-Physics definitions and explanations

Quantities in italics are required definitions or explanations in the 2009 IB DP physics syllabus (there is no analogue to this in 2016 syllabus)
Where the definition, etc, is from an exam markscheme (2009 IB DP Syllabus)
I have left the semicolons (;) in to indicate the number of points the definition was worth one semicolon per mark.
any words in brackets are not needed to gain the mark.
OWTTE means or words to that effect ie equivalent phrasing is acceptable
Textbook references:
W+H refers to Essential Principles of Physics by Whelan and Hodgson (2nd edition John Murray)
Muncaster refers to A-level Physics by Roger Muncaster (Stanley Thornes)
Web resource references :
Porter refers to definitions from Simon Porter : http://mrsimonporter.wikispaces.com/
Forster refers to definitons written by Alan Forster : http://physicsib.com
YELLOW HIGHLIGHTS INDICATES HIGHER LEVEL
BLUE HIGHLIGHTS REMOVED FROM SYLLABUS (BUT WILL STILL APPEAR IN PAST PAPERS FROM OLD SYLLABUS)
RED HIGHLIGHTS HAVE NOT BEEN CHECKED AGAINST NEW SYLLABUS
quantity

definition

reference

Topic 1 Measurement and Uncertainties

SI units
fundamental units
derived units

a system of physical units ( SI units ) based on the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin,
candela, and mole, together with a set of prefixes to indicate multiplication or division by a
power of ten.
the metre, kilogram, second, ampere, kelvin, candela, and mole

units derived from formulaes such as force (N), which has the units kgms-2

Forster
Forster
Forster

scientific notation

is the way that scientists easily handle very large numbers or very small numbers. For
example, instead of writing 0.0000000056, we write 5.6 x 10-9.

Forster

order of magnitude
absolute uncertainty

quoting a quantity to the nearest power of ten

(usually called absolute error - but "error" connotes "mistake", and these are NOT mistakes) is

Forster
Forter

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the size of the range of values in which the "true value" of the measurement probably lies. If a
measurement is given as , the absolute uncertainty is 0.1 cm
fractional (percentage)
uncertainty
propagating uncertainties
systematic error
random error
directly proportional
linear
inversely proportional
precise
accurate
vector
scalar
resolution of vectors

the absolute uncertainty divided by the true value (x 100 for percentage)
the process by which uncertainties (errors) are combined when values are added, subtracted,
multiplied, divided or raised by a power (see formula booklet)
an error which is identical for each reading
measurements are above and below the true value with equal probability
a graph of two directly proportional quantities will be a straight line through the origin (0,0).
produces a straight line
y is proportional to 1/x or yx = constant
high number of significant figures and/or a small spread of results
near to the true value
a quantity with magnitude and direction
a quantity with magnitude only
the process by which a vector quantity is expressed as two other vectors, in DP Physics this is
limited to two vectors perpendicular to each other

Forster
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Porter
Porter
Porter
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Porter
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Forster

Topic 2, 6, 10 Mechanics, Circular Motion, Fields (Just

Gravitational)
kinematics
displacement, s [m]
velocity, v [m s-1]

is the branch of classical mechanics which describes the motion of points (alternatively
"particles"), bodies (objects), and systems of bodies without consideration of the masses of
those objects nor the forces that may have caused the motion.
displacement of a particle is the length and direction of a line drawn to the particle from the
origin
rate of change of position with time

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instantaneous velocity, v [m s1
]

is the rate of change of displacement with time at one particular time.

Porter

rate of distance travelled along a path

-1

speed, v [m s ]
average velocity , v [m s-1]

change in displacement divided by time taken over a period of time

rate of change of velocity with time

Porter

acceleration, a [m s-2]

projectile motion

equations of motion (SUVAT)

terminal velocity (speed)
equilibrium
translational equilibrium
free body diagram
weight, W [N]
conserved

