. Uradni listi Republike Slovenije52/2010, 46/2014. Ljubljana.
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Katarina Polajnar Horvat, Urka Drofenik, Monosti razvoja gorskega kolesarstva vobini Bohinj

UDK: 913:796.6(497.4BOHINJ)
COBISS: 1.01
IZVLEEK: Obina Bohinj, katere obseen del ozemlja lei vnaem najvejem zavarovanem obmoju,
Triglavskem narodnem parku, ima zaradi relativno majhnih potovalnih razdalj med naselji, tevilnih naravnih
in kulturnih znamenitosti, dobro ohranjenega okolja ter velikega tevila gozdnih cest, vlak, poljskih in planinskih poti veliko monosti za razvoj gorskega kolesarstva. Da bi nakazali smernice za uinkovito varovanje
okolja in omogoili usklajevanje potreb razlinih uporabnikov prostora, smo ovrednotili smiselnost in potrebo po vzpostavitvi ustreznega reima upravljanja na podroju gorskega kolesarstva vBohinju, enem izmed
turistino najbolj obiskanih obmoij Gorenjske. Spomojo obstojee literature, anketne raziskave ter ssodelovanjem zrazlinimi predstavniki stroke smo izdelali okviren predlog poti, ki bi bile primerne za tovrstno
obliko preivljanja prostega asa in bi jih bilo smiselno vkljuiti vrazvojni nart obine.
KLJUNE BESEDE: regionalna geografija, obina Bohinj, gorsko kolesarstvo, rekreacija, regionalni razvoj,
Slovenija
Urednitvo je prejelo prispevek 1.julija2013.
NASLOV:
dr. Katarina Polajnar Hor vat
Gosposka ulica 13, SI 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
E-pota: katarina.polajnar@zrc-sazu.si
Urka Drofenik
Mokrka ulica 25, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenija
E-pota: ursa@ursha.si
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1 Uvod
1.1 Predstavitev problematike obravnavanega obmoja
Obina Bohinj e od nekdaj privablja tevilne obiskovalce. Spada med najpomembneja gorska turistina obmoja vSloveniji, katere obseen dele ozemlja, 66 %, lei vnaem najbolj zavarovanem obmoju,
Triglavskem narodnem parku (vnadaljevanju TNP) (internet 1). Sprva so na to obmoje prihajali drvarji,
iskalci rud in oglarji, na vrhove pa so prvi plezali pastirji in lovci (Glavnik s sod.2011). Kasneje so na
alpski svet zaeli nartno odkrivati naravoslovci, predvsem zaradi naravovarstvenih, in drugi gorniki, bodisi zaradi narodno buditeljskih, kulturnih ali estetskih vzgibov (Rejec Brancelj in Smrekar2000). Danes pa
obiskovalci na to obmoje prihajajo iz turistinih, razvedrilnih in rekreativnih, pa tudi zaradi resnejih
alpinistinih in drugih vzgibov (Rejec Brancelj in Smrekar2000, Glavnik s sod.2011). Znadelavo poti ter
planinskih ko je obiskovanje gora postalo vse bolj mnoino. Sprva je bilo omejeno na nedeljski prosti as
in zgolj na iro okolico mest, pri emer so bila izhodia poti vezana predvsem na eleznike postaje. Do
pomembnih sprememb vrekreacijskem ravnanju pa je prilo vzporedno zrazvojem motorizacije, ob koncu estdesetih let. Zrazvojem osebne motorizacije in postopnim izboljevanjem kakovosti cestnega omreja
se je prostorska mobilnost vprostem asu mono poveala. Ljudje so se zaeli rekreirati vbolj oddaljenih
predelih. Poleg tega so se zaradi vijega osebnega standarda, naglega poklicnega preslojevanja ljudi iz kmetijstva vnekmetijske dejavnosti in stem pogojene delitve dnevnega ritma na delovni in preostali as ter
postopne urbanizacije uveljavile nove oblike preivljanja prostega asa (Jeri1998, Rejec Brancelj in Smrekar2000). Klasinim portnorekreacijskim dejavnostim so se pridruile nove, alternativne oblike, med njimi
tudi vedno bolj priljubljeno gorsko kolesarstvo (olar1994).
Gorsko kolesarstvo, ki se je zaelo razvijati vsedemdesetih letih prejnjega stoletja, je sodobna prostoasna oblika rekreacije, ki poteka po naravnih poteh (internet 2). Je ena od trajnostnih oblik portne,
rekreacijske in turistine dejavnosti (Obu in Zajc2012), ki je vzadnjih letih vBohinju vse bolj priljubljena (Obina Bohinj2014).
Rekreacija vpliva na ivo naravo pa tudi na povrje oziroma neivo okolje (Komac, Zorn in Erharti2011).
Vpliv gorskega kolesarstva na okolje je primerljiv zostalimi naini rekreacije vnaravi, na primer shojo
vhribe (Wilson in Seney1994, Bjorkman1996; Goeft in Adler2001; White s sod.2006). Posledice kolesarjenja so na dobro vzdrevanih poteh ob primerni uporabi majhne, kljub vsemu pa vBohinju prihaja
do prekomernega obremenjevanja okolja, predvsem zaradi mnoinosti pojava rekreacijskih dejavnosti,
gorskega kolesarstva in planinstva (Drofenik2012).
Gorski kolesarji zaradi privlanega naravnega okolja in razvoja kolesarske tehnologije uporabljajo tudi
planinske poti (Rovan2011a), kar povzroa nesporazume splaninci, ki se kot graditelji, upravljavci in uporabniki planinskih poti poutijo ogroene (Drofenik2012). Planinska zveza Slovenije je leta2007 ustanovila
Komisijo za turno kolesarstvo (internet 2) in gorsko kolesarstvo prepoznala kot enakovredno dejavnost
vprostoru, ki jo je treba sprejeti in sistematino urediti.
Slika 1: Zaradi majhnega tevila uradnih in zakonitih gorsko kolesarskih poti kolesarji uporabljajo poti stihijsko.
To dejavnost pesti pomanjkljiva sistemska ureditev, predvsem zvidika neusklajenosti in kontradiktornosti posameznih zakonskih in podzakonskih aktov. Zakon ospremembah in dopolnitvah Zakona
oohranjanju narave (2014) sicer vonjo skolesom vnaravnem okolju dovoljuje po utrjenih poteh, vendar le e temu ne nasprotuje lastnik ali upravljavec poti (internet 3). Utrjena pot pa je tisti pas zemljia,
ki se uporablja za hojo ali vonjo in je za ta namen tudi utrjen. Vendar pa je vonja skolesom po poljskih
poteh, po Zakonu okmetijskih zemljiih (2012) prepovedana, saj ta dovoljuje uporabo poljskih poti
samo vkmetijske namene. Poleg tega je vskladu zZakonom ospremembah in dopolnitvah Zakona ogozdovih (2014) vonja skolesom mona le na oznaenih gozdnih vlakah in drugih oznaenih poteh in sicer
le na obmojih doloenih vprostorskem delu obmonih nartov. VZakonu oplaninskih poteh (2007) in
merilih za dvonamensko rabo planinskih poti pa je vonja skolesom mona le po poljskih poteh in gozdnih
prometnicah, e le ta ni prepovedana spredpisi ohranjanja narave, gozdarstva ali lovstva ter na ostalih
planinskih poteh le, e so te izrecno namenjene dvonamenski rabi. Glede na to, da preuevano obmoje
vprecejnji meri lei vTriglavskem narodnem parku pa je treba upotevati tudi omejitve vskladu zZakonom
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oTriglavskem narodnem parku (2010). Ta sicer dovoljuje vonjo skolesom na gozdnih in kmetijskih cestah,
planinskih in drugih poteh ter nekategoriziranih gozdnih prometnicah, vendar le tistih, ki so doloene
vNartu upravljanja Triglavskega narodnega parka. Vendar pa Nart upravljanja Triglavskega narodnega
parka (Javni zavod 2013) do danes taknih poti e ni opredelil. Vpraksi je torej znotraj veine preuevanega obmoja vonja skolesom vnaravnem okolju kljub nedavnim zakonskim spremembam, ki sicer
predstavljajo korak blije kureditvi problematike, e vedno prepovedana. Zaradi majhnega tevila uradnih gorsko kolesarskih poti tako kolesarji uporabljajo poti stihijsko in jih sreamo tudi na najbolj ranljivih
obmojih narave ter na obmojih, ki so neprimerna tako zvidika ohranjanja narave in trajnostnega razvoja, kot zvidika varnosti vseh uporabnikov.
Vsosednjih dravah je dejavnost urejena normativno in vpraksi. V Italiji je kolesarjenje v naravnem
okolju dovoljeno povsod, kjer ni izrecno prepovedano. Malo je obmoij sprepovedjo vonje, najve vzavarovanih obmojih. Prepovedi so jasno oznaene, nadzor je uinkovit in kazni visoke. ire poti so vveji
meri odprte za vse, ponekod je kolesarjenje dovoljeno vspremstvu vodnika. Vonja zunaj utrjenih poti
in po zelo strmih pohodnikih poteh je prepovedana (Rovan2011b).
VNemiji so za kolesarje zaprte najbolj obiskane poti in nekatere poti vzavarovanih obmojih, vdoloenih delih zveznih drav pa velja prepoved kolesarjenja po poteh, ojih od dveh metrov. Vonja skolesi
po zasebnih poteh je dovoljena, e so dovolj iroke in utrjene. Vonja po neustreznih poteh in brezpotjih
je prepovedana in se kaznuje zdenarno kaznijo. e je kolesarjenje na sicer primernih poteh vnaravi na nekem
obmoju nezdruljivo zinteresi druge vrste rekreacije ali e ogroa naravno ravnovesje, ga odgovorni lahko
omejijo ali prepovejo. e je promet zgorskimi kolesi nadpovpreen, se ta lahko reuje zvodenjem (Drofenik2012).
VAvstriji je gorsko kolesarstvo prepovedano po vseh planinskih poteh, razen po posebej dovoljenih
in oznaenih. Po gozdnih cestah in gozdu je zzakonom dovoljena le vonja zdovoljenjem lastnikov gozdov
in cest. Zlovskim zakonom so prepovedali dostop in vonjo na obmoja, kjer so zaitene divje ivali. Po
dogovoru zlastniki gozdov so na Tirolskem za kolesarjenje odprli kar tretjino planinskih poti in jih enotno oznaili (Drofenik2012). Nadzor nad izvajanjem dejavnosti je uinkovit, kazni za prekrke pa visoke.
Preobremenjene poti, bodisi pohodniko ali gorsko kolesarsko lahko za doloen as zaprejo (Rovan2008).
1.2 Zasnova raziskave in metode dela

Za uinkovito varovanje okolja in usklajevanje potreb razlinih uporabnikov prostora smo ovrednotili potrebo
po vzpostavitvi reima upravljanja gorskega kolesarstva vobini Bohinj, kjer je gorsko kolesarska infrastruktura omejena, saj je vvelikem delu obine prepovedana vonja skolesi vnaravnem okolju. Kolesarji
kljub temu zahajajo na ta obmoja. Spomojo spletne ankete (Anketa 2012) smo med 504aktivnimi
gorskimi kolesarji poskuali pridobiti im ve informacij otem, kje se vozijo in kdaj, katere poti najpogosteje uporabljajo, kaj na njih doivljajo ter kakne so njihove navade in elje pri izvajanju dejavnosti.
Na podlagi literature, raziskave ter intervjujev smo izloili najbolj priljubljena obmoja. Vlanku predstavljamo njihovo problematiko. Predpostavljamo, da gorski kolesarji na obmoju Bohinja uporabljajo poti,
ki so zvidika varovanja okolja ranljive, pri izvajanju svoje dejavnosti pa se pogosto znajdejo vkonfliktu ssouporabniki prostora. Na podlagi lastne metodologije vrednotenja izbranih obstojeih najpogosteje
uporabljenih poti smo ugotavljali, katero obmoje gorsko kolesarskih poti, ki je atraktivno za gorske kolesarje,
je hkrati primerno tudi zvidika varovanja okolja ter ustrezno umeeno vprostor zvidika ostalih uporabnikov.
Kvantitativno oceno primernosti obmoij za razvoj gorsko kolesarskih poti smo izdelali zanalizo ranljivosti, obremenjenosti in privlanosti obmoja. Ranljivost smo doloili na podlagi stopnje varovanja okolja
znotraj obine. Kot kriterij smo upotevali lego obmoij poti znotraj oziroma zunaj TNP ter lego znotraj
posameznih varstvenih pasov TNP (Javni zavod 2013). Obremenjenost obmoij poti smo ugotavljali na
podlagi ankete (Anketa 2012), kjer so anketiranci navajali poti, ki jih najpogosteje uporabljajo. Stemi
podatki smo ovrednotili obremenjenost poti.
Privlanost posameznega obmoja poti smo opredeljevali na podlagi tirih kriterijev, ki smo jih pridobili spomojo anketnih odgovorov na vpraanja oeljah kolesarjev pri izvajanju svoje dejavnosti.
Kriteriji so:
odmaknjenost od motornega prometa,
kronost voenj in monost preenja vsosednjo dolino,
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razglednost poti,
doivljanje naravnih vrednot ob poti.
Najveje mono tevilo doseenih tok je100. Vije tevilo tok kae na vejo primernost za tovrstno
obliko preivljanja prostega asa.
Preglednica 1: Kvantitativna ocena primernosti obmoij za gorsko kolesarstvo
kriteriji ocene primernosti obmoij
tevilo tok
1 ranljivost z vidika varovanja okolja

1.1 lega poti znotraj 1. varstvenega pasu TNP
1.4 lega zunaj TNP
2 obremenjenost obmoij poti
2.1 zelo obremenjeno obmoje poti
2.2 srednje obremenjeno obmoje poti
2.3 manj obremenjeno obmoje poti
2.4 neobremenjeno obmoje poti
3 privlanost obmoij poti za gorske kolesarje
3.1 zelo privlano obmoje poti
3.2 srednje privlano obmoje poti
3.3 manj privlano obmoje poti
3.4 neprivlano obmoje poti
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2 Znailnosti gorskega kolesarstva vobini Bohinj

