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DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATION

Photons: Electromagnetic radiation travels in the form of small packets of energy which
are called photons.
Important Properties of photons:
i.
ii.

According to quantum theory of light, radiation from any given source always travel
in the form of photons.
hc
The energy of photon is given by E h

Where h is Plancks constant and its value is 6.62x10-34Js

iii.

Velocity of photon is equal to the velocity of light i.e. 3 x 108m/s

iv.

The mass of the particle varies with velocity according to the relation
m0
. Where m0 is the rest mass of photon. As photon moves with the
m
1 c2 / v2

v.
vi.

velocity of light v=c, thus m0=0. Hence photon has zero rest mass.
h h
Momentum of photon is given by relation,
p mc

Photons are electrically neutral particle and they are not deflected by the either
electric or magnetic field.

vii.

The velocity of photons in different media is different due to the change in

wavelength, but the frequency of photon remains constant.

viii.

Energy of a photon is usually expressed in electron volt (eV).

1 eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
Free electrons in metals: In metals, the electrons in the outermost shell of the atoms are
loosely bound. It is because of the small attractive force between the positive nucleus and
electrons in the outermost shell. These electrons can freely move in a metal like gas
molecules in a given volume of certain gas. But the electron cant leave the metal surface
because of the attractive force of other positive charges. There exists a potential barrier
which they must overcome before leaving the surface. To overcome that potential barrier
they require certain minimum amount of energy. This minimum energy required by an
electron just to escape from the metal surface so as to overcome the restraining forces is
called work function. Work function is generally denoted by 0.
Electron Emission: Electron emission is defined as the phenomenon of emission of free
electrons from the metal surface. The various modes for providing energy to the electrons
and making them free are
[a] Thermionic emission: It is phenomenon of emission of free electrons from the metal
surface when heated suitably. On heating the metal, the free electrons acquire sufficient
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energy to overcome the restraining forces. The electrons so emitted are called thermal
electrons or thermions.
[b] Photoelectric emission; It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal
surface when light of suitable energy falls on them. By suitable energy we mean that the
energy of incident photons should be more than the work function from the metal surface.
The emitted electrons are photoelectrons.
[c] Field emission: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the metal surface when
strong electric field is applied across it. The electric field intensity will provide energy to
the electrons and the emitted electrons are field electrons. Electric field of the order of
108V/m is required for emission.
[d] Secondary emission: When fast moving electrons called primary electrons are allowed
to fall on the metal surface, they collide with the free electrons inside the metal surface.
The energy transfer between primary electrons and electrons inside the metal surface
provides electron emission from the metal surface. The emitted electrons are called
secondary electrons.
Photoelectric EffectThe phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal surface when light of suitable
frequency falls on it, is called photoelectric effect. The emitted electrons are called
photoelectrons and the corresponding current is called photoelectric current.
The suitable energy [work function] for different metals is different. Alkali metals can emit
electrons even with visible light whereas metals like zinc or magnesium requires ultraviolet
light.
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
The photoelectric effect was first observed in 1887 by Heinrich Hertz (18571894) during
experiments with a spark-gap generator the earliest form of radio receiver and it
was Philipp Lenard (18621947), an assistant of Hertz, who performed the earliest,
definitive studies of the photoelectric effect. The experimental set is shown in the figure.
The apparatus consist of an evacuated glass tube fitted with two electrodes C (emitter) and
A (collector). A varying p.d. can be applied across two electrodes. The polarity of the
electrodes can be reversed with the help of commutator. The frequency and intensity of
light incident can also be changed.
When a suitable radiation is incident on the electrode C, electrons are emitted from the
surface. If the collector is at a positive potential w. r. t the emitter, the electrons are
attracted by it and a current called photoelectric current flows in the circuit.

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Effect of potential: When we increase the potential of A w.r.t. C, for a given value of
intensity and frequency it was found that the photoelectric current also increases. At one
particular value of accelerating voltage
the photoelectric current saturates. If we
increase the potential beyond this value
the current will remain constant. This
basically implies that all the electrons
emitted by the cathode had started
reaching the plate A
If negative potential is applied on A
relative to C, the photoelectric current
decreases as electrons emitted by the
cathode are repelled by the negative
potential of plate C. thus, lesser number
of electrons will be able to reach the plate
A. It was found the photoelectric current
than decreases rapidly till it reduces to zero at certain negative value of potential of plate
A relative to B. This, minimum negative potential V0, of plate A relative to B for which
the photoelectric current becomes zero is called stopping potential. At this potential
the electron with maximum kinetic energy will be stopped.

