CHAPTER 5

ANTENNA

Antennas
5.1 Antennas fundamentals.
5.1.1 Radiation mechanism.
5.1.2 Concept and definition of polarization, bandwidth, beam width,
antenna resistance, directivity, antenna gain, power density.
5.2 Dipole antenna
5.2.1 Half wave dipole antenna and its Radiation pattern
5.3 Folded dipole antenna & its radiation pattern.
5.4 Structure, Radiation pattern & applications of the following
antennas.
i. Loop antenna
ii. Ferrite loop antenna
iii. Telescopic antenna
iv. Yagi-uda antenna
v. Microwave antennas- Dish antenna & Horn antenna.
5.1.History of Antenna
What is the origin of antennas?
I'm ruling out compasses, because while they in some sense
receive a magnetic field, its not an electromagnetic field. Ben
Franklin's kite experiment wasn't quite an antenna, as that captured
lightning discharge, which is a direct current path where the energy is
not transferred independent of the medium it travels. The human eye
of course receives high frequency electromagnetic waves (light, to the
layman). Technically the eye could be classified as an antenna;
however since it can't transmit waves, it is really a sensor, so I'll
exclude that as well.
The first experiments that involved the coupling of electricity
and magnetism and showed a definitive relationship was that done by
Faraday somewhere around the 1930s. He slid a magnetic around the
coils of a wire attached to a galvanometer. In moving the magnet, he
was in effect creating a time-varying magnetic field, which as a result
(from Maxwell's Equations), must have had a time-varying electric
field. The coil acted as a loop antenna and received the
electromagnetic radiation, which was received (detected) by the
galvanometer - the work of an antenna. Interestingly, the concept of
electromagnetic waves had not even been thought up at this point.
Heinrich Hertz developed a wireless communication system in
which he forced an electrical spark to occur in the gap of a dipole
antenna. He used a loop antenna as a receiver, and observed a similar
disturbance. This was 1886. By 1901, Marconi was sending
information across the atlantic. For a transmit antenna, he used
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several vertical wires attached to the ground. Across the atlantic, the
receive antenna was a 200 meter wire held up by a kite.
In 1906, Columbia University had an Experimental Wireless
Station where they used a transmitting aerial cage. This was a cage
made up of wires and suspended in the air, resembling a cage.
A rough outline of some major
discovery/fabrication dates are listed:

antennas

and

their

Yagi-Uda Antenna, 1920s

Horn antennas, 1939. Interesting, the early antenna literature
discussed waveguides as "hollow metal pipes".
Antenna Arrays, 1940s
Parabolic Reflectors, late 1940s, early 1950s? Just a guess.
Patch Antennas, 1970s.
PIFA(Planar Inverted F-Antenna), 1980s.
5.2.Antennas
An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radiofrequency (RF) fields into alternating current (AC) or vice-versa. There
are two basic types
1.
the receiving antenna, which intercepts RF energy and
delivers AC to electronic equipment, and
2.
the transmitting antenna, which is fed with AC from
electronic equipment and generates an RF field.
An antenna is a metallic conductor system capable of radiating
and capturing electromagnetic waves. They are used to interface
transmission lines to free space, free space to transmission lines or
both. At the transmit end of a free space radio communication
System, an antenna converts electrical energy traveling along a
transmission line into electromagnetic waves that are emitted into
space. At the receiving end, an antenna converts electromagnetic
waves in space into electrical energy on a transmission line.
The transmission line is terminated in an open circuit, which
represents an abrupt discontinuity.
5.2.1.How Antenna Works
An antenna is an impedance-matching and directing device. It
takes an electromagnetic wave that is traveling down a transmission
line and lets it float off into free space. The presence or absence of air
has nothing to do with the radiation.
Consider a two wire transmission line, open circuited at the
end, driven by a sinusoid. This line will have a standing wave pattern
with a voltage maxima at the open end. At a distance of one quarter
wave from the end, the voltage standing wave will be at a
minimum.This transmission line loses very little energy by radiation
because the two fields of the wires cancel. If we now fold out the two

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wires from the quarter wave points, a dipole antenna is formed. Now
the electromagnetic fields will be in the same direction and additive.

Fig.5.1.Electric and Magnetic Fields in Transmission Line

The electric and magnetic fields far enough away from the
antenna can not return to the antenna are radiated away into space.
The wave will propagate away from the antenna at the speed of light.

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Fig.5.2Radiation from Antenna

The wave creates two fields, the E field and the H field, at right
angles to each other. The electric field will be parallel to the plane of
the active element i.e. a dipole horizontally oriented with respect to
earth will radiate a horizontally polarized signal while a dipole
vertically oriented with respect to earth will radiate a vertically
polarized signal.
Receiving antennas generally work similar to transmitting
antennas but in reverse. For an antenna to efficiently receive radio
signals, it must abstract energy from the radio wave as it passes by
the receiving point. Electromagnetic wave reception occurs in an
antenna because the electromagnetic flux of the wave cuts across the
antenna conductor, inducing a voltage into the conductor that varies
with time in exactly the same manner as the current flowing in the
antenna that radiated the wave. The induced volt age, along with the
current it produces, represents energy that the antenna absorbs from
the passing wave.
5.3.Radiation Mechanism of Antenna
Basic antenna operation is best understood by looking at the voltage
standing-wave patterns on a transmission line, which are shown in

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Figure.5.3.a. The transmission line is terminated in an open circuit,

which represents an abrupt discontinuity to the incident volt age wave
in the form of a phase reversal. The phase reversal results in some of
the incident voltage being radiated, not reflected back toward the
source. The radiated energy propagates away from the antenna in the
form of transverse electromagnetic waves.
Fig.5.3.Radiation Mechanism of Antenna
The radiation efficiency of an open transmission line is extremely low.
Radiation efficiency is the ratio of radiated to reflected energy. To
radiate more energy, simply spread the conductors farther apart.
Such an antenna is called a dipole (meaning two poles) and is shown
in Figure.5.3.b.