is a form of motion in which an object or particle (called a projectile) is thrown near the earth's
surface, and it moves along a curved path under the action of gravity only. The only force of
significance that acts on the object is gravity, which acts downward to cause a downward
acceleration.
In circumstances of constant acceleration, these simpler equations of motion are usually
referred to as the "SUVAT" equations, arising from the definitions of kinematic quantities:
displacement (s), initial velocity (u), final velocity (v), acceleration (a), and time (t).
is the highest velocity attainable by an object as it falls through air. It occurs once the sum of
the drag force (Fd) and buoyancy equals the downward force of gravity (FG) acting on the
object. Since the net force on the object is zero, the object has zero acceleration.
a body in equilibrium has zero resultant force acting on it and therefore has zero acceleration
is no resultant force in any direction but object is
are diagrams used to show the relative
magnitude and direction of all
forces acting upon an object in a given
situation. A free-body diagram is a
special example of the vector diagrams
that were discussed in an earlier
unit.
the weight of an object is the gravitational attraction of a massive body (eg Earth) for that
object
any quantity which is conserved maintains a constant total value
kinetic energy is conserved in elastic collisions

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Forster

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Newtons 1st law

total mechanical energy is conserved when friction is negligible and KE and PE are not
changed to other forms (such as sound, internal energy)
total mass is conserved in all non-relativistic situations
total mass-energy is conserved in all situations
a body will remain at constant velocity unless a net force acts on it
the rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the net force acting on it

Newtons 2nd law

Newtons 3rd law

coefficient of friction
normal contact force, reaction
force
static friction
dynamic friction

This simplifies to
when the mass of the body remains constant
when two bodies A and B interact the force that A exerts on B is equal and
opposite to the force that B exerts on A;
or
when a force acts on a body, an equal an opposite force acts on another body
somewhere in the universe; [1 max]
Award [0] for action and reaction are equal and opposite unless they explain what is meant
by the terms.
the constant of proportionality that relates the force of friction to the normal contact force, it is
different for static and dynamic friction, s or d.
The force acting perpendicular to a surface on an object resting on the surface.
the frictional force between two surfaces that are not moving relative to
each other. F sR
the frictional force between two surfaces that are moving relative to each
other. F dR
the product of a bodys mass and its velocity (therefore momentum is a vector with the same
direction as the velocity)

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Forster

linear momentum, p [kg m s-1]

momentum is mass x velocity;
allow an equation, with symbols explained.

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impulse, p [kg m s-1] or [N s]

law of conservation of
momentum

work, W [J]
kinetic energy, EK [J]
potential energy, EP [J]

the change in momentum of a body,

impulse is forcextime or change in momentum;
allow an equation, with symbols explained
if the total external force acting upon a system is zero / for an isolated system;
the momentum of the system is constant;
Award [1 max] if the answer is in terms of collisions.
(vector) sum/total of momenta is constant;
for isolated system;
if the net external force acting on a system is zero;
then the total momentum of the system is constant (or in any one direction, is
constant);
To achieve [2] answers should mention forces and should show what is meant by conserved.
Award [1 max] for a definition such as for a system of colliding bodies, the momentum is
constant and [0] for a system of colliding bodies, momentum is conserved.
force distance (moved) in the direction of the force
the energy associated with a body because of its motion

principle of conservation of
energy
non conservative force

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the energy possessed by a system due to the relative positions of its component parts (ie due to
the forces between the component parts)
energy stored in a solid that is stretched elastically, often given by the equation below if it

elastic potential energy

Hookes law

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Forster
obeys hookes law
is a principle of physics that states that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by
some distance is proportional to that distance. That is: where is a constant factor characteristic
of the spring, its stiffness. The law is named after 17th century British physicist Robert Hooke
says that energy cannot be made or destroyed, only changed (transformed) from one form to
another.
Forces that do not store energy are called non conservative or dissipative forces. Friction is a
non conservative force, and there are others. Any friction-type force, like air resistance, is a
non conservative force. The energy that it removes from the system is no longer available to

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Newtons Universal law of

gravitation

the system for kinetic energy.

is the rate at which energy is transferred (or the rate at which work is done).
is the ratio of useful energy to the energy transferred (useful energy out/energy put in).
a collision in which the total KE is conserved
a collision in which some kinetic energy is transferred to other forms (eg internal energy,
sound), therefore the total KE is less after the collision than before
states that the gravitational force between two point masses is proportional to the product of
the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

period [s]

the time taken for an object to complete one revolution

Forster

frequency [s-1] [Hz]

the number of revolutions per second, f = 1/T

Forster

radians [rad]

the unit used to measure angles in a circle which works with the equations for circular motion