1
1
2
2
or
V0 mvmax
mvmax
2
2
Thus, the stopping potential gives the estimate of the maximum kinetic energy of
photoelectrons.
eV0

Effect of Frequency: If we take three

radiations of different frequency but having the
same intensity. In this case, the number of
photons striking the metal surface per second
per unit area will be same, thus, the
photoelectric current will be same in all the
three cases. But, as the frequency of photon
beams is different the maximum kinetic energy
of emitted photons will also be different. Larger
the frequency of incident photon beam larger
will be the maximum kinetic energy and larger
will be the magnitude of the stopping potential.
Effect of intensity: If we consider three
different photon beams striking the metal
surface having same frequency but different
intensity [I1>I2>I3], then the photoelectric
current will be different in the 3 cases. Larger
the intensity larger will be the photoelectric
current as shown in the graph. But because the
frequency of incident beam is same sopping
potential for all the three beams will be equal.

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Variation of stopping potential with
frequency: The stopping potential varies
linearly with the frequency of incident
photon beam. If frequency of photon beam is
less than the threshold frequency then the
stopping potential will be zero as no
photoelectric current flows. But if > 0,
stopping potential increases with .
Laws of Photoelectric Effect:
[a] For a given metal surface and frequency
of the incident radiation, the number of photoelectrons ejected per second by the metal
surface is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident light.
[2] For a given metal surface, there exists a minimum frequency of incident radiation below
which no emission of electrons will take place. This frequency is called threshold
frequency.
[3] Above the threshold frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons
is independent of the intensity of incident radiation and depends only on the frequency
of the incident radiation.
[4] The photoelectric effect is in instantaneous phenomenon. The time lag between the
photon striking the metal surface and emission of electrons is only 10-9s
Important Graphs-

(a) Graph between applied

potential and photoelectric current
for different values of Intensity

(c)Graph between threshold frequency

and stopping potential

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(b) Graph between intensity of light and

photoelectric current i.e. photoelectrons emitted per
second (rate of emission of electrons)

(d) Graph between applied potential and

photoelectric current for different values
of frequency.

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Note(1) The negative potential at which the current in the circuit becomes zero is called as cut-off
potential or stopping potential (V0).
(2) The minimum frequency required to emit an electron from a metal surface is called
threshold frequency
FAILURE OF WAVE THEORY- The laws of photoelectric effect could not be explained on
the basis of wave theory of light due to the following reasons.
(i)

According to wave theory, the energy carried by waves depends upon the intensity
and increases with the increase in intensity. The light waves with larger intensity will
provide more energy to electrons of metal; consequently the energy of electrons will
increase.
But according to experimental observations, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons does
not depend on the intensity of incident light.

(ii)

According to wave theory the light of any frequency can emit electrons from metallic
surface provided the intensity of light be sufficient to provide necessary energy for
emission of electrons, but according to experimental observations the light of
frequency less than threshold frequency can not emit electrons; whatever the
intensity of incident light may be.

(iii)

According to wave theory the energy transferred by light waves will not go to a
particular electron, but it will be distributed uniformly to all electrons present in the
illuminated surface. Therefore electrons will take some time to collect the necessary
energy for their emission. But experimental observations show that the emission of
electrons take place instantaneously after the light is incident on the metal; whatever
the intensity of light may be.

EINSTENS PHOTOELECTHIC EQUATION AND EXPLANATION OF LAW OF

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT To explain photoelectric effect, Einstein postulated that when a photon carrying energy h
falls on a metal surface then it is completely absorbed by a single electron. Electron utilizes
some amount of this energy to come out from the metal surface which is called as the work
function (W) of metal and the rest amount of energy is carried by electron in the form of
kinetic energy. Thus

h W

1
2
mvmax
2

or

1
2
mvmax
h W
2

Here, m is the mass of electron and v max is the maximum velocity of the photoelectrons. (In
fact, most of the electrons possess kinetic energy less than the maximum value as they
lose a part of their kinetic energy due to collisions in escaping from the metal).
If = 0, then K.E. =0.
0 h 0 W W h 0

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1
2
mvmax
h ( 0 ) (1)
2

This relation is called as the Einsteins photoelectric equation.