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(a).Quarter Wave Length Line

(b).Half Wavelength Dipole
Fig.5.4.Quater and Half wave Length Antenna
In Figure.5.4.a, the conductors are spread out in a straight line to a
total length of one-quarter wavelength. Such an antenna is called a
basic quarter-wave antenna or a vertical ,monopole (sometimes called
a Marconi antenna). A half-wave dipole is called a Hertz antenna and
is shown in Figure.5.4.b.
5.4.Concept and Definition
Polarization
The radiation field is composed of electric and magnetic lines of
force. These lines of force are always at right angles to each other.
Their intensities rise and fall together, reaching their maximums 90 o
degrees apart. The electric field determines the direction of
polarization of the wave. In a vertically polarized wave, the electric
lines of force lie in a vertical direction. In a horizontally polarized
wave, the electric lines of force lie in a horizontal direction. Circular
polarization has the electric lines of force rotating through 360 o
degrees with every cycle of RF energy.

Fig.5.5Radiation pattern (a)Linear (b)Elliptical (c)Circular

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Fig.5.6Linear Polarized wave

The electric field was chosen as the reference field because the
intensity of the wave is usually measured in terms of the electric field
intensity (volts, millivolts, or microvolts per meter). When a single-wire
antenna is used to extract energy from a passing radio wave,
maximum pickup will result when the antenna is oriented in the same
direction as the electric field.

Fig.5.7.Commonly used polarization schemes

Thus a vertical antenna is used for the efficient reception of
vertically polarized waves, and a horizontal antenna is used for the
reception of horizontally polarized waves. In some cases the
orientation of the electric field does not remain constant.
5.8.How to read Radiation pattern

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Fig.5.8.Radiation pattern of Generic Directional Antenna

Figure.5.8.shows the following
HPBW: The half power beamwidth (HPBW) can be defined as the angle
subtended by the half power points of the main lobe.
Main Lobe: This is the radiation lobe containing the direction of
maximum radiation.
Minor Lobe: All the lobes other then the main lobe are called the
minor lobes. These lobes represent the radiation in undesired
directions. The level of minor lobes is usually expressed as a ratio of
the power density in the lobe in question to that of the major lobe.
This ratio is called as the side lobe level (expressed in decibels).
Back Lobe: This is the minor lobe diametrically opposite the main
lobe.
Side Lobes: These are the minor lobes adjacent to the main lobe and
are separated by various nulls. Side lobes are generally the largest
among the minor lobes. In most wireless systems, minor lobes are
undesired. Hence a good antenna design should minimize the minor
lobes.
5.9.Polarization Requirements for Various Frequencies
5.9.1.Ground Wave Transmission
Ground-wave transmission is widely used at medium and low
frequencies. Horizontal polarization cannot be used at these
frequencies because the electric lines of force are parallel to and touch
the earth. Since the earth acts as a fairly good conductor at low
frequencies, it would short out the horizontal electric lines of force and
prevent the radio wave from traveling very far. Vertical electric lines of
force, on the other hand, are bothered very little by the earth.
Therefore vertical polarization is used for ground-wave transmission,
allowing the radio wave to travel a considerable distance along the
ground surface with minimum attenuation.
5.9.2.Sky Wave Transmission
Sky-wave transmission is used at high frequencies. Either
horizontal or vertical polarization can be used with sky-wave
transmission because the sky wave arrives at the receiving antenna
elliptically polarized. This is the result of the wave traveling obliquely

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through the Earth's magnetic field and striking the ionosphere. The
radio wave is given a twisting motion as it strikes the ionosphere. Its
orientation continues to change because of the unstable nature of the
ionosphere. The relative amplitudes and phase differences between
the horizontal and vertical components of the received wave also
change. Therefore, the transmitting and receiving antennas can be
mounted either horizontally or vertically.
Although either horizontally or vertically polarized antennas can
be used for high frequencies, horizontally polarized antennas have
certain advantages and are therefore preferred. One advantage is that
vertically polarized interference signals, such as those produced by
automobile ignition systems and electrical appliances, are minimized
by horizontal polarization. Also, less absorption of radiated energy by
buildings or wiring occurs when these antennas are used. Another
advantage is that support structures for these antennas are of more
convenient size than those for vertically polarized antennas.
5.9.3.VHF and UHF Range
For frequencies in the VHF or UHF range, either horizontal or
vertical polarization is satisfactory. These radio waves travel directly
from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna without
entering the ionosphere. The original polarization produced at the
transmitting antenna is maintained throughout the entire travel of the
wave to the receiver. Therefore, if a horizontally polarized antenna is
used for transmitting, a horizontally polarized antenna must be used
for receiving. The requirements would be the same for a vertical
transmitting and receiving antenna system.
5.10.Satellite communication
For satellite communications, parallel frequencies can be used
without interference by using polarized radiation. One pair of satellite
antennas is vertically polarized and another pair is horizontally
polarized. Either vertically or horizontally polarized transmissions are
received by the respective antenna and retransmitted in the same
polarization. For example, transmissions may be made in the 3.7 to
3.74 GHz range on the vertical polarization path and in the 3.72 to
3.76 GHz range on the horizontal polarization path without adjacent
frequency (co-channel) interference.
5.10.1Bandwidth
Antenna bandwidth is defined as the frequency range over
which antenna operation is satisfactory. Bandwidth is normally
taken as the difference between the half-power frequencies (difference
between the highest and lowest frequencies of operation) but some
times refers to variations in the antennas input impedance. Antenna
bandwidth is often expressed as a percentage of the a optimum
frequency of operation.
Example