Forster

uniform circular motion

is the motion of an object traveling at a constant speed on a circular path.

centripetal force [N]

The force acting towards the centre of the circle that an object is travelling along and at right
angles to the tangential velocity, F = mv2/r, F = mr2

Forster

linear (tangential) velocity

[ms-1]

The instantaneous velocity of an object performing circular motion, v = r

Forster

angular displacement [rad]

is the angle that a rotating body goes through. For example, if a skater skates in a circle around
the center of the rink, stopping and starting at the same place, his or her angular displacement
would be 360 degrees or 2 radians. The direction of the rotation is
2
important.

Forster

angular velocity [rads-1]

is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement, = v/r

Forster

centripetal acceleration

The acceleration acting towards the centre of the circle that an object is travelling along and at
right angles to the tangential velocity, a = v2/r, a = r2

Forster

power [W] [Js-1]

efficiency
elastic collision
inelastic collision

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gravitational constant
gravitational field strength
g [N kg-1]
test mass

the constant of proportionality in the equation for universal gravitation, sometimes called big
G.
force exerted per unit mass;
on a small / point mass;
the force exerted per unit mass;
on a point mass;
Accept small mass or particle.
a small mass which has a negligible effect on the gravitational field in which it is placed
is energy an object possesses because of its position in a gravitational field. The most common
use of gravitational potential energy is for an object near the surface of the Earth where the
gravitational acceleration can be assumed to be constant at about 9.8 m/s2

Forster
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Forster

gravitational potential energy

the work done to move a body from infinity to a point in a gravitational field

gravitational potential
U [J kg-1]
escape speed

the work done per kilogram to move a body from infinity to a point in a gravitational field

speed of object at Earths surface;

so that it will escape from the gravitational field / travel to infinity;

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Topic 3 Thermal Physics

temperature, T [K]
Kelvin (absolute) temperature

measure of how hot something is (it can be used to work out the direction of the natural flow
of thermal energy between two objects in thermal contact)
OR measure of the average K.E. of molecules
it is measured on a defined scale (Celsius, Kelvin etc.)
proportional to the average kinetic energy of the particles.

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thermal energy
heat, Q [J]
thermal equilibrium
microscopic
macroscopic

ideal gas

thermal energy is the KE of the component particles of an object thus measured in joules
energy transferred from one body to another due to a temperature difference
2 bodies that are in thermal contact are in thermal equilibrium when the net heat flow between
them is zero, therefore the 2 bodies must have the same temperature
on the scale of atoms and molecules
eg the microscopic properties of a gas are particle mass, velocity, kinetic energy, momentum
on the scale of people (ie what we observe)
eg the macroscopic properties of a gas are temperature, volume, pressure, density
gas that obeys the equation pV = nRT / no forces between molecules;
at all pressures, volumes and temperatures / any other postulate;

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obeys the universal gas law /

equation or molecules are elastic spheres of negligible
volume;
at all values of pressure, volume and temperature or no mutual force of attraction/repulsion;
a model of the microscopic behaviour of gas particles that explains the macroscopic behaviour

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M03H2 A2

kinetic theory of gases

internal energy, U [J]

of the gas (ie the ideal gas law,

)

the sum of all random kinetic energies and mutual potential energies of the
particles of the body or system

internal energy does not include the kinetic energy or potential energy of the
body as a whole

an ideal gas has no intermolecular forces therefore the gas particles have no
mutual potential energies therefore the internal energy of an ideal gas depends only on the
KE of the particles (temperature of gas)
sum of (random) kinetic (and potential energies);
of the molecules of the system (allow atoms or particles);

mole, n [mol]
molar mass

amount of substance of a system which contains as many elementary units as there are carbon
atoms in 12 x 10-3 kg of carbon-12
the mass of one mole of a substance