If V0 is the cut-off potential then above equation can also be written as-

1
2
mvmax
eV0
2

eV0 h ( 0 )

Explanation of Laws of Photoelectric Effect by EinsteinFrom Einsteins relation, it follows that

1. If 0 then the kinetic energy of the photoelectrons [according to equation (1)] will
become negative which is not possible so no electron will be emitted from the metal
surface if the frequency of the incident light is less than a certain value called as threshold
frequency. Thus the frequency of incident radiation should be greater than the threshold
frequency for the metal for the ejection of electrons.
2. Equation (1) shows that the photoelectrons with greater value of maximum kinetic energy
will come out of the metal surface, when the frequency of incident radiation is increased.
Since the equation (1) does not involve the term of intensity so the maximum kinetic
energy does not depend upon the intensity.
3. The rate of emission of photoelectrons will be large, when intense beam of light is incident
on the metal surface. This is because, an intense beam of light contains a large number
of photons which transfers their energy to a larger number of electrons and hence more
photoelectrons are emitted.
4. The electron is emitted from the metal surface in a time less than one nanosecond so the
photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process.

Graph between frequency () and stopping potential (V0): As we know that

eV0 h W

h
W
or V0
e
e

So

V0

V0

-V0

graph is a straight line as shown in

adjacent figure. On comparing the above equation
with straight line equation, y mx C ,
Thus,

The slope of the straight line, m h / e and the

intercept on y-axis is C W / e

-W/e

Graph between frequency () and stopping

potential (V0) :
K max h ( 0 )

So

Kmax

K max

Comparing with y mx C
o

Slope of straight line, m h and

Intercept on y-axis, C W

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-W

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Photoelectric Cell: It is a device which converts light energy into the electrical energy.
Photoelectric cells can be 3 types
[a] Photo emissive Cell: Photo emissive cell or phototube consists of a quartz tube with
semi cylindrical metal plate acting as cathode and wire loop acting as anode. The tube has
insulating base with metallic pins to fix the tube in the socket.
This tube is connected to the external circuit using battery and
micro ammeter and a load resistance R.
When light of frequency greater than the threshold
frequency for the metal surface is allowed to fall on the
cathode, photoelectrons are emitted. These are attracted by the
positive potential on the anode loop and current begins to flow
in the circuit. The photoelectric current, which flows in the
circuit, is measured using micro ammeter. This current is generally very small and needs
amplification before it can be used. The current flows only till the photons are falling on
the metal surface.
[b] Photovoltaic Cell: It consists of three layers as shown in figure. The metallic surface
of copper or gold with thin semi conducting layer of cuprous oxide and a thin transparent
film of silver or gold.
When sunlight falls on the top transparent layer and passes through it, it illuminates
the semiconducting layer. The photoelectrons are emitted
by this layer and are collected by top layer. This creates a
potential difference between the top two layers and
conventional current begins to flow. Thus, cell supplies
current without any batteries. Here also, the photoelectric
current is directly proportional to the intensity of the
incident light falling on the surface.
[c] Photoconductive cell: Photoconductive cell has its working based on the principle
that the electrical resistance of the semiconductors decreases with the increase in
temperature of the semiconductor.
It consists of thin transparent surface film which is
placed on thin layer of selenium [semiconductor] which in
turn is placed on iron layer. A potential difference is applied
across the surface of the film and iron layer. When light of
suitable frequency falls on the surface film, the electrical
resistance of the semiconductor decreases and current
begins to flow in the outer circuit, this current change with the change in intensity of the
incident light.
Applications of Photoelectric Cells[1] It is used as burglar alarm in houses or banks etc.
[2] A photocell can be used to locate flaws in the metallic sheet in industrial applications
[3] It is used for automatic switching on and off of the streetlights.
[4] It is used for automatic counting of number of persons entering or leaving a given hall
or stadium.
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[5] It is used as fire alarm in the case of accidental fire in the building
[6] Photoelectric cells are used in TV and camera for telecasting scenes by converting
light and shade into electric signals.
[7] Photocells are used to compare the illuminating power of two different sources of
light.
Dual Nature of matter:
There are some phenomenon involving light like photoelectric effect, Compton scattering
etc which can be explained only on the particle nature of light. Whereas, some other
phenomenon like Interference, diffraction, polarization etc. can be explained on the wave
nature of light. This implies that light possess both the particle as well as wave nature.
Thus, light phenomenon can be classified into 3 categories
i.