Gorski kolesarji pri svoji dejavnosti uporabljajo relativno ozek nabor poti, kar je presenetljivo glede na veliko
tevilo gozdnih cest, poljskih poti, grajenih gozdnih vlak in mulatjer, ki prepletajo to obmoje. Poti smo
strnili vzaokroena obmoja: Vogar splaninami, Vogel, Komna, Uskovnica in Vzhodne Spodnje
Bohinjske gore.
Slika 2: Zemljevid obmoij poti gorskih kolesarjev.
Za pripravo smernic za vzpostavitev uinkovitega reima gorskega kolesarstva vobini Bohinj, so nas
zanimale potrebe in elje aktivnih gorskih kolesarjev. Anketiranci so izbirali med odgovori, ki smo jih razdelili vpet razredov (Likartova lestvica). Iz rezultatov smo izluili tiri kriterije, ki so bili temelj za doloitev
primernih obmoij za nadaljnji razvoj gorskega kolesarstva.
Slika 3: Potrebe in elje aktivnih gorskih kolesarjev pri opravljanju prostoasne dejavnosti (Anketa o gorskem kolesarstvu 2012).
Tokovi gorskih kolesarjev so znotraj obine usmerjeni vTNP, kjer se uporabljajo e obstojee markirane ali nemarkirane poti sredogorja in so speljane bodisi po gozdnih poteh, mulatjerah bodisi po planinskih
poteh (Anketa 2012). Izbrana obmoja poti so zvidika pestrosti in izjemnosti naravnih vrednot med
najpomembnejimi vobini. Poti so razgledne, odmaknjene od motornega prometa ter nudijo monosti
kronih voenj. Posebej privlano je obmoje poti Komna in Vzhodne Spodnje Bohinjske gore zaradi
monosti preenja vsosednjo dolino. Toda le obmoje poti Vogel je delno urejeno za gorske kolesarje.
Obmoja poti so problem vprostoru predvsem zvidika zakonodaje. Poti poveini niso odprte za kolesarje, zato so kolesarji vprekrku e, ko se tam pojavijo. Za gorske kolesarje je urejen le del obmoja poti Vogel,
vendar je njegova slabost ta, da je vzpenjanje mono le zvzpenjao, kar zvidika gorskega kolesarstva ni
tako atraktivno.
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Slika 4: Obmoje poti Vogar s planinami je predvsem v poletnem asu mnoino obiskano s strani razlinih uporabnikov prostora.
Gorsko kolesarska obmoja Vogar splaninami in Komna leita vprvem in drugem varstvenem
obmoju TNP, kar zvidika ohranjanja naravnih vrednot predstavlja potencialno ogroenost. Zvidika lege
znotraj najbolj varovanih delov narave vnarodnem parku sta manj problematini obmoji Vogel in Pokljuka, ki leita vdrugem in tretjem varstvenem obmoju. Najmanj problematino je obmoje Vzhodnih
Spodnjih Bohinjskih gora, ki lei zunaj narodnega parka.
Preglednica 2: Tokovanje in vrednotenje primernosti obmoij za razvoj gorsko kolesarskih poti
obmoje
Vogar s planinami
Vogel
Komna
Pokljuka
Vzhodne Spodnje Bohinjske gore
ranljivost
(40 tok)
obremenjenost
(30 tok)
privlanost
(30 tok)
skupaj tok
(monih je najve 100 tok)
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Za usmerjen razvoj gorsko kolesarskih poti so tako zvidika okoljevarstva kot tudi zvidika nasprotovanj vprostoru za kolesarstvo najmanj primerna obmoja, ki leijo znotraj osrja TNP, na obmojih izjemnih
naravnih vrednot in priljubljenih planinskih poti. Najmanj primerni sta obmoji Vogar splaninami in
Komna, kjer smo zmetodologijo vrednotenja monosti za razvoj gorsko kolesarskih poti ocenili s30tokami, sledita obmoji Pokljuka, s40tokami in Vogel s50tokami. Najbolj primerno pa je obmoje
Vzhodne Spodnje Bohinjske gore, ki je privlano za gorske kolesarje, lei na okoljsko najmanj ranljivem obmoju, prav tako pa ni posebej priljubljeno sstrani ostalih uporabnikov prostora. Doseglo je 90tok.
3 Sklep
Delno lahko potrdimo hipotezo, da je na obmoju obine Bohinj kolesarska infrastruktura omejena. Posebej na planinskih poteh pa tudi na tevilnih drugih je prepovedana vonja skolesi, vendar kljub temu kolesarji
na ta obmoja zahajajo. Izdelali smo seznam obmoij poti, ki jih gorski kolesarji najpogosteje uporabljajo,
simer lahko potrdimo drugi del hipoteze, ki pravi, da kolesarji kljub prepovedi vonje vseeno zahajajo
vnaravno okolje.
Najbolj priljubljene poti vobini so skoncentrirane znotraj TNP in so hkrati ene izmed najbolj mnoino obiskanih poti tudi zvidika ostalih vrst rekreacije. Pogosti so konflikti zostalimi uporabniki prostora.
Negativno izkunjo je e imela etrtina vpraanih. Tako lahko potrdimo hipotezo, da gorski kolesarji na
obmoju Bohinja uporabljajo poti, ki so zvidika varovanja okolja ranljive in se pri izvajanju svoje dejavnosti nemalokrat znajdejo vkonfliktu zostalimi uporabniki prostora. Hkrati pa lahko potrdimo tudi dejstvo,
da do drubenih nasprotovanj prihaja zaradi nestrpnosti ostalih udeleencev, ne le kolesarjev. Ta je pogosto potencirana prek meja dejanskih razsenosti.
Gorsko kolesarjenje bi bilo smiselno preusmeriti na obmoje Vzhodnih Spodnjih Bohinjskih gora, na
e obstojee poti, ki so nesporne tako zvidika naravovarstva kot souporabe zdrugimi. Predlagane poti,
katerih obseen del povrja lei zunaj TNP, po veini potekajo po nekategoriziranih makadamskih cestah,
gozdnih cestah, poljskih poteh in grajenih gozdnih vlakah sredogorja. So odmaknjene od motornega prometa, kjer je povrje razgibano in hkrati ne prestrmo, simer omogoajo primerne vzpone in spuste. Zvidika
rekreacije so neobljudene, saj za pohodnike zaradi dolgih razdalj niso atraktivne. Najlaje jih je opraviti
prav zgorskim kolesom. Poti so krone in hkrati razgledne, zmonostjo preenja na sosednja obmoja,
vBako grapo in na Soriko planino. Kot prilonost naj izpostavimo tudi navezavo na lokalne kolesarske
vodnike, ki bi zvodenjem po teh manj obljudenih poteh dosegli njihovo prepoznavnost.
Slika 5: Predlog obmoja poti gorskih kolesarjev.
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Glede na to, da je na obmoju Bohinja ponudba gorsko kolesarskih parkov skromna, predlagamo usmeritev zahtevnejih gorskih kolesarjev na nartovano smuie Smuie2864 nad Bohinjsko Bistrico.
Izgradnja smuia predstavlja reitev preuevane problematike, saj se nartuje na e okoljsko degradiranem obmoju obstojeega nedelujoega smuia Kobla. Poleg tega bi zusmerjanjem tokov gorskih kolesarjev
na e grajeno pokrajino razbremenili okoljsko ranljiva in drubeno problematina obmoja vneposredni bliini Bohinjskega jezera. Nenazadnje pa bi stem pridobili pomembno prostoasno dejavnost vobini
in stem popestrili turistino ponudbo, kar utegne pomembno prispevati pri razvoju podeelskih obmoij
(mid Hribar in Ledinek Lozej2013). Turistina dejavnost namre poleg ekolokega kmetovanja vpodeelskih obmojih omogoa razvojne monosti (traus, Bavec in Bavec2011).
Slika 6: Zahtevneje gorske kolesarje je smotrno usmerjati v kolesarske parke.
Na obravnavanem obmoju bi morali vzpostaviti transparentno upravljanje, ki naj temelji na dolgoronem trajnostnem razvoju (mid Hribar in Lisec2011) in participativnem pristopu (Breg Valjavec in
Polajnar Horvat2011). Nujno bi bilo sooenje predstavnikov zavarovanega obmoja, obine, lastnikov zemlji, gozdarjev, lovcev, upravljavcev planinskih poti in gorsko kolesarske stroke. Uvesti bi morali pravila
gorskega kolesarstva vnaravi in poostriti nadzor, simer bi prepreili neprimerno vonjo na poteh, degradacijo okolja ter ogroanje ostalih uporabnikov. Slednje bi morali nartno izobraevati in ozaveati tako na
podroju varstva okolja, kot tudi na podroju izvajanja dejavnosti (Polajnar2008; Smrekar2011), saj se
na ta nain dviguje zavest ookolju, prostoru, njunih vrednotah in varovanju (Breg Valjavec, Kladnik in
Smrekar2007; Fridl, Urbanc in Pipan2009) ter spreminja okoljsko vedenje vsmeri trajnostnosti (Polajnar Horvat2012). Rezultati raziskave ookoljskem vedenju obiskovalcev TNP (Stubelj Ars2013) kaejo,
da je stopnja izobrazbe zelo pomembna pri trajnostnem okoljskem vedenju, ki je edino sprejemljivo vedenje
vtako ranljivem okolju kot je TNP. Bohinjska Bistrica, ki zugodno lego vosrju alpskega sveta, na robu
naega najvejega zavarovanega obmoja Triglavskega narodnega parka, vbliini infrastrukturnih zmogljivosti ter prometnih povezav lahko postane izhodie za gorsko kolesarstvo in stem vsestransko portno
sredie Bohinja.
4 Literatura
335
336
ACTA GEOGRAPHICA
SLOVENICA
GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK
2015
sPeCial issUe
wiKialPs2015
EDITORS:
Janez Nared
Nika Razpotnik Viskovi
Bla Komac
337
338
towaRds MoRe Resilient

eConoMies in alPine Regions
JANEZ NARED
Riccardo Brozzi, Lucija Lapuh, Janez Nared, Thomas Streifeneder
Regional economies are confronted with constant transformation, which is even more
radical in times of economic crises. The picture shows the Schiffbau the premises
of former shipbuilding company in Zurich that were transformed into theatre.
Riccardo Brozzi, Lucija Lapuh, Janez Nared, Thomas Streifeneder, Towards more resilient economies in Alpine regions

UDC: 911.3:338.124.4(234.3)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Theeconomic crisis theworld has faced since2007 has had devastating effects on many regions
to various degrees. How regions respond to economic shock depends on regional economic structure and
performance, administrative capacity, resources, human capital, social capital, and other factors, and is perceived as resilience: theability of aregional economy to withstand, absorb, or overcome an external economic
stress. Because one of thefuture strategic goals for theAlpine Space Programme area is fostering its resilience,
we studied theperformance of Alpine regions in thepre- and post-crisis period in order to assess theeffects
of theeconomic crisis and to provide basic directions on how to make theAlps more resilient in thefuture.
Theresults have revealed differences among three selected groups of regions as well as some country-specific characteristics of theregional response that can generally be seen in theweaker performance of some
Italian and Slovenian regions.
KEY WORDS: geography, economic geography, regional planning, sustainable development, resilience,
economic crisis, Alps
Thearticle was submitted for publication on October1st,2014.
ADDRESSES:
Riccardo Brozzi
European Academy of Bozen/Bolzano
Institute for Regional Development and Location Management
Viale Druso,1 / Drususallee1, IT 39100Bolzano / Bozen, Italy
E-mail: riccardo.brozzi@eurac.edu
Lucija Lapuh
Research Center of theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
E-mail: lucija.lapuh@zrc-sazu.si
Janez Nared, Ph.D.
Scientific Research Center of theSlovenian Academy of Sciences and Arts
E-mail: janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si
Thomas Streifeneder, Ph.D.
European Academy of Bozen/Bolzano
Institute for Regional Development and Location Management
E-mail: thomas.streifeneder@eurac.edu
340
1 Introduction
Theeconomic crisis that started in2007 has presented many challenges to regional planners, who are trying to protect regions from negative effects and are seeking solutions for more resilient development in
thefuture. Global economic changes have caused problems for both individuals and businesses, affecting
entire economic sectors, regions, and their socioeconomic structures (cf.Bole2011; prah, Novak and
Fridl2014; Aubert, Jns-Berki and Gergely2013). TheAlpine Space Programme area is no exception.
This was shown by agroup of experts (Gloersen et al.2012) that prepared key statements for strategy development for theAlpine Space Programme area. They identified six major external driving forces that influence
Alpine regional development (climate change, uncertainties in energy supply, global market dynamics,
theshift to aknowledge and information society, demographic change, and continuous growth in flows
and persons) and defined fostering resilience of theAlps as one of thethree objectives of theAlpine Space
Programme's strategy for theperiod from2014 to2020: thealpine space needs to become stronger in theface
of increasing uncertainties. This implies identifying alpine communities' factors of vulnerability, and identifying how they could be less exposed to these risks. Resilience also presupposes an awareness of thecore values
to be preserved, and adaptations that would be accepted when needed (Gloersen et al.2012).
This article was prepared as part of theWIKIAlps project (Alpine Space Programme; WIKIAlps2015).
It analyses theeconomic resilience of Alpine regions, particularly theeffects of thelatest world economic crisis in Alpine regions, and provides some general recommendations on how to strengthen their economic
resilience. We seek to determine which Alpine regions are more resilient and why it is necessary to determine components and indicators, and to define methodology to measure these.
2 Approach and methods

Most of therecent uses of theterm resilience in regional or urban applications refer to theidea of theability of local socio-economic systems to recover from ashock or disruption. Although theidea of resilience
has been used for some time, it is only very recently that it has attracted attention from regional analysts,
spatial economists, and economic geographers (Martin2012). In economic geography, various concepts
have developed to explain economies' resilience and their ability to recover quickly. Engineering resilience
interprets it as theability of asystem to return to, or resume, its assumed stable equilibrium state or configuration following ashock. In ecological resilience, it is interpreted as thescale of shock or disturbance
asystem can absorb before it is destabilized and moves to another stable state or configuration (Martin2012).
Evolutionary economists argue that economies can never be in equilibrium (Simmie and Martin2010)
and that returning to pre-disaster normality is not always asuitable goal (Weichselgarner and Kelman2014).
Theevolutionary approach focuses on historical processes (Boschma and Frenken2011) and on theadaptive capability of asystem (Martin2012).
How do regional economies respond to recessionary and other shocks (Martin2012)? Thefirst aspect
is that of resistance; that is, thevulnerability or sensitivity of aregional economy to disturbances and disruptions, such as recessions. Thesecond aspect is that of thespeed and extent of recovery from such adisruption.
Thethird aspect concerns theextent to which theregional economy undergoes structural re-orientation
and what implications such re-orientation has for theregion's output, jobs, and incomes. Thefourth dimension concerns thedegree of renewal or resumption of thegrowth path that characterized theregional economy
prior to theshock (Martin2012).
Risk mitigation is acrucial factor for achieving theconditions for sustainable development of local
systems (Graziano2013). Therole of regional institutions is crucial in resilience-building efforts through various risk-reduction strategies. Resilience literature also points to theneeds of policy and practice. Thestrength
and prosperity of any community, no matter how large or small, are enhanced by theresilience of its individuals and communities (Mock, Easterbrook and Banks2013).
In theresilience literature there have been some attempts to measure regional resilience (including
theEspon project: Economic crisis: resilience 2013; Hill, Wial and Wolman2008; TheIndex 2011;
Briguglio et al.2008; Graziano2013; Rizzi and Dallara2011; Resilience Capacity Index2013; Foster2010).
On theother hand, Weichselgarner and Kelman (2014) criticize this, stating that resilience and related indexes hide far more than they disclose.
341
In this article, resilience is defined according to theEspon project (Economic Crisis: Resilience 2013)
as theability of aregional economy to withstand, absorb, or overcome an external economic stress. Resilience
is suggested as being apositive framework comparable to vulnerability (Weichselgartner and Kelman2014).
We use thetheoretical framework defined by applying it to astudy on risk for Alpine regions. There have
been many studies on the resilience of Alpine regions to natural hazards and socioecological change
(e.g.,Mock, Easterbrook and Banks2013; von Glasenapp and Thornton2011; Kuhlicke et al.2011), but
theresilience of Alpine regions' economies has not been sufficiently studied yet.
Theconcept of resilience seeks to understand thefactors that affect theability of regional economies
to respond to changes and to recover from quite significant shocks. In measuring it, thegross domestic product (GDP) and thenumber of unemployed are themost visible regional variables that show
economic and social wellbeing. According to theinterim findings of theEspon project on economic
crisis and resilience of regions (Economic crisis: resilience 2013) and other studies (Christopherson,
Michie and Tyler2010; Matarrita-Cascante and Trejos2013), thefollowing characteristics have thepotential to positively influence regional economic resilience: prevailing endowments of physical capital and
human capital; entrepreneurship and innovation; social capital, informal institutions, and network
capital; governmental structures with greater levels of fiscal or legislative autonomy; thepresence of
awell-educated and skilled labor force and good qualifications of graduates; theflexibility of labor markets and higher levels of labor market participation; lower levels of unemployment; housing affordability;
and thepresence of astrong critical mass of urban-based activities. Stronger economies are more resilient
than weaker ones, and economies that are more diverse tend to exhibit greater levels of resilience (Economic
crisis: resilience 2013).
In analyzing theresponse of Alpine regions to theworld economic crisis, we divided regions into
three groups as defined by theAlpine Space Programme's transnational cooperation area (Alpine Space
Programme 2014) and theAlpine Convention area (Ruffini et al.2004). Thefirst group is NUTS 3 regions
entirely within theAlpine Convention area (thirty-eight regions; Swiss regions are not included), thesecond group is composed of regions partly in theAlpine Convention area (forty-four regions), and thethird
group is regions entirely outside theAlpine Convention area (seventy-nine regions). To compare thegroups
and analyze thecrucial socioeconomic indicators in terms of performance and change before and after
thecrisis, we used afour-field chart reinterpreting thestandard form of theportfolio matrix mainly employed
in strategic management. Theportfolio matrix was first developed by theBoston consulting group in order
to position products or services that an enterprise delivers according to their market share and growth
rate, depicted respectively in thex- and y-axes of afour-field chart (Whe & Dring2010). In strategic
management, this tool makes it possible to clearly position aset of products along thefour categories defined
in thematrix, according to thecombination of high and low values of theindicators. In order to display
thesocioeconomic situation of regions before and after thecrisis with thesame effectiveness, we also employed
asimilar four-field chart. For thesake of our inquiry, such atool was advantageous because it also showed
whether movements occurred within different fields before and after thecrisis.
In this way, we shaped thebasic characteristics of theresponse of these groups of regions and interlinked them with current knowledge on resilience. We also used information to propose measures to make
regions more resilient and less vulnerable to similar shocks in thefuture.
3 Effects of theglobal economic crisis in2007 on Alpine regions

Anumber of scholars agree in considering therecent financial crisis one of themost severe economic crises
in postwar economic history (Economic crisis in Europe 2009; Arestis et al.2011; Helleiner2011). Far
from being limited to theinstabilities of some of theworld's largest private financial institutions, as it appeared
to be at theearly stages, thefinancial crisis gradually turned into aglobal economic crisis. In theEuropean
Union, thecrisis interrupted fairly constant average GDP growth and employment growth, opening thedoors
of several countries to economic recession. Despite differences in thedegree of impact, there is awidespread opinion that theeffects of thecrisis in theEuropean Union can be observed starting from2008
(Figures 2012). This chapter assumes that Alpine regions have not been immune to thedownturn of
key economic indicators, following thetrends of other European countries.
342
As Table1 shows, all of theAlpine regions experienced negative GDP growth between2008 and2009.
At thenational (NUTS 1) and regional (NUTS 2) levels, thedecline was relatively higher in Italy and Slovenia
compared to theAlpine Space Programme NUTS 1 average. Theslowdown of regional economic performances was particularly strong in Piedmont, Friuli-Venezia-Giulia, Lombardy, Eastern Slovenia, and Western
Slovenia. Conversely, although negative, South Tyrol (Italy), Upper Bavaria (Germany), ProvenceAlpesCte
d'Azur (France), and Tyrol (Austria) experienced arelatively smaller decline, whereas in Burgenland theGDP
growth rate did not vary compared to theprevious year.
Thedevelopment of socioeconomic indicators (GDP and employment growth rate) at theNUTS 3
level can be utilized to recognize intra-regional differences in theeffects of theglobal economic crises
(Lagravinese2014) and therefore it is employed in thecase of Alpine mountain economies. In addition,
in order to achieve greater accuracy in evaluating whether theeconomic crises affected Alpine mountain
economies to agreater or lesser extent compared to non-Alpine regions, three groups of NUTS 3 regions
have been identified according to theAlpine Convention borders (Ruffini et al.2004). Thefirst group includes
NUTS 3 regions entirely within theAlpine Convention border, thesecond those partly within Alpine
Convention borders and thethird NUTS 3 regions outside theAlpine Convention borders (Figure1).
GDP and employment growth development before and after thecrisis are described using theconcept
Table 1: GDP per capita at current prices (% growth) in Alpine Convention NUTS 1/NUTS 2 regions (Statistical Office 2014a; Federal Statistical
Office 2014).
NUTS 1/NUTS 2 regions
Austria
Carinthia
Styria
Salzburg
Tyrol
Vorarlberg
Upper Austria
Burgenland
Lower Austria
Italy
Piedmont
Aosta Valley
Liguria
Lombardy
Trentino
South Tyrol
Veneto
Friuli-Venezia-Giulia
France
Rhne-Alpes
ProvenceAlpesCte d'Azur
Germany
Upper Bavaria
Swabia
Slovenia
Eastern Slovenia
Western Slovenia
Switzerland
Lake Geneva Region
Espace Mittelland
Eastern Switzerland
Ticino
Central Switzerland
20072008 (%)
20082009 (%)
20092010 (%)
3.03
2.49
2.42
1.57
1.16
3.46
4.62
1.82
3.31
0.38
0.69
3.72
2.17
2.70
0.32
1.39
0.97
1.64
1.69
2.35
0.00
2.03
1.46
2.76
7.60
8.51
6.28
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
N/A
2.65
3.47
3.04
2.31
0.57
2.23
3.24
0.00
3.20
4.18
6.97
3.88
4.96
5.26
2.57
0.82
4.59
5.69
2.66
3.93
1.08
3.65
1.72
2.68
5.98
6.54
5.45
3.50
3.2
3.8
3.5
3.1
3.2
3.02
3.24
3.14
3.68
1.73
2.56
2.74
3.13
2.94
1.98
3.75
3.73
0.37
3.70
1.65
2.22
1.37
3.55
2.05
1.71
2.55
5.17
4.51
5.17
0.01
0.01
0.48
2.30
2.7
3.0
4.4
2.1
5.6
343
Figure 1: Groups of regions.
344
50
100 km
Chambry
Geneva
Grenoble
Marseille
Valence
Lyon
Dijon
France
Nice
Lucerne
Zurich
Cuneo
Brig-Glis
Genoa
Milan
Parma
La Spezia
Piacenza
Bergamo
Sondrio
Switzerland
Turin
Aosta
Bern
Basel
Germany
Firenze
Italy
Bologna
Verona
Trento
Bolzano
Innsbruck
Munich
Venice
Belluno
Udine
Ljubljana
Klagenfurt
Ancona
Trieste
Hungary
Slovakia
Croatia
Maribor
Graz
Vienna
Institute for Regional Development and Land Management