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Avogadro constant, NA
specific heat capacity
c [J kg-1 K-1]
Heat (thermal) capacity
C [J k-1]
evaporation
boiling
specific latent heat, l [J kg-1]

the number of atoms in exactly 12 x 10-3 kg of the nuclide carbon-12

specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of unit mass
through 1 K;
quantity of thermal energy (heat) required to raise temperature of unit mass;
by one degree;
Award [1 max] for use of units, rather than quantities.
the amount of energy / heat required to raise the temperature of a substance / object through
1K/ C;
evaporation is the escape of molecules from the surface of the liquid
boiling occurs when molecules escape in the form of bubbles of vapour from the body of the
liquid
energy per unit mass required to change the phase of a substance at its phase change
temperature
the pressure experienced by a body immersed in a fluid is the (normal) force per unit area

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pressure, p [pascal, Pa]

ideal gas (assumptions)

exerted by the fluid on the surface of the body

1. A gas consists of a large number of molecules
2. Molecules move with a range of speeds
3. The volume of the molecules is negligible compared with the volume of the gas itself
4. The collisions of the molecules with each other and the container walls are elastic.
5. Molecules exert no forces on each other or the container except when in contact
6. The duration of collisions is very small compared with the time between collisions
7. The molecules obey Newtons laws of mechanics

Topic 4, 9 Waves and Wave Phenomena

displacement, x [m]
amplitude, X0 [m]

distance in a particular direction; (accept in terms of energy transfer)

(of a particle) from its mean position;
magnitude of the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position

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frequency, f [Hz]
period, T [s]
phase difference
monochromatic
simple harmonic motion
(SHM)
wavefront
ray
transverse wave
longitudinal wave
crest
trough
compression
rarefaction
wave displacement
wave amplitude
wave frequency
wave period
wavelength,
wave speed
wave intensity

refractive index

[m]

frequency: number of oscillations/vibrations per unit time;

Do not accept specific units e.g. seconds.
time taken for one complete oscillation
is the time difference or phase angle by which one wave leads or lags another.
single frequency / single colour / OWTTE;
the net force on ( or acceleration of) the object is proportional to the displacement of the
object from equilibrium and is directed towards equilibrium
line joining (neighbouring) points that have the same phase / displacement
direction in which wave (energy) is travelling
motion of the particles is perpendicular to direction of wave travel
motion of the particles is parallel to direction of wave travel

the number of vibrations performed in each second by the source

the time for one complete vibration performed by the source
wavelength: distance moved by wave during one oscillation of the source;
Accept distance between successive crests or troughs.
distance travelled per unit time;
by the energy of the wave / by a wavefront;
The average amount of energy transported by a wave in the direction of wave propagation, per
unit area per unit time.
ratio of speed of EM waves;
in vacuum to their speed in medium;
Award [0] for quoting from the data booklet without additional information.
or
definition as ratio of sin (angle of incidence) to sin (angle of refraction);
explanation of how these angles are measured;

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N04H3 H
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M03S2 B1
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N02S2 B3

W+H p97
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diffraction
superposition
principle of superposition

when two (or more) waves meet;

resultant displacement is the sum of the individual displacements;

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waves with a constant / predictable phase / OWTTE;

Be generous as it is hard to describe in a few words. Look for understanding.

N04H3 H

states that for a certain angle of incidence ip, monochromatic light is 100% polarised on
reflection. This angle is given by tan = n

Porter

interference
coherent
polarisation
resolution
brewsters law

when a perfect polariser is placed in a polarised beam of light, the intensity, I, of the light that

malus law

Forster

passes through is given by

where I0 is the initial intensity, and i is the angle between the light's initial polarization direction
and the axis of the polariser.

rayleigh criterion

states that two points or lines are just resolved if the peak of the point spread function lies on
the first trough of the other point spread function.

Porter

optical activity (rotation)

is the rotation of linearly polarized light as it travels through certain materials.