The phenomenon like photoelectric effect or Compton scattering which can be

explained using particle character

ii.

The phenomenon like diffraction or polarization, which can be, explained only
using wave character.

iii.

Phenomenon like refraction or refraction, which can be, explained either by

particle or wave character.

De-Broglie Hypothesis {Matter Waves}De-Broglie stated that as light possesses dual character and universe consists of matter
and radiation only. As nature loves symmetry, thus matter should also possess dual nature
both particle as well as a wave. According to de-Broglie a wave is always associated with
the moving particle which controls the particle in every aspect. This wave is called deBroglie wave or matter wave.
For a particle of mass m moving with the velocity v the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with the particle is given by
h

mv
Proof: According to Planks quantum theory, the energy associated with a photon of
frequency is given by
E h
Also, according to relativistic mass formula for particle of rest mass m0 and momentum
p the energy is given by-

p 2 c 2 m02 c 4

As rest mass of the photon is zero, thus energy of photon becomes E pc

Equating the above two values of energy, we get,

h pc

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or

h h

or
c

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Thus, De- Broglie stated that as photon and matter particles behave in similar manner,
therefore the same formula can be applied to matter particle.

h
mv

p mv

Thus, if the velocity of the particle is zero, its wavelength will be infinity and if velocity of
the particle is infinity then wavelength will be zero.
Note:
In daily life the mass of the particle very large. Thus the de-Broglie wavelength
comes out to be very small.
The de-Broglie wavelength of any particle is independent of the charge on the
particle.
It was found that velocity of De-Broglie waves is always more than the velocity with
which the particle moves.
De-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electronIf an electron is made to accelerate through the potential difference of V volt, then electrical
potential energy of the electron gets converted into its kinetic energy i.e.
Kinetic Energy of electron, K eV

Also

p2
2m

or p 2mK

p 2meV

de-Broglies wavelength associated with an accelerated electron is given as

h
h

p
2 meV

Or

6.63 10 34
2 9.1 10 31 1.6 10 19

or

12.27

Relation for de-Broglie wavelength and temperature:

The average kinetic energy of a particle at absolute temperature T is given as

3
k BT , Where kB is the Boltzmanns constant
2

If m is the mass of particle and v is the velocity then, K

Momentum of the particle, p mv

de-Broglie wavelength
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1
mv 2
2

3
2 mK ) 2 m k BT 3mk BT
2
h

h
3mk BT

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DAVISSON AND GERMERS EXPERIMENT (ELECTRON DIFFRACTION): Davisson and Germer gave the experimental demonstration of the de-Broglie wave
associated with the moving electron i.e. it establish the wave nature of matter.
EXPERIMENTAL SET-UP: It consists of an electron
gun. A fine beam of electron accelerated to a known
energy strikes to a Ni- crystal.

Electron Gun

Detector

A detector, which moves on a circular scale,

detects the diffracted beam and measures the
angle of diffraction.
WORKING: -The accelerated beam of electron strikes
the nickel crystal normally. The intensity of the
scattered beam is measured at different
accelerating voltages for different values of
(which is the angle between the incident direction and
scattered direction and called the latitude angle).

Scattered
Beam

Ni Crystal

I
54V

Polar graphs are plotted between the intensity (I) of

scattered electron and the latitude angle for different
accelerating voltages. From the graphs it is clear that
the intensity of scattered beam is maximum for = 50
at 54 volt.
The glancing angle (i.e. the angle between the
direction of scattered electron and crystal atomic plane) is given by

180

or

500

1
180
2

For maximum intensity = 1 180 - 50 = 65

2

Now according to Braggs law-

2d sin n

For 1st order diffraction, n = 1 and inter atomic separation for Ni- crystal, d = 0.91 A

= 2 0.91 sin65

or

= 1.65A

Now according to de-Broglie hypothesis- The wavelength of wave associated with electron
accelerated to 54 volt is given by-

12.27
V

12.27
54

1.66 A

Thus there is a close agreement between the estimated value of de-Broglie

wavelength and the experimental value determined by Davisson and Germer. Thus this
experiment gave a strong evidence for the de-Broglie hypothesis or the wave nature of
matter.
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