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Determine the percent bandwidth for an antenna with an

optimum frequency of operation of 400Mhz and -3-dB frequencies of
380 MHz 420 MHz
Solution
Bandwidth = 420 380
400
= 10%
5.10.2.Beam Width
Antenna beamwidth is simply the angular separation between
the two half-power (-3 dB) points on the major lobe of an antennas
plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the principal planes.
The beamwidth for the antenna whose radiation pattern is shown in
Figure.5.9.is the angle formed between points A, X, and B (angle ).
Points A and B are the half-power points (the power density at these
points is one-half of what it is an equal distance from the antenna in
the direction of maximum radiation). Antenna beamwidth is
sometimes called -3-dB beamwidth or half-power beamwidth.

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Fig.5.9.BeamWidth
Antenna gain is inversely proportional to beamwidth (i.e., the
higher the gain of an antenna, the narrower the beamwidth). An
omnidirectional (isotropic) antenna radiates equally well in all
directions. Thus, it has a gain of unity and a beamwidth of 360.
Typical antennas have beainwidths between 30 and 60. and it is not
uncommon for high-gain microwave antennas to have a beamwidth as
low as 1.
5.10.3.Antenna Input Resistance/Impedance
Radiation from an antenna is a direct result of the flow of RF
current. The current flows to the antenna through a transmission line,
which is connected to a small gap between the conductors that make
up the antenna. The point on the antenna where the transmission line
is connected is called the antenna input terminal or simply the
feedpoint.
The feedpoint presents an ac load to the transmission line called
the antenna input impedance. If the transmitters output impedance
and the antennas input impedance are equal to the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line, there will be no standing waves
on the line, and maximum power is transferred to the antenna and
radiated.
Antenna input impedance is simply the ratio of the
antennas input voltage to input current. Mathematically, input
impedance is
Zin = Ein
Iin
where Zin, = antenna input impedance (ohms)
Ein = antenna input voltage (volts)
Iin = antenna input current (ampere)
Antenna input impedance is generally complex; however, lithe
feedpoint is at a current maximum and there is no reactive
component, the input impedance is equal to the sum of the radiation
resistance and the effective resistance.
5.11.Charactertics of Antenna
An antenna is a device that is made to efficiently radiate and
receive radiated electromagnetic waves. There are several important
antenna characteristics that should be considered when choosing an
antenna for your application as follows
1. Antenna radiation patterns
2. Power Gain
3. Directivity
4. Polarization
5.11.1.Antenna Radiation Patterns

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A graph or diagram which tell us about the manner in

which an antenna radiates more power in different directions
known as the radiation pattern of antenna
An antenna radiation pattern is a 3-D plot of its radiation far
from the source. Antenna radiation patterns usually take two forms,
the elevation pattern and the azimuth pattern. The elevation pattern is
a graph of the energy radiated from the antenna looking at it from the
side as can be seen in Figure.5.10. a.
The azimuth pattern is a graph of the energy radiated from the
antenna as if you were looking at it from directly above the antenna as
illustrated in Figure.5.10.b. When you combine the two graphs you
have a 3-D representation of how energy is radiated from the antenna
(Figure.5.10c.).

Fig.5.10.Antenna Radiation Pattern

5.11.2.Power Gain
The power gain of an antenna is a ratio of the power input to the
antenna to the power output from the antenna. This gain is most
often referred to with the units of dBi, which is logarithmic gain
relative to an isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna has a perfect
spherical radiation pattern and a linear gain of one.

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Fig.5.11.
Power gain of an antenna is defined as the ratio of power
fed to an isotrophic antenna to the power fed to a antenna, to
develop the same field strength at the same direction.
From the graph
1. This antenna radiates maximum energy in the direction of 180.
The radiated energy is then gradually decreases with increase in
the angle on both the sides of 180 direction.
2. The radiation pattern has been drawn for the constant distant.
3. The antenna having this type of radiation pattern is called
directional antenna. Thus, the directional antennas do not
radiate equally in all directions.
5.11.2.Directivity gain
The directive gain of an antenna is a measure of the
concentration of the radiated power in a particular direction. It may be
regarded as the ability of the antenna to direct radiated power in a
given direction. It is usually a ratio of radiation intensity in a given
direction to the average radiation intensity.
Directive gain is defined as the ratio of the power density
in a particular direction of one antenna to the power density
that would be radiated by isotropic antenna in the same
direction.
Power density radiated in
a particular direction
Directive Gain
Power density radiated by isotropic
Antenna the same direction
Polarization
5.11.3.Polarization
Polarization is the orientation of electromagnetic waves far from
the source. There are several types of polarization that apply to
antennas. They are Linear, which comprises, Vertical, Horizontal and
Oblique, and circular, which comprises, Circular Right Hand (RHCP);
Circular Left Hand (LHCP), Elliptical Right Hand and Elliptical Left
Hand. Polarization is most important if you are trying to get the

