COLLEGE OF APPLIED STUDIES IN

VRANJE

Study programme: Tehnologija drveta

Subject:

Engleski jezik 1

SEMINAR PAPER WORK

THEME: Forest ecosystems

Profesor:

Student:

Dr Maja Stanojevi Goci

Nemanja Smiljkovi 279/TD

Vranje, 2016.
SADRAJ:

1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................3
2. FOREST FUNCTIONS...........................................................................4
2.1. Biodiversity and naturalness.........................................................5
3. FORESTS AND THEIR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES...........................6
3.1. Regulating forest ecosystem services............................................6
3.2. Climate regulation.........................................................................7
4. THE DIVERSITY OF THE FORESTS.................................................8
4.1. Measures for protecting forests ecosystem protected areas...9
5. HEALTHY AND DIVERSE FOREST ECOSYSTEMS....................10
6. CONCLUSION.......................................................................................11
LITERATURE.......................................................................................12

1. INTRODUCTION
Forests worldwide are known to be critically important habitats in terms of the biological
diversity they contain and in terms of the ecological functions they serve.Taking species
counts as an illustration of biological diversity,the number of described organisms totals
some 1.75 million, and it is conjectured that this may be just 13% of the true total, i.e. actual
species number perhaps 13.6 million. What fraction of this uncertain total resides in the
world's forests is unknown.
Wilson (1992) has suggested that perhaps half of all known species reside in tropical
forests alone, and WCMC (1992) conjectures that the majority of yet-to-be-discovered
species are in tropical areas. Whatever the precise number, forests, and tropical forests in
particular, are major locations for biological diversity. The values of forests therefore
embody the values of the biological diversity they contain since it seems unlikely that the
vast majority of the biological resources in question could occupy non-forest habitats.
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Forests regulate local and global climate, ameliorate weather events, regulate the
hydrological cycle,protect watersheds and their vegetation, water flows and soils, and
provide a vast store of genetic information much of which has yet to be uncovered.
Scientists debate the linkages between biological diversity and ecological services.Those
who believe in a strong link argue that any ecosystem,forests included,cannot cope with
stresses and shocks if the diversity of the system has been reduced. Others argue that a
majority of species are 'redundant' in the sense that their removal would not impair
ecosystem functioning.

Picture 1. Prewiev of an forest ecosystem

2. FOREST FUNCTIONS
The characteristic exchanges that occur within a forest ecosystem are called 'functions'
and in addition to energy, water and nutrient exchanges. Examples of forest ecosystem
functions include the fixation of carbon by trees and plants, the formation and maintenance
of soils for tree and vegetation growth, the provision of habitats for flora and fauna,
nutrient cycling and watershed protection, and the decomposition and
production
of biomass
(Picture 2).
A large body of evidence indicates that biodiversity can increase if a forest ecosystem
incorporates more components. For instance, biodiversity increases if more nutrients,
deadwood and species accumulate in a forest. This leads to an increase in the complexity of
the forest ecosystem and, in turn, to more ecosystem functions. Forest functions are, thus,
considered to be the basis of ecosystem services and, in particular, are connected to the
supporting services of an ecosystem. Forest functions have the potential to provide, regulate
and maintain ecosystem services and cultural values.
The provision of deadwood is another example of an important forest function; the
occurrence of deadwood is a supporting function for other ecosystem services.

Picture 2. Prewiev of forest ecosystem functions and supporting services

2.1.

Biodiversity and naturalness

The capacity of forests to maintain and protect forest biodiversity may be measured by
their coverage and naturalness. Forest naturalness is related to how similar a forest is to the
natural (original) state of the forest; naturalness is used as a reference for assessments of the
degree of degradation of forest ecosystems. However, almost no forests in Europe can be
defined as natural, as all forests have, to some degree, been affected by humans. Temperate
forests are considered most influenced by human activities.
Forest statistics provide information on the level of forest naturalness, based on a
simplified nomenclature system with three classes: (1) plantations that are intensively
managed, often with introduced tree species; (2) other naturally regenerated forests or seminatural forests; and (3) primary forests or forests that have been undisturbed by human
activities (see Picture 3).

Picture 3. Prewiev of three categories of forest naturalness, as reported by different sources,

and their relationships to forest naturalness and high nature value (HNV) forests.