Cartography: NOWINSKI, A., 2014; EURAC Research, 2015
Terrain Base: USGS (2013); Administrative Boundaries, Cities:
Eurogeographics, 2010; State Boundaries: ESRI; Perimeter Alpine
Sources: Esri, USGS, NOAA
Convention: EURAC (2008)
Perimeter Alpine Convention
National Borders
Water
Major Cities
No data
Outside AC borders
Partly AC borders
Entirely AC borders
NUTS3 Regions in Relation to

Alpine Convention Boundary
Slovenia
Austria
Salzburg
Linz
Czech Republic
of aportfolio matrix as graphical representation (Figure2). Thex-axis shows theyearly employment growth
rate and they-axis displays theyearly GDP growth rate for each NUTS 3 region for thethree groups identfied. Thecombination of these two indicators synthetically returns in four distinct categories of theeconomic
situation before thecrisis (from2004 to2007) and economic development during thecrisis period (from2008
to2011).
Thethree different charts show adiffuse contraction in employment and overall economic performance
starting in2008 in thethree groups of regions identified. Themajority of Alpine economies entirely within theAlpine Convention borders experienced alower positive GDP and employment growth. However,
in alimited number of cases, negative growth in both GDP and employment occurred in certain regions.
Conversely, negative growth of both employment and GDP is visible in almost half of theregions partly
included within theAlpine Convention borders. In this group of regions, astronger downturn of economic
indicators affected relatively more Italian and Slovenian NUTS 3 units. This trend is also followed by Italian
and Slovenian regions outside theAlpine Convention borders, although to alower extent. Table2 shows
how regions partly within theAlpine Convention borders on average experienced amore severe drop, particularly in yearly employment growth, although before thecrisis thethree groups of regions had similar
economic performance.
Anumber of socio-economic factors may directly or indirectly explain why certain regions resist
and recover heterogeneously to shocks; that is, why some regions are more resilient to crisis than others (Bristow2014). As previously indicated, thefindings support theargument for astronger downturn
of major economic indicators in those regions partly within theAlpine Convention borders, whereas
no significant differences in theeffect of theeconomic crisis seems to emerge between theother two
groups of regions considered. An analysis of selected regional resilience indicators such as population
change, GDP growth rates, and unemployment prior to thecrisis (Bristow2014) could be avaluable
asset for outlining differences in regional resilience potential. However, theanalysis shows that such markers for resilience (Table2) are not significantly different among thethree groups of regions selected. In
particular, all of theregions exhibit similar average yearly GDP growth and unemployment rate prior
to crisis. Against this trend, theoutcome of theportfolio matrices indicates that employment in regions
partly included shows lower growth and stronger contraction before and after thecrisis period, respectively.
To conclude, this article identified which regions at theNUTS 2 and NUTS 3 levels have been more
affected by theeconomic crisis considering thedevelopment of major structural economic indicators.
It has to be acknowledged that at theNUTS 3 level alarge majority of theindicators reflecting resilience
characteristics are neither available nor adequate in terms of data completeness to allow regional comparison. However, theanalysis of selected resilience indicators points to employment development
as apotential negative marker for resilience in regions partly included in theAlpine Convention borders. This offers apreliminary result, which requires further research and more detailed data because
explaining thepotential causes of different degrees of resilience is acomplex and multidimensional
issue (Bristow2014).
Table 2: Selected indicators for groups of regions examined (Statistical office 2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2014d).
Category
Average GDP, 2007 (/inhabitant)
Yearly GDP growth rate (20002007)
Average unemployment rate 2007
Yearly employment growth rate (20042007)
Yearly employment growth rate (20082011)
Yearly population change (20032007)
Entirely in the Alpine

Convention area
Partly in the Alpine

Convention area
Outside the Alpine

Convention area
28,286.84
3.11%
2.86%
0.96%
4.20%
1.32%
0.30%
0.34%
26,922.73
3.65%
3.13%
1.26%
4.21%
0.05%
0.38%
0.67%
29,435.55
2.95%
2.81%
0.88%
4.70%
1.23%
0.29%
0.43%
Figure 2: Portfolio matrix summarizing main economic developments before and after the crisis. p p. 346
345
NUTS 3 regions fully within Alpine Convention borders

4,00%
3,00%
Savoie
GDP ye a rly grow th ra te
2,00%
Kempten (Allgu), Kreisfreie Stadt

Tiroler Oberland
Pinzgau-Pongau
Bludenz-Bregenzer Wald
OsttirolTiroler Unterland
Unterkrnten
Haute-Savoie
1,00%
stliche Obersteiermark
Oberkrnten
Auerfern
Lungau
Koroka
Traunstein
Liezen
Haute-Savoie
3,00%
0,00%
1,00%
Oberk
1,00% Unterkrnten
Hautes-Alpes
3,00%
5,00%
7,00%
9,00%
Kaufbeuren, Kreisfreie Stadt

stliche Obersteiermark
Belluno
1,00%
2,00%
Koroka
3,00%
4,00%
NUTS 3 regions partly within Alpine Convention borders

4,00%
Imperia
3,00%
Alpes-Maritimes
Var
GDP ye a rly grow th ra te
2,00%
Savona
Osrednjeslovenska
Isre
Udine
Drme
Cuneo Verona Wiener Umland/Sdteil
Wiener Umland/Nordteil
Graz Treviso
Traunviertel
Biella
1,00%
Gorika
Savinjska
Podravska
Oststeiermark
Notranjsko -kraka
Gorenjska
0,00%
3,00%
1,00%Vercelli
1,00%
Savona
Como
Novara Cuneo
Bergamo
Osrednjeslovenska
Brescia
1,00%
Varese
Gorenjska
Lecco Biella
Imperia
Udine
Podravska Savinjska
TrevisoGorika Notranjsko- 2,00%
3,00%
5,00%
7,00%
9,00%
kraka
3,00%
4,00%
NUTS 3 regions outside Alpine Convention borders

4,00%
Rhne
3,00%
Lodi
Bouches-du-Rhne
Ulm, Stadtkreis
GDP ye a rly grow th rate
2,00%
Neuburg-Schrobenhausen
Memmingen, Kreisfreie Stadt

Sigmaringen
Mhldorf a. Inn
Gnzburg
Obalno-kraka
Donau-Ries
1,00%
Pfaffenhofen a. d. Ilm
3,00%
Territoire de Belfort
Jugovzhodna Slovenija
Alb-Donau-Kreis
Alttting
Dachau
0,00%
Asti
1,00%
Alessandria
Rovigo
1,00%
Pavia
Haute-Sane
Jura
Weinviertel
3,00%
5,00%
7,00%
Spodnjeposavska
Zasavska
Pavia
Pomurska
1,00%
La Spezia
Zasavska
Pomurska
Lodi
2,00%
Trieste
3,00%
4,00%
Employment (in 1000 persons) yearly growth rate

Series1
Series2
Linear (Series1)
346
Linear (Series2)
9,00%
3,50%
Average yearly GDP growth
3,00%
Average yearly employment growth
1,20%
1,00%
2,50%
0,80%
2,00%
0,60%
0,40%
0,20%
1,50%
1,00%
0,00%
0,20%
0,50%
0,00%
1,60%
1,40%
Entirely
Partly
Outside
0,40%
Entirely
Partly
Outside
0,60%
20042007
20082011
Figure 3: Average yearly GDP and employment growth in NUTS 3 groups identified.
4 Towards more resilient economies in theAlps: Conclusions

Studying theeffects of theeconomic crisis at thelevel of theentire Alpine Space Programme area indicates country-specific responses; namely, Italian and Slovenian regions perform worse than regions in other
Alpine countries. This could be compared to theresults of theEspon group (Economic Crisis: Resilience2013),
where major differences among countries are similarly noticeable. Consequently, regions cannot be understood as theonly decisive factors in providing resilience because they strongly depend on themacroeconomic
framework conditions of theentire country. Therefore thefirst step towards more resilient regions should
be made at thenational level, providing attractive socioeconomic conditions such as an innovation-friendly tax system, openness to foreign investment, acompetitive business environment, aflexible employment
system, and, above all, atrustworthy and stable political system that plays an important role in confidence
building while interacting at theinternational level.
Sector-specific characteristics of theeconomic crisis can be overcome by adiversified mix of companies and sectors that can only be achieved in thelong term. Residues of unprofitable economic activities
remain for along time and are often aburden to economic development. For example, unqualified workers, when unemployed, cannot meet therequirements for knowledge-intensive sectors, which are currently
gaining in importance. In particular, human capital requires alonger period to adapt, and therefore educational policy should constantly strive to provide ahighly skilled and flexible workforce that is able to
change employment within thesector or even to pass on to another sector.
Special concern should be dedicated to thesector that represents theeconomic backbone of aregion.
Its resilience should be strengthened, but at thesame time thecrisis is an opportunity to improve and transform theregional economic structure. In this process, consensus among various regional actors is of vital
importance, particularly when optimizing theuse of regional resources.
Theeconomic crisis in2007 was an external factor more severely influencing regions that were strongly connected to theglobal market, be this through resource dependency or through their export activities.
To increase their resilience, regions should increasingly mobilize their own resources, which is achallenging
opportunity especially to theAlps because theAlps are perceived as one of themost resourceful regions
in Europe.
Effects of theeconomic crisis quickly covered all of European territory, whereas recovery requires much
more time (Economic Crisis: Resilience 2013). Differences in vulnerability and recovery between countries point to therole of aflexible economic system and theimportance of aquick and coordinated response
of all crucial actors all levels of government (national, regional, and local), thepublic, and private sectors (Bagley 2012). A quick response and adaptability are crucial, particularly because changes are
becoming one of therare constants of thecontemporary increasingly interconnected world. Successfully
facing daily challenges might contribute to higher resilience in thelong run. In this regard, actions must
347
be taken as soon as thefirst signals of achange appear; no matter thesize of achallenge, aprompt reaction
could help in overcoming it more easily. To this end, constant monitoring of economic trends is mandatory.
According to theOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, acrisis is also theright
time to introduce locally led strategic planning, to enhance administrative capacity and participation of
regional stakeholders in decision-making process, and to introduce reforms, new standards, and higher
accountability (Building 2013).
Aproactive approach could considerably minimize therole of external economic factors; therefore
cooperation of all crucial regional actors is desirable particularly concerning those measures aimed at safeguarding regional employment, which ultimately can contribute to increasing regional resilience. Not only
can proactivity provide an adequate response to external challenges, it can also put regions in aposition
where they generate and lead achange.
As aEuropean macro region, theAlps have aconsiderable advantage in terms of institutional and strategic settlement. On theone hand, theAlpine Convention, protocols, thepermanent secretariat, and thecontract
parties (Alpine countries) build asolid institutional and legal framework for transnational dialogue on
future sustainable development of theregion. On theother hand, theAlpine Space Programme's transnational cooperation program provides funding for implementing projects, leading to amore attractive, accessible,
competitive, and environmentally friendly macro-region. Because fostering regional resilience is one of
thestrategic goals, thenext program period could considerably improve theeconomic performance of Alpine
regions, and hopefully this will also raise theregion's resilience.
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tRansnational needs oF
sUstainable sPatial develoPMent
in thealPs: ResUlts FRoM an
analYsis oF PoliCY doCUMents
fLORIAN LINTZMEYER
Stefan Marzelli, Florian Lintzmeyer
Nature protection and economic competitiveness: what are policy fields

of transnational spatial development in the Alps?
Stefan Marzelli, Florian Lintzmeyer, Transnational needs of sustainable spatial development in theAlps

UDC: 913:711(234.3)
711:502.131(234.3)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT: Spatial planning documents referring to theAlps address theneeds of transnational spatial
development. This article presents selected results from an analysis of thirty-two spatial planning strategies, plans, and reports carried out within theEuropean Transnational Cooperation and Alpine Space
Programme's WIKIAlps project (20072013). Theresults include aquantitative analysis of thedimension
of transnational needs, added value, and obstacles as perceived in these framework documents on spatial
development. Thedocuments were also analyzed with regard to references to stakeholder groups relevant
for addressing these transnational needs. Theanalysis emphasizes that more transnational coordination
is desirable in many policy fields, from strategy development and governance processes, to more coordinated management of natural resources, to building an appropriate knowledge base for transnational
decision-making.
KEY WORDS: geography, spatial development, spatial planning, document analysis, transnational needs,
obstacles, added value, stakeholders, Alps
Thearticle was submitted for publication on November11th,2014.
ADDRESSES:
Stefan Marzelli
Institute for Environmental Planning and Spatial Development IFUPLAN
Amalienstr. 79, DE 80799Munich, Germany
E-mail: stefan.marzelli@ifuplan.de
Florian Lintzmeyer
Institute for Environmental Planning and Spatial Development IFUPLAN
Amalienstr. 79, DE 80799Munich, Germany
E-mail: florian.lintzmeyer@ifuplan.de
352
1 Introduction
Themain focus of theWIKIAlps project was to identify and categorize contributions of theAlpine Space
Programme's projects to sustainable transnational development in theAlps. One preliminary working step
in this regard is to investigate which transnational implications are found in regional, national, and international spatial development documents, strategies, and plans. Theunderlying assumption is that these
documents address issues of particular relevance for Alpine spatial development at thenational and regional levels (cf.Price et al.2011, Dhr2013 and Halacher2007). Spatial development per se is nonspecific
and requires anormative framework with regard to its policy objectives. Spatial development as understood
in theWIKIAlps project therefore includes sustainability criteria for spatial development as outlined by
theEuropean Conference of Ministers responsible for spatial planning (CEMAT2000) and theAlpine
Convention Implementation Protocol on Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development (Protocol 1994).
References with regard to transnational needs are therefore avaluable indication of which issues require
astronger transnational approach in order to steer Alpine development towards sustainability. This article presents the results of a document analysis and discusses the relation between issues deemed of
transnational importance and thefactual governance framework for coordinated spatial development in
theAlps.
2 Objective and method

Theobjective of thedocument analysis was to screen themost relevant national and regional spatial planning documents of theAlpine countries as well as selected transnational documents of spatial relevance
with regard to their references to transnational needs of spatial development. Theassumption is that this
document analysis will produce aconsolidated framework of required and complementary steps necessary to promote sustainable spatial development at atransnational level to which individual projects can
contribute.
Theanalysis was carried out by theWIKIAlps project partnership between January and April2014.
Thirty-one documents were analyzed (cf.Figure1) covering different spatial entities. Twenty-one documents focused on national or regional spatial development within one country. Six specifically addressed
cross-border regions between two countries, and theremaining four addressed spatial development in more
than two countries.
Among thetwenty-one national or regional documents were six documents from France, two documents from Switzerland, two documents from Germany, seven documents from Italy, and four documents
from Slovenia.
Theanalytical framework for each document comprised thefollowing questions:
a) What is thetransnational dimension of each specific topic, and why is it relevant at atransnational scale?
b) What added value is expected from transnational spatial development?
c) What obstacles currently impede transnational spatial development approaches?
d) What proposals are being made with regard to theissue?
e) What key stakeholders for thetopic are mentioned?
f) Which good examples / pilot activities does thedocument refer to with regard to theabovementioned
topic?
g) Personal comment by theanalyst.
This article focuses on aquantitative analysis of thespecific dimension of transnational needs, theadded
value expected from transnational spatial development, theobstacles that currently impede transnational
approaches and stakeholders that are deemed relevant for appropriately addressing these issues.
2.1 Quantitative analysis

Theanalysis of spatial development documents (Analysis 2014) produced atotal of182different transnational needs. Most of these individual needs contain adetailed description of thetransnational dimension,
theadded value that can be expected from respective improvements, thecurrent obstacles that currently
impede spatial development, and relevant stakeholders required for transnational spatial development.
353
Table 1: Analyzed documents.