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maximum performance from the antennas. For best performance you

will need to match up the polarization of the transmitting antenna and
the receiving antenna.
5.11.4.Directivity
Directivity is defined as the maximum directive gain which is
obtained in only, one direction in which the radiation is maximum.
Directivity = Maximum Directive Gain
5.11.5.Power Density and Field Intensity
Electromagnetic waves represent the flow of energy in the
direction of propagation. The rate at which energy passes through a
given surface area in free space is called power density. Therefore,
power density is energy per unit time per unit of area and is usually
given in watts per square meter.
Field intensity is the intensity of the electric and magnetic field
of an electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. Electric field
intensity is usually given in volts per meter and magnetic field
intensity in ampere turns per meter (At/m). Mathematically, power
density is
P = EH W/m2
Where
P = power Density ( Watt per meter square)
E = RMS electric field intensity (Volt pre meter)
H = RMS magnetic field intensity( ampere turns per meter)
5.12.Types of Antenna
Two major factors associated with radio antenna design are the
antenna resonant point or centre operating frequency and the
antenna bandwidth or the frequency range over which the antenna
design can operate. These two factors are naturally very important
features of any antenna design and as such they are mentioned in
specifications for particular RF antennas. Whether the RF antenna is
used for broadcasting, WLAN, cellular telecommunications, PMR or
any other application, the performance of the RF antenna is
paramount, and the antenna resonant frequency and the antenna
bandwidth are of great importance.
An RF antenna is a form of tuned circuit consisting of
inductance and capacitance, and as a result it has a resonant
frequency. This is the frequency where the capacitive and inductive
reactance cancel each other out. At this point the RF antenna appears
purely resistive, the resistance being a combination of the loss
resistance and the radiation resistance.

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Fig.5.12.
The capacitance and inductance of an RF antenna are
determined by its physical properties and the environment where it is
located. The major feature of the RF antenna design is its dimensions.
It is found that the larger the antenna or more strictly the antenna
elements, the lower the resonant frequency. For example antennas for
UHF terrestrial television have relatively small elements, while those
for VHF broadcast sound FM have larger elements indicating a lower
frequency. Antennas for short wave applications are larger still.
There are two type of antenna depending upon the
resonance characteristics
1.Resonant Antenna
2.Non Resonant Antenna
5.12.1.Resonant Antenna(Non Directional Antenna)
Resonant antennas are opened out transmission line i.e. they are
open circuited at one end as shown in Fig.5.13
They have resonant lengths i.e. multiple of half-wave length.
The lengths of the antennas are L = /2, L = , L = 3/2 and soon. A
resonant antenna corresponds to resonant transmission line.
Radiated patterns of resonant dipoles shown in Fig.5.13

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Fig.5.13.Resonant Antenna Radiation Pattern

The half wave antenna has distributed capacitance and inductance
and acts like a resonant circuit. The voltage and current will not be in
phase.The length of the antenna can be calculated as,
L =V
F
Where
V = velocity of light
F = Frequency of the signal
L = Length of Antenna
5.12.2.Non Resonant Antenna(Directional Antenna)
Non-resonant antennas are the antennas in which the source is
matched to the load (i.e. they dont have open a circuit).

Fig.5.14. Distribution Layout and Radiation Pattern

A non-resonant antenna is like a properly terminated transmission
line, produces no standing waves They are suppressed by the use or a
correct termination resistor and no power is reflected, ensuring that
only forward travelling waves will present. In a correctly matched
transmission line, all the transmitted power is dissipated in the
terminating resistance. When an antenna is terminated as shown in

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Fig.5.14 about two-thirds of the forward power is radiated and

remaining is dissipated-in the antenna.
As shown in Fig.5.14, the radiation pattern of the resonant antenna
and a non-resonant antenna are same except one major difference i.e.
the non-resonant antenna is unidirectional.
Disadvantages of Non-Resonant Antennas
(i) Low gain.
(ii) Low efficiency.
(iii) Occupy more space.
5.13.Types of Antenna as Frequency range
There are many different types of antennas. Antennas most relevant to
designs at 2.4GHz that are further detailed are as follows:
1. Dipole Antennas
2. Multiple Element Dipole Antennas
3. Yagi Antennas
4. Flat Panel antennas
5. Parabolic Dish antennas
6. Slotted Antennas
7. Microstrip Antennas
8. Microwave Antenna Dish and Horn Antenna
5.13.1.Types of Antenna depending on construction
Wire Antennas
Short Dipole
Dipole Antenna
Half-Wave Dipole
Broadband Dipoles
Monopole
Folded Dipole
Small Loop
Microstrip Antennas
Rectangular Microstrip (Patch) Antenna
Shorting Pins: Quarter-Wavelength Microstrips and PIFAs
Reflector Antennas
Corner Reflector
Parabolic Reflector (Dish Antenna)
Traveling Wave Antennas
Helical Antenna
Yagi-Uda Antenna
Aperture Antennas
Slot Antennas
Inverted-F Antennas (IFA)
Slotted Waveguide Antenna
Horn Antenna
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5.14.Basic Antenna