3. FORESTS AND THEIR ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

Forests provide a huge range of products and services that are of vital importance to the
functioning of the biosphere. They provide the basis for the delivery of tangible and intangible
benefits to society and human well-being. These help to meet the basic needs of people in Europe
by providing employment and contributing to the economy and wealth. The demand for
ecosystem
services is projected to grow, and, likewise, the need for more raw materials
and services is expected to increase.
The concept of ecosystem services is currently in an implementation phase, and many
international and national initiatives have been launched to translate the concept into practice.
The EU Biodiversity Strategy 2020 proposes concrete actions in order to improve knowledge on
ecosystems and their services. Under Target 2 and Action 5, the EU Member States are requested
to map and assess the ecosystems and their services within their national territory. A working
group, consisting of representatives from Member States, European Commission services and
the EEA, was set up to implement the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their
Services (MAES) framework for six main ecosystems. Such studies, as well as accounts of
natural capital, are expected to increase our knowledge and understanding of the dependency of
ecosystem services on biodiversity, and increase the focus on protecting ecosystems in order to
also protect biodiversity.
The MAES work produced a conceptual framework for ecosystem assessment, and
typologies for ecosystems and ecosystem services. The ecosystem services approach is based on
the fact that humans depend on nature and, therefore, the flow of ecosystem services is linked to
the supply of services that are used by humans. The MAES initiative adopted the Common
International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) framework to classify ecosystem
services that depend on The CICES framework facilitates cross-references between.ecosystem
services and environmental accounting initiatives.

3.1.

Regulating forest ecosystem services

In addition to wood and non-wood products, Europe's forests provide a broad range of
essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, carbon storage, wildlife habitats,
recreational opportunities and scenic beauty. The forest area of Europe is still expanding.
However, the protection and maintenance of healthy, diverse and productive forest ecosystems is
essential in order to provide essential ecosystem services that support human health, mitigate
climate change, regulate watershed disruption, ensure clean drinking water and halt the loss of
biodiversity. An ongoing European project, 'Future-oriented
integrated
management
of
European forest landscapes' (Integral), has examined which ecosystem services are important
throughout Europe.

Following wood provision,

socio-economic functions and biodiversity protection were
identified as the most common forest ecosystem services. Within protective functions, services
related to water protection were considered most prominent. Other protective services and nonwood provisions, including the protection from fires and coastal protection, were more regionally
important.

3.2.

Climate regulation

Both temperate and boreal forests play critical roles in modifying and controlling climate,
and their roles should not be underestimated. These types of forest exert a strong influence on
surface climate in mid- and high-latitude regions, and also on climatic events in the tropics.
Thus,
significant
climatechange could be caused merely by the redistribution of
terrestrial ecosystems. Such redistribution could be caused by intensive logging, as already
observed for boreal forests; it could also be induced by an increase in the atmospheric
concentration of CO2 and other GHGs. Furthermore, the variability of the climatic, soil and
vegetation characteristics of a region, as well as the representation of land surface processes in
the applied climate model, also have an influence on simulated vegetationatmosphere
interactions.Past deforestation in temperate regions has resulted in cooler
temperatures via
change in albedo: forests with relatively low albedos were replaced by crops with higher albedos,
which, therefore, absorb less incoming solar radiation.
Afforestation in temperate regions would still act to mitigate global warming through CO2
uptake, but the warming effect of decreased surface albedo would partly offset the cooling effect
of sequestering CO2, especially in snowy landscapes. In some parts of boreal forests, the
warming effect of decreased surface albedo may outweigh the cooling effect of
CO2 sequestration.
Furthermore, forests help to mitigate climate change over a single year, a mature tree will
take up approximately 22 kg of CO2 from the atmosphere, and, in exchange, release oxygen.
Each year, 1.3 million trees are estimated to
remove
more than 2 500 tonnes of
pollutants from the air.

4. THE DIVERSITY OF THE FORESTS

Forests contain the greatest assemblages of species found in any terrestrial ecosystem, and
the status of biodiversity is, in itself, an indicator of forest condition. Forests encompass
biodiversity at the ecosystem level, the species level, and the genetic level. Numerous distinct
types of forest ecosystem have been identified, occurring in fresh and saltwater environments,
moist lowlands and arid highlands, low and high latitudes. Plant, animal, and insect species in
these forests directly supply the needs of forest-dwelling peoples. Wood products from thousands
of tree species are used domestically and traded internationally. Nonwood forest products,
including fruits, nuts, mushrooms, Christmas boughs, and floral decorations, are collected by
individuals, traded in local markets and, in some cases, exported worldwide.
The genetic diversity of forest flora and fauna is a resource of great potential value to the
agricultural and pharmaceutical biotechnology industries, though the process of winnowing
valuable genes from millions of unrewarding species is proving time-consuming and expensive.
Use values aside, the biological richness and beauty of forest ecosystems are at the core of their
appeal to environmentalists and the wider public today. Saving the rainforest is a passionate
cause for many individuals who have no direct connection with, or use for, tropical forests. The
rise of ecotourism testifies to the need felt by (largely) urban-dwelling people to witness natural,
as opposed to human-made, wonders. Forest-dwelling indigenous peoples are seen, by some, as
safeguarding the cultural diversity and intimate knowledge of nature that are likely to be lost in
an industrializing and homogenizing world.