TRANSNATIONAL
European Commission 1999: ESDP European spatial development perspective, Towards balanced and sustainable development of the territory
of the European Union. Brussels.
European Union 2013: ULYSSES Using applied research results from ESPON as a yardstick for cross-border spatial development planning.
Luxembourg.
Joint technical secretariat of the Alpine space programme 2013: Strategy development for the Alpine space. Munich.
Permanent secretariat of the Alpine convention 2011: Sustainable rural development and innovation. Innsbruck.
BINATIONAL
Regione autonoma Friuli-Venezia-Giulia, Regione del Veneto, Provincia autonoma di Bolzano, Land Krnten, Land Salzburg, Land Tirol 2007:
Operationelles Programm zur Frderung der grenzberschreitenden Zusammenarbeit im Grenzraum zwischen sterreich Italien.
Grand Genve agglomration franco-valdo-genevoise 2012: Charte 2012 du projet d'agglomration franco-valdo-genevois. Geneva.
Regione Lombardia, Regione Piemonte, Regione autonoma Valle d'Aosta, Provincia autonoma di Bolzano, Kanton Graubnden, Cantone Ticino,
Canton du Valais 2007: Obiettivo Cooperazione territorial Europea, Programma per la cooperazione transfrontaliera Italia
Svizzera 20072013.
ALCOTRA (ed.) 2007: Programma di cooperazione transfrontaliera Italia Francia.
IPA Adriatic CBC (ed.) 2007: IPA Adriatic cross-border cooperation programme.
Regione autonoma Friuli-Venezia-Giulia, Regione del Veneto, Regione Emilia-Romagna, Republika Slovenija 2007: Programma per la
cooperazione transfrontaliera ItaliaSlovenia 20072013.
GERMANY
Bundesinstitut fr Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung 2012: Raumordnungsbericht 2011. Bonn.
Bayerische Staatsregierung 2013: Landesentwicklungsprogramm Bayern (LEP). Munich.
FRANCE
Comit du Massif des Alpes 2013: Schema interregional du massif des Alpes. Grenoble.
Conseil Rgional de la rgion Rhne-Alpes 2013: Schma rgional de cohrence ecologique Rhne-Alpes. Lyon.
Direction rgionale de l'environnement, de l'amnagement et du logement Rhne-Alpes (DREAL Rhne-Alpes) 2010: Directive territoriale
d'amnagement des Alpes du Nord. Lyon.
Prefecture des Alpes-Maritimes 2003: La directive territoriale d'amnagement des Alpes-Maritimes. Nice.
Loi no 85-30 du 9 janvier 1985 relative au dveloppement et la protection de la montagne. Journal officiel de la Rpublique Franaise,
10. 1. 1985.
COPIL SDD, CEDDAET, Groupement Thomasset, Groupement SDD Mont-Blanc Valais 2005. Schma de developpement durable de l'espace
Mont Blanc.
ITALY
Autonome Provinz Bozen Sdtirol 1995: Sdtirol Leitbild 2000, Landesentwicklungs- und Raumordnungsplan (LEROP). Bozen.
Ministero dell'Ambiente e della tutela del territorio e del mare 2013: Elementi per una Strategia nazionale di adattamento ai cambiamenti
climatici, Documento per la consultazione pubblica. Roma.
Ministero delle politiche agricole alimentare e forestale 2010: Piano strategico nazionale per lo sviluppo rurale 20072013. Roma.
Regione Autonoma Friuli Venezia Giulia 2013: Piano del Governo del Territorio. Trieste.
Regione del Veneto giunta regionale 2013: Programma di sviluppo rurale per il Veneto 20072013. Venezia.
Ministero sviluppo economico 2013: Strategia energetica nazionale, per un'energia pi competitiva e sostenibile. Roma.
Regione Piemonte 2011: Piano territoriale regionale. Torino.
SWITZERLAND
Schweizerischer Bundesrat 2012: Strategie Nachhaltige Entwicklung 20122015. Bern.
Schweizerischer Bundesrat, KdK, BPUK, SSV, SGV 2012: Raumkonzept Schweiz. Bern.
SLOVENIA
Government office for local self-government and regional policy 2011: Operational programme for strengthening regional development
potentials for the period 20072013. Ljubljana.
Institute of macroeconomic analysis and development 2005: Slovenia's development strategy. Ljubljana.
Ministry of the environment and spatial planning 2004: Resolution on national environmental action plan 20052012. Ljubljana.
Ministry of the environment, spatial planning and energy 2004: Spatial development strategy of Slovenia. Ljubljana.
354
To be able to carry out aquantitative analysis of this data collection, thefollowing steps were carried
out: first each of the182individual entries was indexed with an individual keyword, and then related keywords were summarized into akeyword category. Thequantitative analysis is based on these keyword categories.
Theprocess is described in Table1.
Table 2: From text reference to keyword category (example).
Original text reference in the spatial planning document;
for example, regarding the transnational dimension
Individual keyword
Keyword category
Community strategic guidelines for rural development

(programming period 2007 to 2013) (2006/144/EC):
improving governance and mobilizing the endogenous
development potential of rural areas
Rural areas' endogenous

development potential
Rural development
Individual keywords summarized in thekeyword category rural development include employment

opportunities in rural areas, marginalization of rural areas, improving theattractiveness of rural areas,
rural areas' endogenous development potential, and rural development. As amethodological shortcoming,
it needs to be mentioned that, due to thethematic complexity of spatial development and theunavoidable
overlap between categories (e.g.,between Cooperation and networking and Economic cooperation and
exchange), theallocation of individual keywords to one category or another required weighing different
arguments. In some cases and despite an internal review of each allocation, thecategorization can be justifiably debated (WIKIAlps Consortium2014).
Not all four categories (dimension, added value, obstacles, and relevant stakeholders) could be filled
for every transnational need; in several cases, one or two of these categories contained no or no applicable
entry. Consequently, there are differing numbers of entries for these three categories.
Inevitably, this categorization step results in theloss of specific aspects, which would require in-depth
analysis of each transnational need. On theother hand, it is necessary to arrive at an understandable overview,
which is one of thekey objectives of theWIKIAlps project.
3 Results
With182references to transnational needs, each document analyzed contains six references on average.
At first glance, this appears to be surprisingly few. One explanation might be that, historically and institutionally, most of thedocuments were drafted and adopted by institutions such as ministries or agencies
that strongly or almost exclusively focus on their own areas of competence, in both theterritorial and sectoral sense.
3.1 Transnational dimension of topics

Not surprisingly, most of thedominant categories of transnational needs are rather nonspecific categories,
such as cross-border development and territorial cohesion, spatial planning and development, policy and
governance, and cooperation and networking (cf.Table2). On theother hand, some specific policy fields
also emerge such as theissue of connectivity and accessibility, which subsume corridors, accessibility of
isolated areas, transport, and logistics. Additional specific topics of transnational relevance are water management, biodiversity, economic cooperation, and exchange.
At theother end of thescale, it is surprising to note that issues such as climate change, ecosystem management, and demographic change issues that have been dominating recent national debates in spatial
development are perceived to have alimited transnational dimension according to thedocuments.
3.2 Added value of transnational spatial development

In almost half of thecases, thespatial planning documents refer to transnational needs, but do not outline which added value can be expected from amore transnational approach to these issues (cf.Table3).
355
Themost frequent added value is seen in themanagement of natural resources and ecosystems, acoherent strategy development and implementation, and transport and accessibility. Added value is also seen
in an economic sense (competitiveness, knowledge sharing, and transfer) and in energy and natural-risk
management. Added value with regard to European Union (EU) policies is seen with regard to achieving
EU policy objectives on theone hand, but also with regard to improving access to EU funds through transnational cooperation.
3.3 Obstacles impeding transnational spatial development

Themost relevant obstacles identified are administrative, legal, and cultural differences and lack of cross-border coordination, data, and knowledge (cf.Table4). Given thefragmentation of theAlps by administrative
and cultural borders, thefirst obstacle hardly comes as asurprise. It comprises theregulatory and administrative framework, but also thedifficult task of coordinating policies and instruments both vertically and
horizontally in theAlps across borders. Thesecond most relevant obstacle goes to thecore of what capitalization projects such as WIKIAlps are trying to achieve: to improve the knowledge base for sound
decision-making with regard to policy fields of atransnational dimension and thus contribute to cross-border coordination.
Table 3: Transnational dimension of topics (n = 182).
The topic has a transnational dimension in:
Count
Cross-border development and territorial cohesion in general

Connectivity and accessibility
Spatial planning and development
Policy and governance
Cooperation and networking
No reference
Water management
Biodiversity
Economic cooperation and exchange
Rural development
Energy
Settlement development
Urban-rural relationship
Tourism
Research, development, and capacity building
Natural resource management
Agriculture/forestry
Cultural heritage and identity
Natural hazards
Coordination with European policies
Not applicable
Protected areas
Climate change
Ecosystem management
Information and communication technologies
Relations between cities
Foods
Demographic change
Funding
Statistical data
Air pollution
33
14
12
11 each
9 each
8
7
6 each
5 each
4 each
3 each
2 each
1 each
356
Theperception that spatial development is competitive rather than cooperative is amanifestation of

arecent paradigm shift in spatial planning policies. Once mainly focusing on balancing polarized spatial
development processes (e.g.,between thriving agglomerations and peripheral areas) and providing asolid
framework against pressures on natural resources (e.g.,thezoning of theBavarian Alps in theBavarian
Spatial Development Program), spatial planning itself is increasingly seen as promoter of economic development. This ambivalence is reflected in theperception that competition impedes transnational spatial
development, while at thesame time increased competitiveness is seen as apotential added value of such
development.
Thelack of accessibility comprises various transport modes and purposes, from obstacles such as lacking competitiveness of combined transport to lacking urban-rural public transportation links and poor
transnational connections.
Across-cutting issue throughout several categories is theperception that Alpine stakeholders lack acommon understanding of transnational spatial development, partly due to theinherent conflict of interest
of stakeholders from thelocal to thenational levels. On theone hand, stakeholders and decision-makers
are above all accountable for their respective territory and topics; on theother hand, it is increasingly obvious that policy fields can no longer be appropriately steered within these confined territories.
3.4 Relevant stakeholders

Which institutions and stakeholders need to be addressed in thecontext of thetransnational needs outlined
in thedocuments analyzed? In thecase of ninety-eight of thetotal of182 transnational needs, thedocuments
Table 4: Added value of transnational spatial development (n = 182).
Potential added value is seen in:
Count
No reference
Management of natural resources and ecosystems
Strategy development and implementation
Transport and accessibility
Competitiveness
Energy
Natural risk management
EU policies
Knowledge sharing and transfer
Ecological networks
Coordinated settlement development
Tourism
Spatial planning
Urban-rural development / functional areas / urban and regional networks
Rural development
Qualification and access to labor force
Border regions
Participation
Biodiversity
Social and health systems
ICT
Public services
Agricultural products
Education
Cooperation
Cooperation and coordination
357
70
11 each
9
7
6 each
5 each
4 each
3 each
2 each
1 each
refer to relevant stakeholders that can contribute to more coordinated spatial development in thespecific
regard. Given thecomplexity of needs, it is not surprising that, for many transnational needs, thedocuments
refer not to one single stakeholder, but amultitude of stakeholders, resulting in atotal number of 391references to individual stakeholders (Table5).
Table 5: Obstacles impeding transnational spatial development (n = 182).
Obstacles are seen in:
Count
118
No reference
Administrative, legal, and cultural differences
Lack of cross-border coordination, data, and knowledge
Not applicable
Lack of accessibility
Competition instead of cooperation
Lacking awareness of cultural and natural heritage
Different interests
Spatial disparities
Artificial barriers
Sectoral policies
Sectoral deficits
Implementation deficits
Economic structures
Lack of transnational institutional setup
Management capacities
Lack of policy framework
Depopulation
10 each
7 each
4 each
3 each
2 each
1 each
Table 6: References to relevant stakeholder categories with regard to transnational needs.

Stakeholder category
Count
Public bodies (at various administrative levels, excluding municipalities)

Ministries (as a subcategory of public bodies)
NGO/NPO (nongovernmental/nonprofit organizations)
Spatial planning authorities (and other spatial planning stakeholders)
Public agencies
Networks
Towns/municipalities
Private sector
University/institutes of applied science
Research institute/center
Protected area management bodies
Development agencies
Intermunicipal associations
Chambers of trade and crafts
Clusters (R&D)
Chambers of commerce and industry
Citizens
Providers of public services
Other
Planning consultancies
Technological and research centers
Total
56
37
33
27
25
24
21
19
19
17
16
16
14
13
13
12
9
8
5
5
2
391
358
Again, individual entries were categorized into twenty-one categories covering public and governmental
institutions and levels, theprivate sector with its representations, education and research institutions, and
civil society:
Public and governmental institutions account for atotal of220references; these include public bodies,
ministries, spatial planning organizations, public agencies, towns/municipalities, protected area management bodies, development agencies, intermunicipal associations, and providers of public services;
Civil society accounts for atotal of sixty-six references; these include NGO/NPO, networks and, thegeneral public;
Theprivate sector and its representations account for atotal of sixty-two references; these include theprivate sector, chambers of trade and crafts, chambers of commerce and industry, clusters (R&D), and planning
consultancies;
Education and research institutions account for atotal of thirty-eight references; these include universities/institutes of applied sciences, research institutes/centers, and technological and research centers.
In certain cases, theclassification of these categories is not unambiguous. Providers of public services,
for instance, comprise providers of services of general interest and public companies (usually at least partly
state-owned or regulated) and fully public companies. Despite being classified as apublic institution, this
category also belongs to theprivate sector to acertain extent.
Thus, although governmental institutions remain thecore stakeholder group for furthering spatial challenges of transnational relevance, it is also obvious that stakeholders outside thegovernmental arena (foremost
civil society and theprivate sector, but also universities and research institutions) are seen as vital and essential partners.
4 Discussion
Provocatively, it can be argued that there is awidening gap between theincreasing urgency for coordinated
spatial development and planning, and there is aloss of relevance of spatial planning institutions and documents throughout Europe. In the1990s, theAlpine Convention process resulted in theadoption of an entire
protocol dedicated to spatial planning and sustainable development. At theEuropean level, theEuropean
Spatial Development Perspective of1999 (European Commission1999) outlined issues and fields of action
for European spatial planning initiatives that transcend national borders to appropriately tackle issues that
can no longer be solved within individual countries. Subsequently, however, thetransnational planning
enthusiasm was replaced by thecurrent funding- and project-based approach to European cohesion policy (Kunzmann2014).
Thesame marginalization of aformal planning framework can also be observed at anational level.
For instance, in Germany, theformer National Framework on Spatial Planning Policy (Raumordnungspolitischer
Orientierungsrahmen1993) was replaced in2006 by Concepts and Strategies for Spatial Development in
Germany (cf.Federal Ministry2006). In asematic sense, spatial planning seems to no longer provide aframework for decision-making processes, but an orientation instead.
Looking at theAlps, borders and national differences do not pose aproblem per se. In fact, cultural
differences and also different policy approaches to issues are instead what make theAlps such aunique
place in themiddle of Europe. In thetransport sector, theexemplary Swiss approach to promoting public transportation and limiting freight transport volumes on theroad, for example, might not have been
feasible in comparable time if it were adopted by all Alpine countries especially bearing in mind that
mountain-oriented policies are marginal in thenational political agenda of large area Alpine countries such
as Italy, France, or Germany.
However and theanalysis outlined emphasizes this point there are spatial development issues of
an undisputable transnational dimension that require stronger transnational cooperation and coordination (cf.Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Affairs et al.2009). At an abstract level, few
would oppose this. Many topics of atransnational dimension, however, require substantial modifications
with regard to theinstitutional and administrative framework as well as regarding theagendas of stakeholders and decision-makers in theAlps and beyond. Thewide range of stakeholders considered essential
for achieving progress with regard to transnational spatial needs illustrates not only thecomplexity, but
also thehuge momentum, that can be drawn from stronger coordination across borders.
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Awareness of theneed for closer transnational coordination in Alpine policy and governance therefore needs to be strengthened among national institutions. In thelong run, this might even imply thetransfer
of responsibilities and legitimacy from national institutions to binational or multinational institutions in
theAlps, depending on theextent of transnational coordination. Theneed for coordinating sector policies at asupranational level in ecosystem management, tourism, or commercial development is aspecifically
Alpine issue (cf.Price et al.2011), considering therelevance of Alpine ecological functions inside theAlps
and also for neighboring lowlands, tourism for certain Alpine areas, and theconsiderable short-term benefits that regions can draw from deregulating urban development zoning laws at theexpense of their
cross-border neighboring regions.
In an environment of governance-oriented spatial planning policies, this could include defining minimum standards as well as appropriate cartographic definitions for undesirable processes and spatial outcomes.
TheState Development Program of Bavaria, for instance, differentiates theGerman topographic Alpine
area into three zones (Erholungslandschaft Alpen or Alpenplan, cf. Bayerische Staatsregierung2013) with
different implications for tourism projects. Forty years after its introduction, it can be stated that this instrument proved relatively successful in containing thenegative spatial outcomes of tourism and commercial
development. However, thequestion remains how to balance spatial development in theAlps between these
stringent analytical needs and their spatial delineations on theone hand, and bottom-up processes and
local agendas on theother. In any case, thedifferent economic and ecosystematic functions of individual
regions need to be accompanied by theestablishment of substantial regional and even transnational compensation mechanisms (e.g.theGreina Foundation and regional pools of commercial areas), thus creating
effective incentives for spatially adapted development models in theAlps.
With theanalysis of current spatial planning documents with relevance for theAlps, theWIKIAlps
project provides an overview of theexisting strategic framework for spatial planning and development in
theAlps. Thetopics identified could serve as astarting point for Alpine policies (e.g.,theAlpine Convention,
Alpine Space Programme, and EUSALP process) to promote transnational approaches in relevant policy
fields.
5 References
Analysis of national documents in regard to needs and challenges of transnational spatial development.2014.
Institut fr Umweltplanung und Raumentwicklung. Munich. Internet: http://www.wikialps-project.eu/working-material/Documents/action_4_2_working_paper_transnational_needs.pdf (22. 1. 2015).
Bayerische Staatsregierung 2013: Landesentwicklungsprogramm Bayern (LEP). Munich. Internet:
http://www.landesentwicklung-bayern.de/fileadmin/user_upload/landesentwicklung/Bilder/Instrumente/
Landesentwicklungsprogramm_Bayern.pdf (14. 11. 2014).
Federal ministry of transport, building and urban affairs (BMVBS), Federal office for building and regional planning (BBR)2009: Impacts and benefits of transnational projects (INTERREGIIIB). Berlin. Internet:
http://www.bbsr.bund.de/BBSR/EN/Publications/BMVBS/Forschungen/2009/DL_138.pdf;jsessionid=B059856663283BC95D4642F5BA3A7B05.live2052?__blob=publicationFile&v=2 (18. 11. 2014).
CEMAT European conference of ministers responsible for regional planning2000: Guiding principles
for sustainable spatial development of theEuropean continent. Internet: http://www.coe.int/t/dgap/
localdemocracy/cemat/VersionPrincipes/Anglais.pdf (7. 11. 2014).
Dhr, S., Nadin, V., Colomb, C.2010: European spatial planning and territorial cooperation. London. DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.4324/9780203895290
European Commission1999: ESDP European spatial development perspective, towards balanced and sustainable development of theterritory of theEuropean Union. Brussels. Internet: http://ec.europa.eu/
regional_policy/sources/docoffic/official/reports/pdf/sum_en.pdf (14. 11. 2014).
Federal ministry of transport, building and urban affairs (BMVBS) (Ed.)2006: Concepts and strategies
for spatial development in Germany. Berlin.
Halacher, P.2007: Alpine Raumordnung. Lndlicher Raum Jahrgang2007. Wien. Internet: http://www.bmlfuw.gv.at/
dms/lmat/land/laendl_entwicklung/Online-Fachzeitschrift-Laendlicher-Raum/archiv/2007/Hasslacher/
Ha_lacher_pdf_END.pdf (14. 11. 2014).
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Kunzmann, K.2014: Kohsion und Raumordnung. Nachrichten, Magazin der Akademie fr Raumforschung
und Landesplanung 3.
Price, M., Borowski, D. Macleod, C. Rudaz, G. Debarbieux, B.2011: Sustainable mountain development
in theAlps, from Rio1992 to Rio2012 and beyond. Perth/Geneva. Internet: http://www.mountainpartnership.org/fileadmin/user_upload/mountain_partnership/docs/ALPS%20FINAL%2020120228%20
RIO%20Alps.pdf (14. 11. 2014).
Protocol on theimplementation of theAlpine convention of1991relating to spatial planning and sustainable
development,1994. Internet: http://www.alpconv.org/en/convention/protocols/Documents/Protokoll_
RaumplanungGB.pdf (11. 9. 2014).
Raumordnungspolitischer Orientierungsrahmen: Leitbild fr die rumliche Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland.1993. Bundesministerium fr Raumordnung, Bauwesen und Stdtebau. Internet:
https://www.umweltbundesamt.de/sites/default/files/medien/377/dokumente/raumordnungspolitischer_
orientierungsrahmen.pdf (22. 1. 2015).
WIKIAlps Consortium2014: WIKIAlps synthesis booklet. Bolzano. Internet: http://www.wikialps-project.eu/
working-material/Documents/WIKIALPS_booklet.pdf (22. 1. 2015).
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aChieving sUstainable sPatial