Fig.5.15.Basic Antenna
The simplest type of antenna is the elementary double:, The
elementary doublet is an electrically short dipole and is often referred
to simply as a short dipole, elementary dipole, or Hertzian dipole.
Electrically short means short compared with one-half wavelength but
not necessarily one with a uniform current (generally, any dipole that
is less than one-tenth wavelength long is considered electrically short).
In reality, an elementary doublet cannot be achieved; however, the
concept of a short dipole is useful in understanding more practical
antennas. An elementary doublet has uniform current throughout its
length.
Antennas come in different shapes and sizes to suit different
types of wireless applications. The characteristics of an antenna are
very much determined by its shape, size and the type of material that
it is made of. Some of the commonly used antennas are briefly
described below.
5.15.Half Wave Dipole Antenna
The linear half-wave dipole is one of the most widely used
antennas at frequencies above2 MHz. At frequencies below 2MHz the
physical length of a hall-wavelength antenna is prohibitive. The halfwave dipole is generally referred to as a Hertz antenna after Heinrich
Hertz who was the first to demonstrate the existence of
electromagnetic waves.
A Hertz antenna is a , antenna. That is, it is a multiple of
quarter-wavelengths long and open circuited at the far end. Standing
waves of voltage and current exist along a resonant antenna. Each
dipole of the antenna looks as if it were an open quarter-wavelength
section of transmission line. Thus, there is a voltage maximum and
current minimum at the ends and a voltage minimum and current
maximum in the middle.
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Fig.5.16.Half Dipole Antenna

.5.17.

.5.18.

The length of this antenna is equal to half of its wavelength as

the name itself suggests. Dipoles can be shorter or longer than half
the wavelength, but a tradeoff exists in the performance and hence the
half wavelength dipole is widely used.
The dipole antenna is fed by a two wire transmission line, where
the two currents in the conductors are of sinusoidal distribution and
equal in amplitude, but opposite in direction. Hence, due to canceling
effects, no radiation occurs from the transmission line. As shown in
Figure.5.17., the currents in the arms of the dipole are in the same
direction and they produce radiation in the horizontal direction. Thus,
for a vertical orientation, the dipole radiates in the horizontal
direction.
The typical gain of the dipole is 2dB and it has a bandwidth of
about 10%. The half power beamwidth is about 78 degrees in the E
plane and its directivity is 1.64 (2.15dB) with a radiation resistance of
73 . Figure.5.18 shows the radiation pattern for the half wave
dipole.
5.15.1.Resistance offered by Half Dipole Antenna

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Consequently, assuming that the feedpoint is in the center of

the antenna, the input impedance is Emin/Imax and a minimum
value. The impedance at the ends of the antenna is Emax/Imin and a
maximum value. Figure.5.18. shows the impedance curve for a
center-fed half-wave dipole. The impedance varies from a maximum
value at the ends of approximately 2500 to a minimum value at the
feedpoint of approximately 73 (of which between 68 and 70 is
the radiation resistance).
5.15.2.Radiation Pattern of Half Dipole
A wire radiator such as a half-wave dipole can be thought of as an
infinite number of elementary doublets placed end to end. Therefore,
the radiation pattern over the length of the antenna. The free-space
radiation pattern for a half-wave dipole depends on whether the
antenna is placed horizontally or vertically with respect to Earths
surface.

Fig.5.18.Radiation Pattern for Half Dipole Antenna

Figure shows the vertical (from the side) radiation pattern for a
vertically mounted half-wave dipole. Note that two major lobes radiate
in opposite directions that are at right angles to the antenna. Also
note that the lobes are not circles. Circular lobes are obtained only for
the ideal case when the current is constant through out the antennas
length, and this is unachievable in a practical antenna.

Top View
Fig.5.19.Radiation pattern for half wave dipole

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Figure.5.19. shows the cross-sectional view. Note that the radiation

pattern has a figure-eight pattern and resembles the shape of a
doughnut. Maximum radiation is in a plane parallel to Earths
surface. The higher the angle of elevation is, the less the radiation,
and for 90 there is non radiation.
Figure.5.19. shows the horizontal (from the top) radiation pattern for
a vertically mounted half-wave dipole. The pattern is circular because
radiation is uniform in all directions perpendicular to the antenna.
5.15.3.Monopole Antenna
The monopole antenna, shown in Figure.5.20., results from applying
the image theory to the dipole. According to this theory, if a
conducting plane is placed below a single element of length 2 / L
carrying a current, then the combination of the element and its image
acts identically to a dipole of length L except that the radiation occurs
only in the space above the plane.

Fig.5.20.Monopole Antenna
For this type of antenna, the directivity is doubled and the
radiation resistance is halved when compared to the dipole. Thus, a
half wave dipole can be approximated by a quarter wave monopole
( L/2 = /4). The monopole is very useful in mobile antennas where
the conducting plane can be the car body or the handset case. The
typical gain for the quarter wavelength monopole is 2-6dB and it has a
bandwidth of about 10%. Its radiation resistance is 36.5 and its
directivity is 3.28 (5.16dB). The radiation pattern for the monopole is
shown below in Figure.5.20.
5.15.4.Folded Dipole
The folded dipole is the /2 dipole with one continuous rod & the
other split as the centre connected in parallel. The transmission line is
connected to split one. The directivity of the folded dipole is bidirectional. Because current can flow around corners, there is a full
wavelength of current on the antenna. Therefore for same input
power, the input current will be half that of the basic half wave dipole
and input impedances is four times highest (4x72=288). Another
advantages of a folded dipole over a basic half wave dipole is wider

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BW. The BW can be increased even further by making the dipole

elements larger in diameter.