Porter

Topic 5, 10, 11 Electricity and Magnetism, Fields (Just

Electrical), Electromagnetic Induction
electric potential difference

energy per unit charge; (ratio idea necessary)

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V [volt, V]
volt
electronvolt, eV
Coulombs law
electric current, I [ampere, A]
resistance, R [ohm, ]
internal resistance, R [ohm, ]
electromotive force (emf),
[volt, V]
Ohms law
source of emf
drifty velocity (speed)
Kirchoffs 1st Law
Kirchoffs 2nd Law
electric field strength, E [N C-1]
electric potential energy [J]
electric potential, V [J C-1]
magnetic flux, [weber, Wb]

to move positive test charge between points;

One Joule per Coulomb
the work done to move one electron through a potential difference of 1 V
states that the electric force between two point charges is proportional to the product of the
two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
the rate of flow of charge past a given cross-section (of the conductor)
of a component is the ratio between the potential difference across the component/circuit and
the current through it.
the resistance of a cell, battery or component (problems in DP only deal with energy sources
such as cells and batteries.
is the total energy difference per unit charge around the circuit (it is the potential difference
when no current flows in a circuit).
When the temperature is kept constant, the current through a metallic conductor is
proportional to the potential difference across it.
a device which can supply energy to an electric current
is the average speed that a particle, such as an electron, attains due to an electric field.
The total current flowing towards a junction is equal to the total current flowing away from
that junction.
The sum of the emfs in any closed loop is equivalent to the sum of the potential drops in that
loop
the force per unit charge felt by a positive test charge placed in the field
the force exerted per unit charge;
on a small positive (test) charge; [2]
Accept either small or test or both.
the electric potential energy of a system of charges is the work done to
move the charges from separation to their current positions
the work done per unit charge;
in bringing a small positive charge;
from infinity to that point;
A completely accurate definition is necessary for maximum 3 points
the magnetic flux through a region is a measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing

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Porter
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Porter
Forster
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through the region

magnetic flux linkage
N [weber, Wb]
Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction
Lenzs law
induced emf, [volt, V]
Time constant for a capacitor

product of number of turns in a coil and the flux through the coil
e.m.f. (induced) proportional to;
rate of change /cutting of (magnetic) flux (linkage);
The induced current will be in such a direction as to oppose the change in magnetic flux that
created the current

Muncaster
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Time, in seconds, in which the quantity drops to 1/e of its original value ( 1/e ~ 0.37)

Topic 7, 12 Atomic, Nuclear and Particle Physics and Quantum

Physics
photoelectric
emission
atom
molecule
nuclide

isotope

nucleon
nucleon number A

the freeing of electrons from the surface of a metal when light of sufficiently high frequency is
shone onto the metal
the smallest neutral particle that represents an element
smallest particle of a substance that can exist under normal conditions
eg a helium molecule is a helium atom; an oxygen molecule is a pair of oxygen atoms
a species of atom whose nucleus contains a specified number of protons and a specified
number of neutrons
same atomic number but different mass number
or in terms of numbers of protons and neutrons
the nuclei of different isotopes of an element have the same number of protons;
but different numbers of neutrons;
Look for a little more detail than say just same atomic (proton) number, different mass
(nucleon) number.
isotope: nuclei of elements with different number of neutrons;
Accept same Z different A / OWTTE.
a proton or a neutron; Both needed to receive [1].
number of nucleons in the nucleus of an atom (same as mass number)

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W+H 16.1 p126

W+H 16.2 p127
W+H 163.4 p509
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proton number Z
neutron number N
activity

number of protons contained in the nucleus (same as atomic number)

number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom
the number of radioactive disintegrations per unit time
the time required for the activity to drop to half

W+H 163.4 p509

W+H 163.4 p509
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N00H2 A1

the time for the activity of a radioactive sample to decrease to half its initial activity

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time for the activity to halve in value / time for the number of nuclei to transmute to nuclei of
another element / OWTTE;
time for activity/mass/number of nuclei to halve;
clear indication of what halves original isotope, (not daughters);

radioactive half-life

unified atomic mass unit

decay constant,

-1

[s ]

mass defect
binding energy
binding energy
per nucleon

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of mass of carbon 12 atom

probability of decay / constant in expression

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per unit time /

and N explained;
the probability that a nucleus will decay in unit time;
the mass of a nucleus is always less the total mass of its constituent nucleons, the difference in
mass is called the mass defect
either: the energy released when the nuclide is assembled from its individual components;
or: the energy required when the nucleus is separated into its individual components;
the difference between the mass of the nucleus and the sum of the masses of its individual
nucleons / the energy required to separate a nucleus into its component nucleons / OWTTE;

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the binding energy of a nucleus divided by the number of nucleons in the nucleus