develoPMent in thealPs thRoUgh
PaRtiCiPatoRY Planning
JANEZ NARED
Janez Nared, Nika Razpotnik Viskovi, Dominik Cremer-Schulte,

Riccardo Brozzi, Felipe Cortines Garcia
Shaping the plan.
Janez Nared, Nika Razpotnik Viskovi, Dominik Cremer-Schulte, Riccardo Brozzi, Felipe Cortines Garcia, Achieving
Achieving sustainable spatial development in theAlps through

participatory planning
DOI: http:://dx.doi.org/10.3986/AGS.1631
UDC: 913:711(234.3)
711:502.131(234.3)
COBISS: 1.01
ABSTRACT:
This article analyzes thelegal frameworks of participatory planning in Alpine countries and assesses its
role in achieving more sustainable spatial development in theAlps. Our research analyzed twenty-seven
legal acts from seven Alpine countries and shows that therole of stakeholder participation in spatial planning has gradually increased. However, participation still remains at arather unsatisfactory level, mainly
because of its pro-forma character and practitioners' insufficient knowledge on how to implement it. To
increase theuse of participatory processes, it is important 1)to convince planning stakeholders that participation is akey instrument in ensuring sustainable spatial development and 2)to inform practitioners
about participatory methods and techniques.
KEYWORDS: geography, spatial planning, participatory planning, Alps, sustainable development
Thearticle was submitted for publication on January20th,2015.
ADDRESSES:
Janez Nared, Ph.D.
Research centre of theSlovenian academy of sciences and arts
E-mail: janez.nared@zrc-sazu.si
Nika Razpotnik Viskovi, Ph.D.
Research centre of theSlovenian academy of sciences and arts
E-mail: nika.razpotnik@zrc-sazu.si
Dominik Cremer-Schulte
National research institute of science and technology for environment and agriculture
2, rue de la papeterie, BP 76, F 38402Saint-Martin-d'Hres Cedex, Grenoble, France
E-mail: dominik.cremer-schulte@irstea.fr
Riccardo Brozzi
Institute for regional development and location management
European academy of Bozen/Bolzano
E-mail: riccardo.brozzi@eurac.edu
Felipe Cortines Garcia
Institute for regional development and location management
European academy of Bozen/Bolzano
E-mail: felipe.cortines@eurac.edu
364
1 Introduction
TheAlps are one of themost remarkable European macro-regions. They face manifold development challenges, such as climate and demographic change followed by environmental and economic processes, and
this constantly demands rapid and deliberate reaction to preserve theAlps' unique ecosystem and thewellbeing of thepeople that live there. In order to mutually address shared issues, theAlpine countries have agreed
on common strategic objectives in theAlpine Convention, an international treaty between theAlpine countries (Austria, France, Germany, Italy, Liechtenstein, Monaco, Slovenia, and Switzerland) as well as theEU,
aimed at promoting sustainable development in theAlpine area and at protecting theinterests of thepeople
living within it (Alpine Convention2014). Preservation of theunique and sensitive Alpine environment
must go hand in hand with human social and economic activities, and therefore appropriate and diversified measures should be applied in agreement with thelocal population, political representatives, and
businesses and associations (Protocol 1994). Local stakeholders are brought to thefore and given achance
to determine their own territory's social, cultural, and economic development, with theconviction that
many problems in Alpine territory can best be solved by thelocal and regional authorities directly concerned. In providing aframework for participation of local and regional authorities, each contracting country
shall define thebest level of coordination and cooperation between its institutions and regional and local
authorities. In doing so, potential synergies might be better exploited and developed in implementing spatial planning and sustainable development policies and measures (Protocol 1994, Article7).
In this regard theregional and local authorities directly concerned shall be parties to thevarious stages
of preparing and implementing these policies and measures, within their competence and within theexisting
institutional framework (Protocol 1994, Article7).
With thestart of thethird decade of carrying out theSpatial Planning and Sustainable Development
Protocol (Protocol 1994), this article analyzes the legal frameworks of participatory planning in
theAlpine countries and assesses its role in achieving more sustainable forms of spatial development in theAlps.
Theanalysis was conducted in thescope of theWIKIAlps project (Alpine Space Programme) and addressed
two main research questions: 1)How and to what extent is participatory planning regulated across regions
and countries in theAlps? 2)What are thestrengths and weaknesses of thelegal processes and instruments
of participation?
2 Methods
Answering these questions required abackground in planning theory, and asystematic analysis of national and regional legislations framing spatial planning and its implementation in theAlpine Space. In addition
to aliterature review of theoretical perspectives, we first implemented ascreening of thelegal framework
in each Alpine country; in federal countries (e.g.,Austria and Germany) regional legislation was also considered in this phase. We examined participatory processes and instruments, as well as their institutional
structure and legal provisions for each territorial level. In doing so, we were able to gain an extensive overview
of conditions across countries regarding participation (Section4), which was necessary to facilitate comparisons between countries and regions. Thesecond analytical step was an in-depth analysis of selected
spatial planning processes, focusing on how participatory planning is implemented in practice. We were
able to define and draw conclusions about thestrengths and weaknesses of participatory planning in different countries and regions. Our results and conclusions are supported by primary and secondary literature,
legislation, and practitioners' expert knowledge. Theterritory analyzed covers theentire Alpine Space. In
evaluating theinvolvement of local stakeholders, we addressed local and regional authorities, as well as
alarge number of different social and economic groups such as businessmen, NGOs, private firms, and
thelocal population.
3 Participatory planning: Atheoretical perspective

Participatory planning is planning that includes stakeholders in theplanning process. Theaim of participatory planning is to foster partnerships and joint management instead of serving thevested interests of
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individual regional actors. Successful management of theparticipation process makes it possible to achieve
many goals: ironing out differences between different perspectives, preventing unproductive competition,
shaping solutions acceptable to all social groups, ensuring theparticipation and motivation of local actors,
participants' identification with decisions that concern their environment, and strengthening their creativity and recognition. Incorporating theviews of thepublic into planning decisions gives thedecisions
greater legitimacy (Hage, Leroy and Petersen 2009), and it increases empowerment and enhances
vision-making and advocacy capabilities (Reed2008; Ricketts2008; Pacione2014). It can be used to inform
and involve amore diverse public audience, strengthen mutual understanding, cross interest relationships,
explore and integrate new ideas and solutions that may not have been considered otherwise, and ensure
that planning and decision-making are informed by theneeds and interests of thecommunities affected
(Sayce et al.2013). Theparticipation process strengthens regional identity, initiates aprocess of social learning, enhances local knowledge, and promotes comparative advantages based on local knowledge (Meyer1999;
Garofoli and Musyck 2001; Geoghegan, Renard and Brown 2004; Abels 2007; Zumaglini et al. 2008).
Participatory processes require sensitive attention in order to not increase thesocioeconomic differences
between groups in thepopulation, but instead reduce and eliminate such differences (Rauch, Bartels and
Engel2001; Nared and Razpotnik Viskovi2014).
Participation also has its disadvantages, especially because of its duration and financial demands. Often
individual groups are excluded if they do not have theknowledge, skills, and/or resources to participate
in such ademanding and lengthy process. Additional weaknesses become manifest if theparticipation process
is informal; that is, participants that lack legal backing are unable to take measures, their proposals are
nonbinding, and their opportunities to carry out thedecisions they adopt are also limited.
Therole of participatory planning is exceptionally important because local cultures, geographical conditions, urban economic composition, local management styles, and local governance conditions are sitespecific and have asignificant influence on planning decisions. Planning is thereby accorded higher quality,
legitimacy, affiliation, and support from thepopulation, which is aprecondition for successfully implementing planning activities.
Figure 1: Workshop facilitation.
366
However, it is not enough to simply invite regional actors to participate. It is necessary to take their
opinions into account and to put them into practice to thegreatest extent possible, thereby creating acommunicative and non-adversarial environment for everyone (Nared and Razpotnik Viskovi2014).
4 Stakeholder involvement in participatory planning:

Legal frameworks of spatial planning in theAlpine countries
4.1 Austria
In Austria, there are three levels of government with regard to spatial planning: federal, state, and municipal. Thefederal government lacks theauthority for comprehensive spatial planning, and laws are passed
at the state level, which serves as a framework for the municipal level when implemented (European
Communities2000). TheAustrian Conference on Spatial Planning (sterreichischen Raumordnungskonferenz ROK) coordinates (without any binding capacity) spatial development based on apolitical agreement at
all three levels. Public participation is encouraged from here: Generally, civil society stakeholder groups
are to be addressed more proactively than up to now (Austrian 2011, 94), but this is regulated by theregional spatial planning acts. In general terms, public participation is poorly implemented because draft plans
only have to be made available four to six weeks before being adopted (Flp2013). Participatory instruments are not compulsory and theauthorities are not required to respond to proposals.
4.2 France
Theparticipatory dimension of planning has gained importance in theFrench context over thelast two
decades. Around2000, several laws significantly renewed theplanning system and led to therise of territorial governance around large-scale strategic planning projects (e.g.,theSpatial Planning Law 1999;
theSolidarity Law2000). Recently, theGrenelle environmental laws (theGrenelle II Law2010) fostered
the role of sustainability in spatial planning and especially the public consultation instrument
(Mondiaire2011). At new larger territorial scales, especially city regions, nature parks, or municipal syndicates, local actors are encouraged to participate in integrated spatial planning and development
strategies. These are jointly developed by local elected representatives in abottom-up manner, based on
negotiation and consensus. However, because strategic planning projects such as those of territorial cohesion schemes (SCOT) greatly depend on local consensus, planning perimeters might significantly vary in
size (e.g.,273municipalities for theGrenoble city region versus sixty-three for theAnnecy city region).
4.3 Germany
Spatial planning in Germany is determined by its federal nature, with adivision of competences at three
levels: federation, federal states, and municipalities. Even though all levels are interrelated through
thefeedback principle, each level has its legal basis (Turowski2002). At thefederal level, theSpatial Planning
Act (2008) sets out guidelines and provisions that coordinate and steer spatial planning, leaving federal
states enough scope to legislate in their own interest. Themunicipalities set up local land-use planning.
Public participation has been present in urban planning since the1970s. Since theimplementation of theEU
strategic environment Assessment Directive (2001), thepublic has to be advised of thecontent of each spatial planning process (Knieling and Othengrafen2009). Participation is ensured at thefederal state and
municipal levels because public participation is acompulsory step in drafting any plan and before adoption (Turowski2002).
4.4 Italy
In Italy, decentralization reforms since the1990s have shifted planning powers (interms of territorial governance) to regions, provinces, metropolitan areas, and municipalities, which started including multi-actor
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planning actions, public private coalitions, and participatory processes for strategic local and regional development (Reimer et al.2014). Although many emerging examples of informally regulated initiatives exist
across theentire country, mainly at themunicipal level (Bobbio2007; Arena and Cortese2011), participatory processes in spatial planning are seldom mandatory. At thenational level, there is no legislation
with binding effects on participation processes. At theregional level and for themoment, themost complete legislation promoting participation in creating regional laws is reported outside theAlpine Space
Program Area, in theregions of Emilia-Romagna (Regione 2010) and Tuscany (Regione 2013).
4.5 Liechtenstein
With its manageable size (160 km2, 36,000inhabitants), Liechtenstein, like Switzerland, has asystem of
direct democracy with optional, obligatory, and population-initiated referendums. Unlike Switzerland, population-initiated referendums are less common and have more of thefunction of an emergency brake for
citizens (Marxer and Pllinger2007). Theprince, however, has veto power. Thelack of aspatial planning
act is often regarded as aproblem. Only theNational Building Law (Regierung 2008) and Planning Law
(Regierung1992) regulate spatial planning procedures and define their instruments. TheNational Structure
Plan (Regierung 2011), approved by thenational government, aims to coordinate future spatial development, landscape conservation, and transport goals at thenational scale but is only binding for national public
authorities. Themunicipal plans determine land use and construction at themunicipal level (Ptz et al.2011).
More informal participation than consultation is not defined in legislation.
4.6 Slovenia
In Slovenia, participation processes have been integrated in spatial development since the1960s. They were
carried out in theform of public displays of land use and location plans and public hearings afterwards
(Zakon 1967). TheAarhus Convention (Convention 1998) has expanded theconcept of public participation and exceeds its environmental scope. Its rights-based approach has been integrated into several
Slovenian laws that are relevant for sustainable spatial development. Unfortunately, however, thecurrent
implementation practice does not follow thelegislative framework (Baloh2013). Thecompulsory nature
of these provisions gives thefalse impression that every planning decision is made with public consent.
Notably, they are positioned at thevery end of theplanning process and their role is reduced to granting
theprocess legitimacy by presenting thepredetermined proposal to thepublic. People are thus deprived
of theopportunity to contribute effectively and creatively to plans and decisions about their own future and
living environment. They can only agree to or oppose theproposed solution (Golobi and Marui2007).
4.7 Switzerland
Except for thecantons of Geneva and Basel-City, land-use planning generally lies in thejurisdiction of
municipalities with various degrees of freedom (depending on cantonal laws). Although consultation between
administrative services is frequent in spatial planning, informal participation with non-administrative stakeholders remains theexception (Luyet et al.2012). Since1979, thefederal law on spatial planning requires
public involvement of thepopulation in spatial planning procedures. These prerequisites are translated
into thespatial planning laws of thecantons, which give everyone concerned theright to oppose aproject. Direct participation, however, has led to difficulties in completing procedures because opposing parties
often block planning and construction projects. Therefore, public authorities at all levels have to take into
account public opinion and stakeholder interests while planning and developing aproject in order not to
risk an opposing popular initiative.
5 Participation in practice
In studying theimplementation of participatory planning throughout theAlpine countries and regions,
we developed amatrix (Table1) listing thecountry, name of theact, territorial level, domain, scope of thepar-
368
ticipatory processes, and strengths and weaknesses of its implementation for selected legal acts in sustainable
spatial development.
Table 1: Matrix on participatory planning in the Alpine countries and regions.
Country
Act
Territorial level
(N = national,
R = regional,
L = local)
Domain
(SP = spatial planning &
land use, E = environment,
RD = regional development)
Participation
(M = mandatory,
O = optional,
C = consultations)
Implementation
(strengths and weaknesses)
Altogether, twenty-seven legal acts were identified. Among them, three relate to thenational level, four
to theregional level, and three to thelocal level. Furthermore, some acts refer to two or more levels: three
to both national and local, two to both regional and local, ten to both national and regional, and two to
all three levels. Twenty-two acts come from thedomains of spatial planning and land use, two from theenvironment, two from regional development, and one horizontally covering all three topics.
In terms of jurisdiction, thelocal and regional levels have thegreatest influence on spatial development and planning, and from theperspective of theinclusion of regional and local authorities in spatial
planning decisions the requirements of the Spatial Planning and Sustainable Development Protocol
(Protocol 1994) are fully met. Theopposite result can be seen when theparticipation of various social
and economic groups (thelocal population, businessmen, NGOs, etc.) is in question. Themajority of acts
foresee consultations with those interested, but mostly at theend of theplanning process, and they are
often regarded as anecessary evil by planners.
Participation legislation and processes at thenational level are particularly weakly developed because
participation at this scale is most demanding due to alarge number of stakeholders. In addition, gaps have
been identified in theknowledge and competences of stakeholders (Lederer2009).
Although participation increasingly becomes amust in spatial planning, regulation of theparticipatory process such as tasks for citizens, types of intervention, and consultation modalities are often not provided
in detail. Consequently, its extent is often limited to theformal submission of opinions from public authorities, departments, and associations, and post-process consultation of thepopulation. At thelocal level, due
to alack of resources, participation can often be reduced to aminimum without harming thelegal force.
When theparticipatory process exceeds administrative levels, it occurs in most cases in theform of
non-binding consultations, limited to interested landowners or investors, whereas thecoordinators are not
obliged to consider thepublic remarks they only have to take astand towards them. Practices of bottom-up strategic planning and awider debate on sustainable spatial development are still very rare.
Despite thedeficiencies described above, atrend towards arenewal of planning culture in theform
of cooperative and communicative planning could be observed (Partizipation 2014; Healey 2004).
Participation is becoming an integral part of almost all legal acts, and in some cases minimum standards
are expected, such as providing early information to citizens and participation of crucial stakeholders in
thepreparation process in theform of working and focus groups, dialogs, public presentations, and so on.
For instance, thelegislation in Vorarlberg, Austria, perceives participation as one of thedecisive orientations for future decisions at thestate level. In order to promote such processes, thestate has prepared
ahandbook (Handbuch 2010) to improve theimplementation of participatory processes at themunicipal and regional level. In France, therecent environmental turn in legislation (theGrenelle laws of2009
and2010) has reinforced public participation by extending its scope. Thelegal framework now ensures
participation throughout theentire process and defines participation as theonly instrument that can have
legal constraining effects on administrative decisions. In this way, theGrenelle laws made participation
atool for serious participatory democracy.
Good-practice example comes from theTyrolean government, which used participatory planning for
its spatial development strategy, ZukunftsRaum Tirol (2011). In Vorarlberg, another strategic development
vision is theVis!on Rheintal. Its development was based on an open participatory and development process
among twenty-nine municipalities, which see their valley as one living space and aim at pulling resources
together (2015; Partizipation 2014). In Lower Austria, theWIN Strategie Niedersterreich (Strategie
N2010) is another good example of thejoint and collaborative development of astate strategy.
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BOJAN ERHARTI
Figure 2: Workshop in Idrija, Slovenia.