Fig.5.21. Folded Dipole

Folded dipoles are sometimes used on their own, but they must
be fed with a high impedance feeder, typically 300 ohms. However
they find more uses when a dipole is incorporated in another RF
antenna design with other elements nearby. This has the effect of
reducing the dipole impedance. To ensure that it can be fed
conveniently, a folded dipole may be used to raise the impedance
again to a suitable value.
5.16.Loop Antenna
The loop antenna is a conductor bent into the shape of a closed
curve such as a circle or a square with a gap in the conductor to form
the terminals as shown in Figure.5.22. There are two types of loop
antennas-electrically small loop antennas and electrically large loop
antennas. If the total loop circumference is very small as compared to
the wavelength ( <<< L ), then the loop antenna is said to be
electrically small. An electrically large loop antenna typically has its
circumference close to a wavelength. The far-field radiation patterns of
the small loop antenna are insensitive to shape.

Fig.5.22.Loop Antenna

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As shown in Figure.5.22. the radiation patterns are identical to that

of a dipole despite the fact that the dipole is vertically polarized
whereas the small circular loop is horizontally polarized.
The performance of the loop antenna can be increased by filling the core with ferrite.
This helps in increasing the radiation resistance. When the
perimeter or circumference of the loop antenna is close to a
wavelength, then the antenna is said to be a large loop antenna.
The radiation pattern of the large loop antenna is different then
that of the small loop antenna. For a one wavelength square loop
antenna, radiation is maximum normal to the plane of the loop (along
the z axis). In the plane of the loop, there is a null in the direction
parallel to the side containing the feed (along the x axis), and there is
a lobe in a direction perpendicular to the side containing the feed
(along the y axis). Loop antennas generally have a gain from -2dB to
3dB and a bandwidth of around 10%. . The small loop antenna is very
popular as a receiving antenna. Single turn loop antennas are used in
pagers and multiturn loop antennas are used in AM broadcast
receivers.

Fig.5.23.Radiation Pattern of Small and Large Loop Antenna

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5.17.Ferrite Loop Antenna

Loop antennas may be wound around a ferrite rod to increase
gain and aperture. These are called loopstick antennas, because of the
shape of the wire wrapped around the long ferrite rod. In essence, the
loop antenna is magnetized by the ferrite rod to increase gain without
increasing overall antenna size. For this reason, loopstick-type
antennas are the preferred (internal) antenna used in most portable
radios to receive AM and LW band signals. Loopstick antennas have
their best response in the medium-wave (AM broadcast band - 5001720 Khz) and long-wave (50-500khz) bands. More turns of wire and
different types of ferrite cores are used to increase inductance and
shift the peak response ('Q') from medium-wave to long-wave
frequencies.

Fig.5.24.Ferrite Loop Antenna

There may be an additional set of windings ('dual coil') and/or
various tap points along the wiring to optimize or tune the loopstick
antenna for optimium signal reception at different frequency ranges.
Like other forms of loop antennas, loopstick antennas are relatively
free from RF 'noise', as they react to the magnetic portion of the RF
energy received and are relatively immune to the electrical component,
which is prone to noise caused by electrical sources.
Loopstik antennas work extremely well in radio direction-finding
(RDF) applications, and for reception of long-wave or medium-wave

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signals. However, the closely-spaced turns of wire tend to absorb

energy when used to transmit, making this type of antenna inefficient
and relatively impractical for transmitting except in compact, lowfrequency applications such as RFID (card/tag readers) used in fleet
management, parking gates, airports, access doors, and inventory
control applications.
5.17.1Direction finding with loops
Loops are somewhat directional along the axis of highest gain,
but have a sharp null in the axis perpendicular to their highest gain.
Therefore, when using a loop for direction finding, the plane of the
antenna is rotated until the signal disappears. As planar loops have
180-degree symmetry, other methods must be used to determine
whether the signal is in front or behind the loop.
Frequently, a dipole or vertical antenna known as a sense
antenna is used together with a loop or a loopstick antenna to obtain
a combined cardioid radiation pattern, which has a sharp null on only
one side. This prevents the navigator from recording a course using
the correct radio beacon baseline, but plotted 180 degrees in the
wrong direction.
5.18.Telescopic Antenna
Telescopic antenna is collapsible. It is a series of small diameter
tubes of 6 to 8 inches in length nested one inside the other. The
antenna can be extended to its full length or retracted to a small
length for storage of portability.
Radio antennas are optimally sized based upon wavelength of
the frequency they are expected to "see" . Even multiples of wave
length are also used for antennas to minimize there length. i.e. ( 1/2
or 1/4 wavelength)
Antenna wave length (lambda) is base on the speed (c) that a
radio signal travels which is about 3x10^8 m/s (300000000 m/s)
divided by the frequency (f)
lambda ()= c / f

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Fig.5.25.Radiation pattern Telescopic Antenna

Frequencies in the hertz range would have wavelengths in the
1000's of kilometers range. So any practical length antenna (2 or 3
feet in Length) would work just as well as a larger 5 to 10 foot antenna
as the wavelength is so large.
5.19.Yagi Uda Antenna

Fig.5.26.Yagi Uda Antenna

Yagi Uda Antenna are known after inventor prof.S.Uda and
Prof.H.Yagi
An example of a multielement parasitic array is the YAGI
ANTENNA (figure.5.26. views A and B). The spacings between the
elements are not uniform. The radiation from the different elements
arrives in phase in the forward direction, but out of phase by various
amounts in the other directions. The director and the reflector in the
Yagi antenna are usually welded to a conducting rod or tube at their
centers. This support does not interfere with the operation of the
antenna. Since the driven element is center-fed, it is not welded to the
supporting rod. The center impedance can be increased by using a
folded dipole as the driven element.
The Yagi antenna shown in figure.5.26., A, has three directors.
In general, the greater number of parasitic elements used, the greater
the gain. However, a greater number of such elements causes the
array to have a narrower frequency response as well as a narrower

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beamwidth. Therefore, proper adjustment of the antenna is critical.