Picture 4. Prewiev of an scheme which shows many ways in which biodiversity supports th e
delivery of forst ecosystem services and its importnace for the condition of ecosystems
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4.1.

Measures for protecting forests ecosystem protected areas

Direct efforts to conserve forest biodiversity focus on legal protection of forested land.
IUCN defines 5 categories of protected area, using the management objective as the basis of
classification. Categories range from Category I (Strict Nature Reserve, managed mainly for
scientific research and environmental monitoring) to Category V (Protected Landscape/Seascape,
managed mainly for landscape/seascape conservation and recreation). A recent WCMC study
shows that just over 3 million km2 of forest were protected under all 5 IUCN categories in 1996.
It should be noted that WCMC estimates global forest cover at nearly 40 million km2, about 11
percent greater than the FAO estimate, and more than 30 percent greater than forest area
according to the IGBP classification scheme. (See picture 5.) Of 25 forest types defined by
WCMC, those with the highest degree of protection (expressed as a percentage of total area of
that forest type) were nontropical evergreen broadleaf forests (22.6 percent), and tropical
lowland rainforests (13.1 percent). Among forest types with the lowest degree of protection were
nontropical deciduous needleleaf forests (0.9 percent), and tropical mixed needleleaf/broadleaf
forests (2.5 percent). These data must be interpreted with caution.
Many protected areas have been established primarily for recreation, and have little sig
cance for the conservation of biodiversity. In addition, protected areas are often selected on
pragmatic, rather than scientific grounds. Finally, protected area status is no guarantee of
enforcement on the ground. The countries of Central America excluding Mexico and El
Salvador have designated between 19 and 43 percent of their forests as protected, yet the
FAOs annual forest change rate for Central America (excluding Mexico and El Salvador) is -2
percent, a figure exceeding the global average of -0.3 percent.

Picture 5. Prewiev of some world protected areas

5. HEALTHY AND DIVERSE FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

Old-growth and natural forests are particularly valuable for biodiversity (including the
genetic variety) and carbon storage. Forests and other wooded land cover more than 40 %
of the total land surface in the European Environment Agency (EEA) region (33 member
countries and six cooperating countries the EEA-39). Forest extent and growing stock are still
increasing. However, some countries in northern and south-western Europe are experiencing a
decline in forested areas.
There is a great diversity of forest habitats across Europe, with 81 different habitat types
identified according to the Habitats Directive. The tree species composition of managed forests
in the EEA region is becoming more diverse, with an increasing variety of broadleaved and
coniferous tree species. Forestry in Europe is, to a large extent, based on native tree species.
However, some countries have a significant share of introduced forest tree species. Nonetheless,
invasive alien species still cover only 0.5 % of
the
total forest area in
Europe.
There are concerns with regard to the genetic biodiversity of important commercial trees,
especially in connection with the current transfer of tree genetic material between countries and
across the globe. Although certain tree species might produce higher timber yields, genetic
variety in regionally adapted forests is essential for adapting to new environmental conditions,
such as those resulting from climate change.
Climate change affects biodiversity in forests. Climate change is likely to impact, both the
zones where tree species can live in and the range of tree species. Increased periods of droughts
and warmer winters are expected to further weaken forests against invasive species.
International processes related to forests, biodiversity conservation and climate change must
be supported and reinforced by creating synergies that favour the success of these processes over
time.

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6. CONCLUSION
Earths ecosystems and its peoples are bound together in a grand and complex symbiosis.
We depend on ecosystems to sustain us, but the continued health of ecosystems depends, in turn,
on our use and care. Ecosystems are the productive engines of the planet, providing us with
everything from the water we drink to the food we eat and the fiber we use for clothing, paper, or
lumber. Yet, nearly every measure we use to assess the health of ecosystems tells us we are
drawing on them more than ever and degrading them, in some cases at an accelerating pace.
Our knowledge of ecosystems has increased dramatically in recent decades, but it has not
kept pace with our ability to alter them. Economic development and human well-being will
depend in large part on our ability to manage ecosystems more sustainably. We must learn to
evaluate our decisions on land and resource use in terms of how they affect the capacity of
ecosystems to sustain life not only human life, but also the health and productive potential of
plants, animals, and natural systems.

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LITERATURE
1. www.Analysisofglobalecosystems.com;
2. London: Penguin Books. Blackstone;
3. www.europeanenviromentagency.eu;
4. London: Clarendon Press. Boylan-Kemp.

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