When speaking of participatory democracy, one cannot neglect theplanning culture in Switzerland,
where thenational Spatial Planning Law (1979) requires thepublic to be properly informed regarding planning goals and procedures. Theauthorities have to ensure public participation in an adequate manner and,
in addition to this, there are some informal initiatives for broad discussions among specialists and other
stakeholders about spatial development and visioning at thenational and regional levels.
Sometimes participatory processes are also used outside existing legal frameworks, mainly initiated
by individual decision-makers aware of thebenefits that public participation could provide. Agood example is the Innovative Strategy for Sustainable Development of the Municipality of Idrija (Slovenia;
Nared et al.2011). Its preparation fully relied on information that was gathered through arange of workshops, questionnaires, and interviews.
6 Conclusions
This article has provided avaluable overview of how participation is integrated in national and regional
spatial planning legislation throughout theAlpine Space. Legal provisions for spatial planning and especially
participation vary substantially from one country to another, often even between regions of thesame country. Legal provisions respect specific institutional and territorial landscapes as well as national planning
cultures, whereas themain responsibility for sustainable spatial planning is given to regional and local authorities. More specifically, in terms of participation, theanalysis showed that therole of stakeholder participation
in spatial planning has gradually increased. However, from anormative perspective and with respect to
planning theory, theanalysis has revealed weaknesses in theimplementation of participation. Some further progress is required in order to meet theoretical principles of good governance and to incorporate
lessons learned from good practices. Themain reasons for this inconvenient status lie in 1)rather vague
legislative provisions that mostly stipulate participation only in apro-forma sense (i.e.,in terms of mandatory disclosure of theplan before its final approval), and 2)in alack of precision concerning methods and
370
techniques (i.e.,insufficient and vague instructions for planners and authorities at thelocal level on how
to implement and benefit from theparticipatory process). Planners often do not possess sufficient resources
and competences to 1)evaluate theextent of participation needed, 2)implement participation processes
with all relevant stakeholders and facilitate them, and 3)include theresulting findings in their plans.
Although extensive, our study was not able to identify thecontribution of participatory planning to
sustainable spatial development. We mostly focused on legislative frameworks and less on theactual implementation of participatory processes, neglecting potential regional and local socioeconomic and spatial
effects of its implementation. Therefore, theissue of greater sustainability still remains at ahypothetical
level, assuming that therole of participatory planning is exceptionally important because local cultures,
geographical conditions, urban economic composition, local management styles, and local governance conditions are site-specific and have asignificant influence on planning decisions (Zumaglini et al.2008). It
thus appears crucial for participatory processes to be adapted to local contexts in terms of needs and limitations, which will provide favorable input for more balanced and finely-tuned decisions and measures
that should yield greater sustainability.
To increase theuse of participatory processes at theregional and local levels, theAlpine countries should
focus on systematically including participation in relevant regulations in spatial planning and should provide detailed instructions on how to implement this in different contexts. Theauthorities could also strengthen
participatory planning for ongoing education and expertise-sharing among planners, informing them about
participatory methods, tools, procedures, and theory. In this way, plans and concepts would not only receive
greater acceptance among stakeholders and thegeneral public, but they would also be better suited to local
and regional conditions. Theauthorities could also draw lessons from positive examples of participatory
planning in some Alpine regions, where participation has more comprehensive legislation. There is much
local experience that can enhance stakeholders' participation through participatory democracy, growing
awareness of thebenefits of participation, and enhanced development of participatory techniques and tools.
In this regard, participation and good governance should be considered fundamental pillars, rather than
mere contributing elements, for more sustainable spatial development.
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Healey, P.2004: Thetreatment of space and place in thenew strategic spatial planning in Europe. International
journal of urban and regional research,28-1. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0309-1317.2004.00502.x
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Bregenz. Internet: http://www.vorarlberg.at/pdf/handbuchbuergerbeteiligun.pdf (7. 10. 2014).
Knieling, J., Othengrafen, F.2009: Planning cultures in Europe. Decoding cultural phenomena in urban
and regional planning. Farnham.
Law Grenelle I, France,2009: Law no 2009/967 du 3aot2009 de programmation relative la mise en uvre
du Grenelle de l'environnement. Paris. Internet: http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=
JORFTEXT000020949548 (20. 1. 2015).
Law Grenelle II, France,2010: Law no 2010/788 du 12juillet2010 portant engagement national pour l'environnement. Paris. Internet: http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/affichTexte.do?cidTexte=JORFTEXT
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Guidelines for Contributing Authors in Acta Geographica

Slovenica Geografski Zbornik
1 Aims and scopes
Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik is themain Slovenian geographical scientific journal published by theAnton Melik Geographical Institute of theResearch Centre of theSlovenian Academy of Sciences
and Arts.
Thejournal is aimed at presentation of scientific articles from thefields of physical, human and regional geography. Review scientific articles are published, e.g.review and synthesis of already published articles
on specific topic, and original research articles, e.g.first publication of original scientific results that allows
repetition of thestudy and examination of results.
Thejournal was first published in1952, and fourteen issues appeared periodically until1976. Granted
more permanent government funding, it has been published annually since1976. From2003, it is published twice ayear. Thejournal is subsequently published in print and on theInternet in both Slovenian
and English since1994 (http://ags.zrc-sazu.si/). Each year, it is distributed in exchange for 200scientific
journals from around theworld. Thearticles on theinternet are read in more than100countries.
Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik welcomes articles from all geographers in Slovenia,
South-Eastern and Central Europe, as well as articles from those in related fields whose scientific and research
work can enrich theoverall view of thegeographical environment.
Acta geographica Slovenica publishes articles in Slovenian and English. If one of theauthors is from
Slovenia thearticle has to be in English and Slovenian. Thearticles of theauthors from abroad and thearticles of special issues are only published in English. Thearticles in Slovenian have to be translated to English
after apositive peer-review. If thearticle is translated by theeditorial board thecost for authors is 500 .
If theauthors provide aprofessional translation of thearticle it has to be lectored; thecost of lectoring for
authors is200 . Slovenian articles are lectored by theeditorial board. Thearticles that are submitted for
publication in English need to be lectored after apositive peer-review. Lectoring is organized by theeditorial board; thecost for authors is200 .
2 Article components
Thearticles published in thescientific journal Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik should be
arranged according to theIMRAD scheme: Introduction, Method, Results and Discussion. Thearticles must
contain thefollowing elements:
article's main title in both English and Slovenian;
abstract (up to 800characters including spaces);
up to eight key words;
article in English (up to20,000characters including spaces) and identical article in Slovenian;
reference list.
Text of thearticle should be equal in Slovenian and English.
Thetitles of chapters and subchapters in thearticle should be marked with ordinal numbers (for example, 1Introduction, 1.1Methodology, 1.2Terminology). Thedivision of an article into chapters is obligatory,
but authors should use subchapters sparingly. It is recommended that thearticle includes Introduction,
Conclusion and References chapters. Thetitles should be short and comprehensible. Authors should avoid
using footnotes and endnotes.
3 Quoting
When quoting from source material, authors should state theauthor's last name and theyear, separate individual sources with semicolons, order thequotes according to year, and separate thepage information from
375
theauthor's name and year information with acomma, for example (Melik1955,11) or (Melik, Ilei
and Vrier1963; Kokole1974, 7and8).If thesource material has more than three authors only thefirst
one should be listed (Meliket al.1956).
TheReferences' units should be listed according to thealphabetical order of theauthors' second names.
If there are more units from thesame author in thesame year, letters should be added to thecitation (for
example1999a in1999b).
Every unit consists of three sentences. In thefirst Author's name, publishing year and article's title are
listed in front of thecolon while thetitle is listed after it. Thesurnames of theauthors and theinitials of their
names are separated by commas. Thesubtitle is separated from thetitle by acomma.
If theunit is an article, thename and number of thejournal is indicated in thesecond sentence. If theunit
is amonograph, there is no second sentence. Thename of thepublisher and number of pages are not listed. If theunit is not printed thetype (e.g.diploma thesis) should be listed in thesecond sentence, separated
from information of theinstitution by acomma. Laws should be qouted by atitle, publication name and
its number (e.g.Official gazette 56-2), separated from thepublication year in thelast part of thequotation.
In thethird sentence theplace of publishing or theplace where thepublication is kept are stated.
TheDigital object identifier (DOI) has to be included to thequotes if available. For more details please
visit webpage of theCrossref company (www.crossref.org; http://www.crossref.org/guestquery; http://dx.doi.org/).
Few examples:
1) for articles in journals:
Melik, A.1955a: Kraka polja Slovenije vpleistocenu. Dela Intituta za geografijo 3.
Melik, A.1955b: Nekaj glaciolokih opaanj iz Zgornje Doline. Geografski zbornik5.
Perko, D.2002: Doloanje vodoravne in navpine razgibanosti povrja zdigitalnim modelom viin.
Fridl, J., Urbanc, M., Pipan, P.2009: Theimportance of teachers' perception of space in education.
2) for chapters in monographs or articles in proceedings:
Lovrenak, F.1996: Pedogeografska regionalizacija Spodnjega Podravja sPrlekijo. Spodnje Podravje
sPrlekijo, 17.zborovanje slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana.
Mihevc, B.1998: Slovenija na starejih zemljevidih. Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Komac, B., Zorn, M.2010: Statistino modeliranje plazovitosti vdravnem merilu. Od razumevanja
do upravljanja, Naravne nesree1. Ljubljana.
3) for monographs:
Natek, K., Natek, M.1998: Slovenija, Geografska, zgodovinska, pravna, politina, ekonomska in kulturna podoba Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D., Oroen Adami, M.1998: Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Perko, D., Oroen Adami, M.1998: Slovenija pokrajine in ljudje. Ljubljana.
Otir, K.2006: Daljinsko zaznavanje. Ljubljana.
4) for expert's reports, diploma, master and doctoral thesis:
Richter, D.1998: Metamorfne kamnine vokolici Velikega Tinja. Diplomsko delo, Pedagoka fakulteta
Univerze vMariboru. Maribor.
ifrer, M.1997: Povrje vSloveniji. Elaborat, Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana.
5) for sources with unkwnown authors and cartographic sources:
Popis prebivalstva, gospodinjstev, stanovanj in kmekih gospodarstev vRepubliki Sloveniji, 1991
konni podatki. Zavod Republike Slovenije za statistiko. Ljubljana,1993.
Digitalni model viin12,5. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana,2005.
Dravna topografska karta Republike Slovenije 1 : 25.000, list Breice. Geodetska uprava Republike
Slovenije. Ljubljana,1998.
Franciscejski kataster za Kranjsko, k.o. Sv. Agata, list A02. 18231869. Arhiv Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Buser, S.1986a: Osnovna geoloka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, list Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Zvezni geoloki zavod. Beograd.
Buser, S.1986b: Osnovna geoloka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, tolma lista Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Zvezni
geoloki zavod. Beograd.
376
6) for internet sources with known authors and/or titles:

Vilhar, U.2010: Fenoloka opazovanja vokviru Intenzivnega spremljanja stanja gozdnih ekosistemov.
Internet: http://www.gozdis.si/impsi/delavnice/Fenoloska%20opazovanja_Vilhar.pdf (19. 2. 2012).
eGradiva,2010. Internet: http://www.egradiva.si/ (11. 2. 2012).
7) for internet sources with unknown authors, titles or institutions:
Internet: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2012).
8) for more internet sources with unknown authors
Internet1: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2012).
Internet2: http://ags.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2012).
In case 7) theauthor is quoted in thetext, for example (Vilhar2010), while in case 8) only internet is
quoted, for example (Internet2).
Thelaws are cited as follows (name of thelaw, number of theofficial gazzette, place of publishing),
for example:
Zakon okmetijskih zemljiih. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 59/1996. Ljubljana.
Zakon o varstvu pred naravnimi in drugimi nesreami. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 64/1994,
33/2000, 87/2001, 41/2004, 28/2006 in 51/2006. Ljubljana.
If amemdments were proposed to thelaw they have to be quoted. In thetext whole title of thelaw has
to be quoted or its first few words if thetitle is along one, for example (Zakon okmetijskih zemljiih1996)
ali (Zakon ovarstvu 1994).
All thequoted contributions have to be listed in thechapter References.
Theauthors should consider copyright rules of data owners, for example: therules of theGeodetic
survey of the Republic of Slovenia are available at http://e-prostor.gov.si/fileadmin/narocanje/pogoji_
uporabe_podpisani.pdf.
4 Tables and figures