The gain does not increase directly with the number of elements used.
For example, a three-element Yagi array has a relative power gain of 5
dB. Adding another director results in a 2 dB increase. Additional
directors have less and less effect.
A typical Yagi array used for receiving and transmitting energy
is shown with a support frame in figure.5.26. This antenna is used by
the military services. It operates at frequencies of from 12 to 50
megahertz and consists of two separate arrays (one high-frequency
and one low-frequency antenna array) mounted on one frame. The
various elements are indicated in the figure. The high-frequency (hf)
array consists of one reflector, one driven element, and two directors;
the low-frequency (lf) array has the same arrangement with one less
director.
The lengths of the elements in the high-frequency array are
shorter than those in the low-frequency array. The physical lengths of
the elements in the individual arrays are equal, but the electrical
lengths can be varied by means of the tuning stubs at the center of
the elements. The array can be rotated in any desired direction by a
remotely controlled, electrically driven, antenna rotator.
Yagi Uda Antenna is available with are available with
3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 elements.
5.19.1.Radiation Pattern of Yagi Uda Antenna
5.19.2.Yagi-Uda Antenna 3elements

Fig.5.27.three Element Yagi UDA Antenna

5.19.3.Yagi-Uda Antenna 4elements

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Fig.5.28.Four Element Yagi UDA Antenna

5.19.4.Yagi-Uda Antenna-7-elements

Fig.5.29.Seven Element Yagi UDA Antenna

5.19.5.Yagi-Uda Antenna-11-elements

Fig.5.28.Eleven Element Yagi UDA Antenna

5.20.MicroWave Antenna
Antennas used for UHF (0.3 0Hz to 3GHz) and microwave (1GHz
to 100GHz) must be highly directive. An antenna has an apparent
gain because it concentrates the radiated power in a narrow beam
rather than sending it uniformly in all directions, and the beamwidth
decreases with increases in antenna gain. The relationship among
antenna area, gain, and beamwidth are shown in Figure. Microwave
antennas ordinarily have half- power beam widths on the order of 10
or less. A narrow beamwidth minimizes the effects of interference from
outside source and adjacent antennas. However, for line-of-site
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transmission, such as used with microwave radio, a narrow

beamwidth imposes several limitations, such as mechanical stability
and fading, which can lead to problems in antenna lineup.
All the electromagnetic energy emitted by a microwave antenna
is not radiated in the direction of the main lobe (beam); some of it is
concentrated in minor lobes called side lobes, which can be sources of
interference into or from other microwave signal paths.
Transmitting and receiving antennas designed for use in the
UHF (0.3-3GHz) and microwave (1-100GHz) are known as Microwave
Antennas.There are several microwave applications, such as radar,
are in direction finding and measuring field, microwave
communication links, are point-to-point services, often in areas in
which interference between various services must be avoided.The use
of directional antennas helps in this regard. Here we will study the
dish antenna and Horn antenna as microwave antennas.
5.21.Dish Antenna
A dish antenna, also known simply as a dish, is common in
microwave systems. This type of antenna can be used for satellite
communication and broadcast reception, space communications,
radio astronomy, and radar.
A dish antenna consists of
1. an active, or driven, element (Feed Machanism) and
2. a passive parabolic or spherical reflector.
The driven element can be a dipole antenna or a horn antenna.
If a horn is used, it is aimed back at the center of the reflecting dish.
The reflector has a diameter of at least several wavelengths. As the
wavelength increases(and the frequency decreases), the minimum
required dish diameter becomes larger.
When the dipole or horn is properly positioned and aimed,
incoming electromagnetic fields bounce off the reflector, and the
energy converges on the driven element. If the horn or dipole is
connected to a transmitter, the element emits electromagnetic waves
that bounce off the reflector and propagate outward in a narrow beam.
A dish antenna is usually operated with an unbalanced feed line. For
satellite television reception, coaxial cable is used. In applications
such as radar where a high-power signal is transmitted, a feed system
is preferred.

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Fig.5.29. Different Reflector of Dish Antenna

Fig.5.30.Types of Dish Antenna

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Fig.5.31 Types of Dish antennas

5.21.1.Working of Dish Antenna
Parabolic Reflector
The feed mechanism houses the primary antenna (usually a
dipole or a dipole array), which radiates electromagnetic waves toward
the reflector. The reflector is a passive device that simply reflects the
energy radiated by the feed mechanism into a concentrated, highly
directional emission in which the individual waves are all in phase
with each other (an in-phase wavefront)
A parabolic antenna consists of a paraboloid reflector
illuminated with microwave energy radiated by a feed system located
at the focus point. If electromagnetic energy is radiating toward the
parabolic reflector from the focus, all radiated waves will travel the
same distance by the time they reach the directrix, regardless from
which point on the parabola they are reflected. Thus, all waves
radiated toward the parabola from the focus will be in phase when
they reach the directrix (line WZ). Consequently, radiation is
concentrated along the XYaxis, and cancellation takes place in all
other directions. A paraboloid reflector used to receive electromagnetic
energy exhibits exactly the same behavior. Thus, a parabolic antenna
exhibits the principle of reciprocity and works equally well as a receive
antenna for waves arriving from the XYdirection (normal to the
directrix). Rays received from all other directions are canceled at that
point.

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It is not necessary that the dish have a solid metal surface to

efficiently reflect or receive the signals. The surface can be a mesh and
still reflect or receive almost as much energy as a solid surface,
provided the width of the openings is less than 0.1 wavelength. Using
a mesh rather than a solid conductor considerably reduces the weight
of the reflector. Mesh reflector, are also easier to adjust, are affected
less by wind, and in general provide a much more stable structure.
5.21.2.Feed Mechanism
The feed mechanism in a parabolic antenna actually radiates
the electromagnetic energy and, therefore, is often called the primary
antenna. The feed mechanism is of primary importance because its
function is to radiate the energy toward the reflector. An ideal feed
mechanism should direct all the energy toward the parabolic reflector
and have no shadow effect.
In practice, this is impossible to accomplish, although if care is
taken when designing the feed mechanism, most of the energy can be
radiated in the proper direction, and the shadow effect can be
minimized. There are three primary types of feed mechanisms for
parabolic dish antennas:
i. center feed,
ii. horn feed, and
iii. Cassegrain feed.
5.21.3.Center Feed
Figure shows a diagram for a center-fed paraboloid reflector with an
additional spherical reflector. The primary antenna is placed at the
focus. Energy radiated toward the reflector is reflected outward in a
concentrated beam. However, energy not reflected by the paraboloid
spreads in all directions and has the tendency of disrupting the
overall radiation pattern.

Center Feed
Horn Feed
Fig.5.33.Dish Antenna with Center Feed and Horn Feed

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The spherical reflector redirects such emissions back toward the

parabolic reflector, where they are rereflected in the proper direction.
Although the additional spherical reflector helps concentrate more
energy in the desired direction, it also has a tendency to block some of
the initial reflections. Consequently, the good it ac complishes is
somewhat offset by its own shadow effect, and its overall performance
is only marginally better than without the additional spherical
reflector.
5.21.4.Horn Feed.
Figure.5.33. shows a diagram for a parabolic reflector using a
horn feed. With a horn-feed mechanism, the primary antenna is a
small horn antenna rather than a simple dipole or dipole array. The
horn is simply a flared piece of waveguide material that is placed at
the focus and radiates a somewhat directional pattern toward the
parabolic reflector.
When a propagating electromagnetic field reaches the mouth of
the horn, it continues to propagate in the same general direction,
except that, in accordance with Huygenss principle, it spreads
laterally, and the wavefront eventually becomes spherical. The horn
structure can have several different shapes, as shown in Figure
sectoral (flaring only in one direction), pyramidal, or conical. As with
the center feed, a horn feed presents somewhat of an obstruction to
waves reflected from the parabolic dish.
5.21.5.Cassegrain feed.
The Cassegrain feed is named after an 18th-centmy astronomer
and evolved directly from astronomical optical telescopes. Figure
shows the basic geometry of a Cassegrain-feed mechanism. The
primary radiating source is located in or just behind a small opening
at he vertex of the paraboloid rather than at the focus. The primary
antenna is aimed at a small secondary reflector (Cassegrain
subreflector) located between the vertex and the focus.

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Fig.5.34.Parabolic Antenna with a Cassegrain Feed

The rays emitted from the primary antenna are reflected from
the Cassegrain subreflector and then illuminate the main parabolic
reflector just as if they had originated at the focus. The rays are
collimated by the parabolic reflector in the same way as with the
center- and horn-feed mechanisms. The subreflector must have a
hyperboloidal curvature to reflect the rays from the primary antenna
in such a way as to function as a virtual source at the paraboloidal
focus.
The Cassegrain feed is commonly used for receiving extremely
weak signals or when extremely long transmission lines or waveguide
runs are required and it is necessary to place low-noise preamplifiers
as close to the antenna as possible. With the Cassegrain feed,
preamplifiers can be placed just before the feed mechanism and not
be an obstruction to the reflected waves.
5.22.Horn Antenna
A horn antenna is used for the transmission and reception of
microwave signals. It derives its name from the characteristic flared
appearance. The flared portion can be square, rectangular, or conical.
The maximum radiation and response corresponds with the axis of
the horn. In this respect, the antenna resembles an acoustic horn. It
is usually fed with a waveguide.

Fig.5.35.Horn Antenna
In order to function properly, a horn antenna must be a certain
minimum size relative to the wavelength of the incoming or outgoing
electromagnetic field. If the horn is too small or the wavelength is too
large (the frequency is too low), the antenna will not work efficiently.
Horn antennas are commonly used as the active element in a
dish antenna. The horn is pointed toward the center of the dish
reflector. The use of a horn, rather than a dipole antenna or any other
type of antenna, at the focal point of the dish minimizes loss of energy

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(leakage) around the edges of the dish reflector. It also

minimizes the response of the antenna to unwanted signals not in the
favored direction of the dish.

Fig.5.36 Types of Horn Antenna

Horn antennas are used all by themselves in short-range radar
systems, particularly those used by law-enforcement personnel to
measure the speeds of approaching or retreating vehicles.

5.23.Comparison of Antenna

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