Authors should submit photographs and other graphic materials in aform suitable for scanning or in digital raster form with aresolution of 300 dpi, preferably in TIFF or JPG format formats in theprinting size.
If authors cannot deliver articles or graphic supplements prepared using thespecified programs, they should
consult theeditorial board in advance: rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si.
All tables in thearticle should be numbered uniformly and have their own titles. Thenumber and thetext
are separated by acolon, thecaption is ended by afull stop. Example:
Table1: Number of inhabitants of Ljubljana.
Table2: Spreminjanje povprene temperature zraka vLjubljani (Velkavrh2009).
Thetables should contain no formatting and should not be too large one-page tables are appreciated.
All illustrative material Figures (photographs, maps, graphs, etc.) in thearticle should also be numbered uniformly and have their own titles. Example:
Figure1: Location of measurement points along theglacier.
Thejournal has an established 16.5 cm 23.5 cm format to which all graphic materials must be adapted. In thecase of graphic illustrations for which theauthors do not have thecopyright, theauthors must
acquire permission to publish from thecopyright owner. Authors must include theauthor's name with
thetitle of theillustration.
Illustrative material should be precisely 134 mm wide (one page) or 64 mm wide (half page, one coloumn),
height should not exceed200 mm. If thefigure is to be thesize of thepage, its size should be 134 192,3 mm
(thesubtitle is written in one line) or 134 200 mm (thesubtitle is on thefacing page).
Maps should be done in digital vector form using theCorel Draw program, and charts done using Corel
Draw or Adobe Illustrator programs, especially if they contain text. They can also be done in digital raster
form with resolution at least 300 dpi, preferably in TIFF or JPG formats in theprinting size.
For maps made using CorelDraw or Adobe Illustrator programs,two separate files should be prepared;
theoriginal file (format .cdr or .ai) and thefile with representation of theimage (format .jpg).
For maps made using ArcGIS where raster layers were used next to vector layers (for example .tif of relief,
airborne or satellite image), three files should be submitted: afile with vector image with not transparency
used together with alegend and colophone (export in format.ai), thesecond file with raster image (export
377
in .tif format), and thethird one with vector and raster image together showing thefinal version of themap
(export in format .jpg). Please use template files from the journal internet page.
No title should be printed on maps as they are written below them.
Thecolors should be saved in CMYK and not in RGB or other formats.
TheTimes new roman font, size 8, should be used to write thelegend, as well as for colophon (size6).
In thecolophon author, scale, source and copyright should be listed. Thecolophone should be written in
both, English (and Slovenian), if space is available on themap. Example:
Scale/merilo: (grafino, tekstovno)
Author of contents/avtor vsebine: Drago Perko
Author of map/avtorica zemljevida: Jerneja Fridl
Source/vir: Statistical office of theRepublic of Slovenia,2002
Anton Melik geographical institute ZRC SAZU,2005
Graphs should be done in digital form using Excel program. Graphs should be done on separated sheets
and accompanied by data.
Photographs have to be in raster format and in resolution 240dots per cm or 600dots per inch, preferably in.tif or .jpg formats, that is about 3200dots per page width of thejournal.
Figures showing computer screen should be prepared at the highest possible screen resolution
(Nadzorna ploa\Vsi elementi nadzorne ploe\Zaslon\Loljivost zaslona oziroma Control Panel\All Control
Panel Items\Display\Screen Resolution). Thefigure is done by print screen, thedata are pasted prilepi to
theselected graphic programme (e.g.Paint) and saved as .tif. Thesize of theimage or its resolution should
not be changed.You can find templates of maps in cdr and mxd files for awhole page map in landscape
view and an example of correct structure of files for asubmission of amap made with ESRI ArcGIS on thejournal webpage.
5 Article admission
Only original and new articles will be accepted for publication. Upon acceptance of your chapter, you will
be required to sign awarranty that your article is original (contentswording and formatting) and has not
been submitted for publication or published elsewhere.
Authors must submit their contributions in digital form written in Word format using the template.
Supplementary files (figures) can be submitted packed in one zip file.
The text file should be unformatted, except for text written in bold and italic form. As thearticle is
subject to changes during thereview process it should first be submitted in either English or Slovenian
language, and translated to theother language only after theacceptance for publication. Thetranslation
is an expense of theauthor.
Theentire text should be written in lowercase (except for uppercase initial letters, of course) without
unnecessary abbreviations and contractions. Thetext should be plain and only bold and italic formatting
is allowed. Please use no other formatting, such as chapter or page numbering. Use sentence case in titles.
If atext is unsatisfactorily written, theeditorial board can return it to theauthor to arrange to have
thetext proofread professionally or reject thepublication of thearticle.
Date of acceptance of thearticle for publication is published after theabstract and key words. Authors
should send articles using the editorial sistem of the journal at: ags.zrc-sazu.si.
6 Review process
All articles are examinated by one of theeditors upon receipt. Afterwards theauthors are usually asked
to correct or change thearticle. After thearticles have been corrected they are sent to two anonymous reviewers. Thereviewers receive an article without theauthor's name, and theauthor receives thereview(s) without
thereviewer's names. If thereviews do not require thearticle to be corrected or augmented, thereview
will not be sent to theauthor.
If thesize of thetext fails to comply with theprovisions for publication, theauthor shall allow thetext
to be appropriately modified according to thejudgment of thepublisher. Thearticle may be rejected for
publication by thereviewers or by theeditors until it is finally accepted for publication.
378
7 Copyright
For articles sent for publication to Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik, all theauthor's moral
rights remain with the author, while the author's material rights to reproduction and distribution in
theRepublic of Slovenia and other states, are for no fee, for all time, for all cases, for unlimited editions,
and for all media shall be unexclusively ceded to thepublisher. Theauthors allow publication of thearticle or its components on theinternet.
Author has to provide aprofessional translation. Thename of thetranslator should be quoted. Authors
should cooperate in thereviewing and editorial process.
Author gives permission to thepublisher to change thearticle in order to be in accordance with
theGuidelines, including thelength of thearticle.
Thepublisher shall see to it that all accepted articles are published in Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski
zbornik and on theinternet in accordance with thesubmission time and with thearrangement according
to thethemes discussed. Ordered contributions can be published regardless of thesubmission time.
No honoraria are paid for articles appearing in Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik nor for
thereviews.
Theauthor shall receive one (1) free copy of thepublication.
8 Submission preparation checklist

As part of thesubmission process, authors are required to check off their submission's compliance with
all of thefollowing items, and submissions may be returned to authors that do not adhere to these guidelines.
1. Thesubmission has not been previously published, nor is it before another journal for consideration
(or an explanation has been provided in Comments to theEditor).
2. Thesubmission file is in Microsoft Word document file format.
3. Where available, URLs for thereferences have been provided.
4. Thetext is single-spaced; uses a12-point font; employs italics, rather than underlining (except with URL
addresses). All illustrations' and figures' locations within text are marked (illustrations and figures are
not inside text!). Illustrations and figures are provided as supplementary files (cdr, ai for maps and illustrations; tif for photographs). Tables are placed within thetext at theappropriate points. Supplementary
files must not excess 50 MB.
5. Thetext adheres to thestylistic and bibliographic requirements outlined in theAuthor Guidelines, which
is found in About theJournal.
6. If submitting to apeer-reviewed section of thejournal, theinstructions in Ensuring aBlind Review
have been followed.
7. Supplementary files do not exceed 50 MB.
8. I agree for this article to be translated into English / Slovenian (if at least one of the authors is from Slovenia)
or for the English grammar and spelling to be copyedited at my expense (see Guidelines for details)
AFTER the article is accepted for publication.
9 Privacy statement
Thenames and email addresses entered in this journal site will be used exclusively for thestated purposes
of this journal and will not be made available for any other purpose or to any other party.
10 Ordering
Acta geographica Slovenica can be ordered at thepublisher:
Zaloba ZRC
Novi trg2, p. p. 306
SI 1001Ljubljana, Slovenija
Phone: +386(0)1470 64 64
379
Fax: +386(0)1425 77 94
E-mail: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si
Thejournal can be bought in theAzil bookshop, Novi trg2, SI 1000Ljubljana, Slovenia or borrowed in
thelibraries (www.cobiss.si).
11 Acta geographica Slovenica Editorial review form

Acta geographica Slovenica editorial review form
1 Thepaper is an original scientific one thepaper follows thestandard IMRAD scheme and is original
and thefirst presentation of research results with thefocus on methods, theoretical aspects or case study.)
Yes
No
2 Thepaper's content is suitable for publishing in theAGS journal thepaper is from thefield of geography or related fields of interest, thepresented topic is interesting and well presented. In case of negative
answer add comments below.)
Yes
No
3 Editorial notes regarding thepaper's content.
4 Length of thepaper is acceptable for further processing (20.000characters including space). If longer,
thepaper has to be shortened by theauthor and resubmitted.
Thepaper has less than 20.000characters.
Thepaper has more than 20.000characters, but less than 25.000.
Thepaper has more than 25.000characters.
5 Thestyle and formatting of thepaper is according to theAGS guidelines thepaper is prepared in plain
text, no other text formatting is used than bold and italic. See theGuidelines of AGS journal for details.)
Yes
No
6 Notes regarding style and formatting.
7 Citing in thepaper is according to theAGS guidelines and style, including DOI identificators.
Yes
No
8 Thereference list is suitable (theauthor cites previously published papers with similar topic from other
relevant scientific journal).
Yes, theauthor cited previously published papers on similar topic.
No, theauthor did not cite previously published papers on similar topic.
9 Scientific language of thepaper is appropriate and understandable.
Yes
No
10 Supplementary files (ai, cdr, pdf, tif, jpg, xlsx etc.) that were added to thepaper are in proper format
and resolution (including theintroductory photo), maps are prepared according to theAGS Guidelines.
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383
Navodila avtorjem za pripravo lankov vActi geographici

Slovenici Geografskem zborniku
1 Uvod
Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik je osrednja slovenska znanstvena revija za geografijo, ki
jo izdaja Geografski intitut Antona Melika Znanstvenoraziskovalnega centra Slovenske akademije znanosti in umetnosti.
Revija je namenjena predstavitvi znanstvenih dosekov spodroja fizine, drubene in regionalne geografije ter sorodnih ved. Objavlja pregledna znanstvena besedila, to je pregled in sintezo e objavljenih
najnovejih del odoloeni temi, ter izvirna znanstvena besedila, to je prvo objavo originalnih raziskovalnih rezultatov vtakni obliki, da se raziskava lahko ponovi, ugotovitve pa preverijo.
Revija je prvi izla leta1952 in je do leta1976, ko je bila natisnjena tirinajsta tevilka, izhajala obasno. Leta1976 je zaradi trajneje finanne pomoi drave zaela izhajati redno, od leta2003 pa izhaja dvakrat
letno vtiskani in elektronski obliki na medmreju. Od leta1994 izhaja enakovredno vslovenskem in anglekem jeziku (http://ags.zrc-sazu.si). Vsako leto jo razpoljemo vizmenjavo na ve kot200naslovov po celem
svetu. lanke na medmreju berejo vve kot100dravah sveta.
Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik vobjavo sprejema geografske lanke iz Slovenije ter
Jugovzhodne in Srednje Evrope. Objavljamo tudi lanke geografiji sorodnih ved, katerih znanstveno in
raziskovalno delo lahko obogati geografske poglede na pokrajino.
Acta geographica Slovenica objavlja lanke vslovenskem in anglekem jeziku. lanki, pri katerih je vsaj
eden od avtorjev iz Slovenije, morajo imeti tudi slovenski prevod. lanki avtorjev iz tujine in lanki posebnih
izdaj so objavljeni samo vanglekem jeziku. lanke, ki prispejo vslovenskem jeziku, je po pozitivni recenziji treba prevesti vangleino. e za prevod poskrbi urednitvo, je stroek prevoda za avtorje 500 . e
avtorji sami poskrbijo za profesionalni prevod lanka, je treba lanek lektorirati, stroek lekture vviini
200 pa nosijo avtorji. Za lekturo slovenskega dela lanka poskrbi urednitvo. lanke, ki prispejo vanglekem jeziku, je po pozitivni recenziji treba nujno lektorirati. Za lekturo poskrbi urednitvo, stroek vviini
200 pa nosijo avtorji.
2 Sestavine lanka
lanki, objavljeni vznanstveni reviji Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik so urejeni po shemi IMRAD (uvod, metoda, rezultati in razprava; angl.: Introduction, Method, Results And Discussion).
lanki, poslani vobjavo, morajo imeti naslednje sestavine:
glavni naslov vslovenskem in anglekem jeziku;
izvleek doline do 800znakov skupaj spresledki;
do osem kljunih besed;
lanek vanglekem ali slovenskem jeziku, ki naj skupaj spresledki obsega do20.000znakov.
seznam uporabljenih virov in literature, urejen skladno znavodili.
Besedilo lankov mora biti enakovredno vanglekem in slovenskem jeziku.
lanek naj ima naslove poglavij in naslove podpoglavij oznaene zvrstilnimi tevniki (na primer: 1Uvod,
1.1Metodologija, 1.2Terminologija). Razdelitev lanka na poglavja je obvezna, podpoglavja pa naj avtor
uporabi le izjemoma. Zaeleno je, da ima lanek poglavja Uvod, Sklep in Literatura. Naslovi lankov naj
bodo jasni in im kraji. Avtorji naj se izognejo pisanju opomb pod rto na koncu strani in naj bodo zmerni pri uporabi tujk.
3 Citiranje vlanku
Avtor naj pri citiranju med besedilom navede priimek avtorja, letnico ter po potrebi tevilko strani. Ve
citatov se loi spodpijem in razvrsti po letnicah, navedbo strani pa se od priimka avtorja in letnice loi
zvejico, na primer: (Melik1955,11) ali (Melik, Ilei in Vrier1963,12; Kokole1974, 7in8). e ima citirano delo ve kot tri avtorje, se citira le prvega avtorja, na primer (Melik ssod.1956,217).
384
Enote vpoglavju Viri in literatura naj bodo navedene po abecednem redu priimkov avtorjev, enote istega avtorja pa razvrene po letnicah. e je vseznamu ve enot istega avtorja iz istega leta, se letnicam dodajo
rke (na primer1999a in1999b). Zapis vsake citirane enote skladno sslovenskim pravopisom sestavljajo trije stavki. Vprvem stavku sta navedena avtor in letnica izida (e je avtorjev ve, so loeni zvejico, zvejico sta
loena tudi priimek avtorja in zaetnica njegovega imena, med zaetnico avtorja in letnico ni vejice), sledi dvopije, za njim pa naslov in morebitni podnaslov, ki sta loena zvejico. e je citirana enota lanek, se vdrugem
stavku navede publikacija, vkateri je lanek natisnjen, e pa je enota samostojna knjiga, drugega stavka ni.
Izdajatelja, zalonika in strani se ne navaja. e enota ni tiskana, se vdrugem stavku navede vrsta enote (na
primer elaborat, diplomsko, magistrsko ali doktorsko delo), za vejico pa e ustanova, ki hrani to enoto. Vtretjem stavku se za tiskane enote navede kraj izdaje, za netiskane pa kraj hranjenja. Pri navajanju literature, ki je
vkljuena vsistem DOI (Digital Object Identifier), je treba na koncu navedbe dodati tudi tevilko DOI. tevilke DOI so dodeljene posameznim lankom serijskih publikacij, prispevkom vmonografijah in knjigam.
tevilko DOI najdete vsamih lankih in knjigah, oziroma na spletni strani http://www.crossref.org/guestquery.
Nekaj primerov (loila so uporabljena skladno sslovenskim pravopisom):
1) za lanke vrevijah:
Melik, A.1955a: Kraka polja Slovenije vpleistocenu. Dela Intituta za geografijo 3. Ljubljana.
Melik, A.1955b: Nekaj glaciolokih opaanj iz Zgornje Doline. Geografski zbornik5. Ljubljana.
Perko, D.2002: Doloanje vodoravne in navpine razgibanosti povrja zdigitalnim modelom viin.
Geografski vestnik74-2. Ljubljana.
Fridl, J., Urbanc, M., Pipan, P.2009: Theimportance of teachers' perception of space in education.
Acta geographica Slovenica49-2. Ljubljana. DOI: 10.3986/AGS49205
2) za poglavja vmonografijah ali lanke vzbornikih:
Lovrenak, F.1996: Pedogeografska regionalizacija Spodnjega Podravja sPrlekijo. Spodnje Podravje
sPrlekijo, 17.zborovanje slovenskih geografov. Ljubljana.
Mihevc, B.1998: Slovenija na starejih zemljevidih. Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Komac, B., Zorn, M.2010: Statistino modeliranje plazovitosti vdravnem merilu. Od razumevanja
do upravljanja, Naravne nesree1. Ljubljana.
3) za monografije:
Natek, K., Natek, M.1998: Slovenija, Geografska, zgodovinska, pravna, politina, ekonomska in kulturna
podoba Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Fridl, J., Kladnik, D., Perko, D., Oroen Adami, M. (ur.)1998: Geografski atlas Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Perko, D., Oroen Adami, M. (ur.)1998: Slovenija pokrajine in ljudje. Ljubljana.
Otir, K.2006: Daljinsko zaznavanje. Ljubljana.
4) za elaborate, diplomska, magistrska, doktorska dela ipd.:
Richter, D.1998: Metamorfne kamnine vokolici Velikega Tinja. Diplomsko delo, Pedagoka fakulteta
Univerze vMariboru. Maribor.
ifrer, M.1997: Povrje vSloveniji. Elaborat, Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU. Ljubljana.
5) za vire brez avtorjev in kartografske vire:
Popis prebivalstva, gospodinjstev, stanovanj in kmekih gospodarstev vRepubliki Sloveniji,1991
konni podatki. Zavod Republike Slovenije za statistiko. Ljubljana,1993.
Digitalni model viin12,5. Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana,2005.
Dravna topografska karta Republike Slovenije 1 : 25.000, list Breice. Geodetska uprava Republike
Slovenije. Ljubljana,1998.
Franciscejski kataster za Kranjsko, k.o. Sv. Agata, list A02.18231869. Arhiv Republike Slovenije. Ljubljana.
Buser, S.1986a: Osnovna geoloka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, list Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Zvezni geoloki zavod. Beograd.
Buser, S.1986b: Osnovna geoloka karta SFRJ 1 : 100.000, tolma lista Tolmin in Videm (Udine). Zvezni
geoloki zavod. Beograd.
Avtorji vse pogosteje citirajo vire zmedmreja. e sta znana avtor in/ali naslov citirane enote, potem
se jo navede takole (datum voklepaju pomeni as ogleda medmrene strani):
Vilhar, U.2010: Fenoloka opazovanja vokviru Intenzivnega spremljanja stanja gozdnih ekosistemov.
Medmreje: http://www.gozdis.si/impsi/delavnice/Fenoloska%20opazovanja_Vilhar.pdf (19. 2. 2010).
eGradiva,2010. Medmreje: http://www.egradiva.si/ (11. 2. 2010).
e avtor, naslov ali ustanova niso poznani, se navede le:
Internet: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2011).
385
e se navaja ve enot zmedmreja, se doda e tevilko:

Internet1: http://giam.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2011).
Internet2: http://zgs.zrc-sazu.si/ (22. 7. 2011).
Med besedilom se vprvem primeru navede avtorja, na primer (Vilhar2010), vdrugem primeru pa le
medmreje, na primer (Internet2).
Zakone se citira vnaslednji obliki (ime zakona, tevilka uradnega lista, kraj izida), na primer:
Zakon okmetijskih zemljiih. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 59/1996. Ljubljana.
Zakon ovarstvu pred naravnimi in drugimi nesreami. Uradni list Republike Slovenije 64/1994, 33/2000,
87/2001, 41/2004, 28/2006 in 51/2006. Ljubljana.
e ima zakon dopolnitve, je treba navesti tudi te. Med besedilom se zakon navaja scelim imenom, e
gre za kraje ime, ali pa znekaj prvimi besedami in tremi pikami, e gre za dalje ime. Na primer (Zakon
okmetijskih zemljiih1996) ali (Zakon ovarstvu 1994).
Vpoglavju Viri in literatura morajo biti navedena vsa dela, citirana vprispevku, ostalih, necitiranih
del pa naj avtor ne navaja.
Avtorji naj upotevajo tudi navodila za navajanje virov lastnika podatkov ali posrednika, e jih le-ta
doloa. Primer: Geodetska uprava Republike Slovenije ima navodila za navajanje virov doloena vdokumentu Pogoji uporabe geodetskih podatkov (http://e-prostor.gov.si/fileadmin/narocanje/pogoji_uporabe_
podpisani.pdf).
4 Preglednice in grafine priloge vlanku

Priloge morajo prav tako oddati natisnjene vdigitalni obliki vustreznem formatu. Fotografije in druge
grafine priloge morajo avtorji, e je le mogoe, oddati vobliki, primerni za skeniranje, sicer pa vdigitalni rastrski obliki zloljivostjo vsaj 300 pik na palec ali 120 pik na cm, najbolje vformatu TIFF ali JPG in
konni velikosti slike. e avtorji ne morejo oddati prispevkov in grafinih prilog, pripravljenih vomenjenih
programih, naj se predhodno posvetujejo zurednitvom (rok.ciglic@zrc-sazu.si).
Vse preglednice vlanku so otevilene in imajo svoje naslove. Med tevilko in naslovom je dvopije.
Naslov kona pika. Primer:
Preglednica1: tevilo prebivalcev Ljubljane po posameznih popisih.
Preglednica2: Spreminjanje povprene temperature zraka vLjubljani (Velkavrh2009).
Vse grafine priloge slike (fotografije, zemljevidi, grafi in podobno) vlanku so otevilene enotno
in imajo svoje naslove. Med tevilko in naslovom je dvopije. Naslov kona pika. Primera:
Slika1: Rast tevila prebivalcev Ljubljane po posameznih popisih.
Slika2: Izsek topografske karte vmerilu 1 : 25.000, list Kranj.
Avtorji morajo za grafine priloge, za katere nimajo avtorskih pravic, priloiti fotokopijo dovoljenja
za objavo, ki so ga pridobili od lastnika avtorskih pravic.
Grafine priloge naj bodo iroke tono 134 mm (cela irina strani) ali 64 mm (pol irine, 1stolpec),
visoke pa najve 200 mm. Vprimeru, da elimo imeti celostransko sliko ali zemljevid, mora biti njuna velikost 134 192,3 mm (podnapis hgrafini prilogi je enovrstien) ali 134 200 mm (podnapis hgrafini
prilogi je naveden na sosednji strani).
Slikovno gradivo (zemljevidi, sheme in podobno) naj bo vformatih .ai ali .cdr, fotografije pa vformatih .tif ali .jpg.
Zemljevidi naj bodo izdelani vdigitalni obliki. Zaeleno je, da so oddani vvektorski obliki, pripravljeni sprogramom Corel Draw ali Adobe Illustrator, zlasti e vsebujejo besedilo. Mono jih je oddati tudi
vrastrski obliki zloljivostjo vsaj 300 pik na palec ali 120 pik na cm, najbolje vformatu TIFF ali JPG in
konni velikosti slike.
Pri tistih zemljevidih in shemah, izdelanih sprogramom ArcGIS, kjer so poleg vektorskih slojev kot
podlaga uporabljeni tudi rastrski sloji (na primer .tif reliefa, letalskega ali satelitskega posnetka in podobno), oddajte tri loene datoteke. Vprvi naj bodo samo vektorski sloji zizkljueno morebitno prosojnostjo poligonov skupaj zlegendo in kolofonom (izvoz vformatu .ai), vdrugi samo rastrska podlaga (izvoz
vformatu .tif), vtretji, kontrolni datoteki pa vektorski in rastrski sloji skupaj, tako kot naj bi bil videti
konni zemljevid vknjigi (izvoz vformatu .jpg). To je nujno, da tudi natisnjeni zemljevid ohrani ustrezno
kakovost.
386
Zemljevidi naj bodo brez naslova, ker je naveden vpodnapisu. Za izdelavo zemljevidov uporabite predloge
s spletne strani revije.
Pri izbiri in doloanju barv za slikovne priloge uporabite zapis CMYK in ne RGB oziroma drugih.
Za legendo zemljevida je potrebno uporabiti tip pisave Times new roman velikosti 8 pik, za kolofon
pa isto vrsto pisave velikosti 6 pik. Vkolofonu naj so po vrsti od zgoraj navzdol vanglekem in slovenskem jeziku navedeni: merilo (grafino ali besedilno), avtor vsebine, avtor zemljevida, vir in ustanova oziroma
nosilec avtorskih pravic. Kolofon mora biti vanglekem in slovenskem jeziku razen kjer to zaradi prostorskih omejitev ni mono. Primer:
Scale/merilo: (grafino, besedilno)
Author of contents/avtor vsebine: Drago Perko
Author of map/avtorica zemljevida: Jerneja Fridl
Source/vir: Statistini urad RS,2002
Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU,2005
Pri zemljevidih in shemah, izdelanih vprogramih CorelDraw ali Adobe Illustrator, oddajte dve loeni
datoteki; poleg originalnega zapisa (format .cdr ali .ai) dodajte e datoteko, ki prikazuje, kako naj bo videti
slika (format .jpg).
Grafikoni naj bodo izdelani sprogramom Excel. Na posameznem listu naj bodo skupaj zgrafom tudi
podatki, na podlagi katerih je bil izdelan.
Fotografije mora avtor oddati vdigitalni rastrski obliki zloljivostjo vsaj 240 pik na cm oziroma 600 pik
na palec, najbolje vformatu .tif ali .jpg, kar pomeni priblino 3200pik na celo irino strani vreviji.
Slike, ki prikazujejo raunalniki zaslon, morajo biti narejene pri najveji moni loljivosti zaslona (loljivost uredimo v: Nadzorna ploa\Vsi elementi nadzorne ploe\Zaslon\Loljivost zaslona oziroma Control
Panel\All Control Panel Items\Display\Screen Resolution). Sliko se nato preprosto naredi spritiskom tipke print screen, prilepi vizbran grafini program (na primer Slikar, Paint) in shrani kot .tif. Pri tem se slike
ne sme poveati ali pomanjati oziroma ji spremeniti loljivost. Po elji lahko uporabite tudi ustrezne programe za zajem zaslona in shranite sliko vzapisu .tif.
5 Sprejemanje prispevkov
Za objavo vActi geographici Slovenici sprejemamo le izvirne oziroma nove znanstvne lanke. Avtor spodpisom potrdi izjavo oizvirnosti vsebine in podobe lanka ter dejstvo, da lanek e ni bil posredovan vobjavo
drugam oziroma drugje e ni bil objavljen.
Avtorji morajo besedilo prispevkov oddati vdigitalni obliki prek spletne strani ags.zrc-sazu.si. Prispevki
morajo biti izdelani v programu Word.
Zaradi morebitnih sprememb vpostopku recenzije in urejanja naj lanek najprej oddajo vslovenskem
jeziku, po sprejemu za objavo pa e vanglekem. Prevod je stroek avtorja.
Digitalni zapis besedila naj bo povsem enostaven, brez zapletenega oblikovanja, samodejnih naslovov,
poravnave desnega roba, deljenja besed, podrtavanja in podobnega. Avtorji naj oznaijo le mastni (krepki) in leei tisk. Besedilo naj bo vceloti izpisano zmalimi rkami (razen velikih zaetnic, seveda), brez
nepotrebnih krajav, okrajav in kratic.
e besedilo slovnino ali vsebinsko ni ustrezno napisano, ga uredniki odbor avtorju lahko vrne vpopravek, zahteva lektoriranje ali lanek zavrne. Datum prejetja lanka je objavljen za anglekim prevodom
izvleka in kljunih besed.
Avtorji naj prispevke poiljajo prek sistema OJS na naslovu ags.zrc-sazu.si.
6 Recenziranje lankov
lanke najprej pregleda eden od podronih urednikov. Avtorji lankov so potem obiajno pozvani, da lanek
ustrezno dopolnijo ali popravijo. Sledi recenzentski postopek, ki je praviloma anonimen. Recenzenta prejmeta lanek brez navedbe avtorja lanka, avtor lanka pa prejme recenzijo brez navedbe recenzenta. e
recenzija ne zahteva popravka ali dopolnitve lanka, se avtorju lanka recenzij ne polje. Avtor dovoljuje,
da urednitvo prispevek kraja ali drugae prilagodi, da bo primeren za objavo. Na predlog urednitva ali
recenzenta se lahko zavrne objavo prispevka.
387
7 Avtorske pravice
Za avtorsko delo, poslano za objavo vActi geographici Slovenici Geografskem zborniku, vse moralne avtorske pravice pripadajo avtorju, materialne avtorske pravice reproduciranja in distribuiranja vRepubliki Sloveniji
in vdrugih dravah pa avtor brezplano, enkrat za vselej, za vse primere, za neomejene naklade in za vse
medije neizkljuno prenese na izdajateljico. Avtor dovoljuje objavo lanka ali njegovih delov na medmreju.
Avtor sam poskrbi za profesionalni prevod lanka ter obvezno navede ime in priimek prevajalca. Avtorji
so dolni sodelovati vprocesu lektoriranja besedila in urejanja lanka.
e obseg avtorskega dela ni skladen znavodili za objavo, avtor dovoljuje izdajatelju, da avtorsko delo
po svoji presoji ustrezno prilagodi.
Izdajatelj poskrbi, da se vsi prispevki spozitivno recenzijo, e so zagotovljena sredstva za tisk, objavijo vActi geographici Slovenici Geografskem zborniku in na medmreju, praviloma skladno zvrstnim
redom prispetja prispevkov in skladno zenakomerno razporeditvijo prispevkov po temah. Naroeni prispevki se lahko objavijo ne glede na datum prispetja.
Prispevki vreviji Acta geographica Slovenica Geografski zbornik niso honorirani niti niso honorirani recenzenti.
Avtorju pripada 1brezplaen izvod publikacije.
8 Priprava kontrolnega seznama vsistemu OJS

Kot del postopka oddaje lanka morajo avtorji preveriti skladnost lanka in navodil. Urednitvo si pridruje pravico, da avtorjem vrne lanek vpopravek, e ta ni pripravljen skladno stemi navodili. Avtorji morajo
upotevati naslednja navodila:
1. lanek ni bil predhodno objavljen niti ni vpostopku objave vdrugi reviji oziroma je to razloeno vkomentarju uredniku).
2. Datoteka je shranjena vformatu Microsoft Word.
3. e so na voljo, so predloeni URL-ji in DOI referenc.
4. Besedilo ima enojne razmike spisavo velikosti 12tok; za poudarjanje vsebine uporablja lee ali krepki
format brez podrtovanja (razen URL naslovov). Vbesedilu je spodnapisi oznaena lega slik, ilustracije
in slike pa niso vnesene vbesedilo, temve so oddane vposebnih datotekah (.cdr, .ai za zemljevide in
ilustracije; .tif za fotografije). Preglednice so na ustreznih mestih besedilu. Velikost posamezne dodatne
datoteke ne sme presei 50 MB.
5. Besedilo je pripravljeno skladno zoblikovnimi in bibliografskimi merili za pripravo lankov za objavo
vreviji Acta geographica Slovenica, ki so objavljene vpoglavju About na spletni strani http://ojs.zrc-sazu.si/ags.
6. Pri oddaji lanka so bila upotevana navodila za zagotavljanje anonimne recenzije lanka.
7. Velikost dodatnih datotek ne presega 50 MB.
8. e je vsaj eden od avtorjev iz Slovenije, se strinjamo, da bomo dali lanek na nae stroke prevesti
v angleki / slovenski jezik oziroma dali lektorirat angleki del lanka (za podrobnosti glej navodila),
POTEM ko bo sprejet za objavo.
9 Izjava ozasebnosti
Imena in e-potne naslove, vneseni vtej reviji mestu se bodo uporabljali izkljuno za navedene namene
te revije in ne bodo na voljo za kakrne koli druge namene ali za katero koli drugo stranko.
10 Naroanje
Acto geographico Slovenico Geografski zbornik lahko naroite na naslovu zalonika:
Zaloba ZRC
Novi trg2, p. p. 306
SI 1001Ljubljana, Slovenija
388
telefon: +386(0)1470 64 64
faks: +386(0)1425 77 94
e-pota: zalozba@zrc-sazu.si
Revijo je mogoe tudi kupiti vknjigarni Azil na Novem trgu2 vLjubljani ali si jo sposoditi vknjinicah
(www.cobiss.si).
11 Obrazec za uredniki pregled lankov

Obrazec za uredniki pregled lankov vreviji Acta geographica Slovenica Geografskem zborniku je zaradi uporabe urednikega sistema Open journal system (OJS) zaenkrat dostopen samo vanglekem jeziku.
Glej angleki del navodil.
12 Obrazec za recenzijo lankov

Obrazec za recenzijo lankov vreviji Acta geographica Slovenica Geografskem zborniku je zaradi uporabe urednikega sistema Open journal system (OJS) zaenkrat dostopen samo vanglekem jeziku. Glej angleki
del navodil.
389
ISSN: 1581-6613
UDC UDK: 91
GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK
55-2
2015
Geografski intitut Antona Melika ZRC SAZU,2015
Print/tisk: Collegium Graphicum d. o. o.
Ljubljana2015

GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK
55-2 2015
Contents Vsebina
Nataa KOLEGA
205
216

223

235
254
Andreea-Loreta CERCLEUX, Daniel PEPTENATU, Florentina-Cristina MERCIU

Structural dynamics of tertiary activities in industrial parks in Bucharest, Romania
271
Vanja DRAGIEVI, David BOLE, Anela BUI, Aleksandra PRODANOVI

European capital of culture: residents' perception of social benefits and costs
Maribor2012 case study
Evropska prestolnica kulture: mnenje prebivalcev odrubenih koristih
in strokih dogodka primer Maribora2012
283
294
Botjan KERBLER
303
312

317
330

339

351

Achieving sustainable spatial development in theAlps through participatory planning
363
ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 55-2 2015
naslovnica 55-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 22.6.2015 8:33 Page 1
ACTA GEOGRAPHICA
SLOVENICA
GEOGRAFSKI
ZBORNIK
ISSN 1581-6613
9 771581 661010
2015
55
2

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ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA

Bogdan MIHAI, Constantin NISTOR, Gabriel SIMION

Drago PERKO, Mauro HRVATIN, Rok CIGLI

Andreea-Loreta CERCLEUX, Daniel PEPTENATU, Florentina-Cristina MERCIU

Vanja DRAGIEVI, David BOLE, Anela BUI, Aleksandra PRODANOVI

Katarina POLAJNAR HORVAT

Special issue Wikialps

Stefan MARZELLI, Florian LINTZMEYER

Janez NARED, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVI, Dominik CREMER-SCHULTE,

ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK 55-2 2015

naslovnica 55-2_naslovnica 49-1.qxd 22.6.2015 8:33 Page 1

ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA/GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK

ACTA GEOGRAPHICA SLOVENICA GEOGRAFSKI ZBORNIK

Bogdan MIHAI, Constantin NISTOR, Gabriel SIMION

Drago PERKO, Mauro HRVATIN, Rok CIGLI

Andreea-Loreta CERCLEUX, Daniel PEPTENATU,

Vanja DRAGIEVI, David BOLE, Anela BUI,

Katarina POLAJNAR HORVAT

Special issue Wikialps

Stefan MARZELLI, Florian LINTZMEYER

Janez NARED, Nika RAZPOTNIK VISKOVI, Dominik CREMER-SCHULTE,

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015, 205221

Lucija leta 1954.

Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

1.1 Short description of theregion

1.2 Literature review

Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

Root mean square

Debeli Rti and Lazaret (1974 photo)

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

3 Results and discussion

Figure 1: Coastlines in 1954 and 2010 and every tenth transect.

Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

3.2 New and lost mainland

3.3 Classification of coastline changes

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

Table 3: Lengths (in km) of coastline types in 1954 and 2010.

Relatively natural coast

Nataa Kolega, Coastline changes on theSlovenian coast between1954 and2010

Figure 6: Types of coastlines in 1954 and 2010.

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

Spreminjanje obalne rte na slovenski obali med letoma1954 in2010

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

1.1 Kratek oris obmoja

1.2 Pregled obstojee literature

srednja napaka poloaja

Debeli rti in Lazaret (leto 1974)

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

3.2 Pridobljena in izgubljena zemljia na kopnem

3.3 Klasifikacija preoblikovanosti obalne rte

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

razmeroma naravna obala

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015, 223234

Post-soCialist URban gRowth

Bogdan Mihai, Constantin Nistor, Gabriel Simion

Post-socialist urban growth of Bucharest, Romania achange

Acta geographica Slovenica, 55-2, 2015

Table 1: Landsat scenes (path183row029) used for change detection analysis.

Central point scan time