Topic 8 Energy Production

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degraded energy
energy density of a fuel [J m-3]
specific energy [J kg-1]
albedo
black body
surface heat capacity
CS [J K-1 m-2]
coefficient of volume
expansion
[K-1]
Stefan-Boltzmann law
emissivity
fuel
Natural & enhanced
greenhouse effect
solar constant

Energy that has been transformed from one form to a less useful form (generally heat) is
degraded energy.

taken from Kerr &

Ruth 3rd edition

amount of available energy stored in a fuel per unit volume

the energy that can be obtained per unit mass
fraction of solar radiation reaching Earth that is reflected back into space
a perfect emitter (or absorber of electromagnetic radiation)

Forster

energy required to raise the temperature of 1 m2 of the Earths surface by 1 K

the fractional change in volume per degree change in temperature
Power per unit area emitted by a body is proportional to the absolute temperature to the fourth
power
is the ratio of energy emitted (per unit area) of a body to the energy emitted by a black body of
the same dimensions at the same temperature.
a source of energy in a usable form

IB Physics Subject
Guide
Porter

Natural: due to naturally occurring levels of the gases

Enhanced or anthropomorphic (due to man): due to increased concentrations of the gases
which are a result of human-derived processes.
The amount of solar radiation across all wavelengths that is incident in one second on one
square metre at the mean distance of the Earth from the Sun on a plane perpendicular to the
line joining the centre of the sun to the centre of the earth. (Draw a labelled diagram).

Option D Astrophysics
light year [ly]
luminosity, L [W]
apparent brightness, l [W m-2]
absolute magnitude

distance travelled by light in a vacuum in one year

total power radiated by a star
power per unit area of radiation from star at location of Earth

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parsec [pc]
critical density
Hubbles law
The cosmological principle

the density of the Universe at which the Universe expands forever at a slowing rate
approaching zero.
The recessional speed of distant galaxies is proportional to their distance from earth.
The Universe is homogeneous (the same everywhere) and isotropic (looks the same in any
direction)

Option C Imaging
principal axis
focal point
focal length, f [m]
linear magnification
power of a convex lens, F [D]
dioptre, [D]
far point

near point

the point on the principal axis to which rays parallel to the principal axis are brought to a
focus after refraction by the lens / it is a point on the PA from which rays will be parallel to the M03H3 H
PA after refraction by the lens.
the image distance for an infinite object distance
W+H p259

reciprocal of the focal length

unit of lens power, 1 D = 1 m-1
the position of the furthest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided eye / OWTTE;
Accept the distance to the furthest object etc.
For the normal eye, the far point may be assumed to be at infinity and the near point is
conventionally taken as being a point 25 cm from the eye.
if the object is nearer than this to the eye then the eye cannot focus it clearly
the position of the closest object that can be brought into focus by the unaided eye / OWTTE;
Accept the distance to the closest object etc.

angular magnification

N04H3 H
IB Physics Subject
Guide
N03H3 H
N04H3 H
M04H3 TZ2 H

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aberration
spherical aberration
chromatic aberattion

Allow
are shown correctly on the diagram.
the phenomenon of a point object not giving rise to a point image

W+H p267

Option A Relativity
frame of reference
inertial frame of reference

2 postulates of Special Theory

of Relativity

proper time interval

proper length
rest mass

a system of coordinates;
that enables the position of various objects to be specified / that enables measurements
to be made / OWTTE;
a reference frame that is moving with constant velocity (or uniform speed in a straight line)
frame moving with constant velocity / frame in which Newtons first law is valid;
postulate 1: the speed of light in vacuum is the same for all inertial observers;
postulate 2: the laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers;
speed of light in a vacuum is the same for all inertial observers;
laws of physics are the same for all inertial observers; [2]
The words underlined are needed for the mark. Award [1 max] if both are on the
right lines but not precise. Give benefit of the doubt if inertial is only mentioned
once.
the time as measured on a clock that is stationary in the observers frame of reference
the time interval measured by an observer of an event that happens at the same place
according to that observer
the time interval between two events measured in the reference frame in which the two events
occur at the same place
the length of an object as measured by an observer who is at rest relative to the object
the length of an object as measured by an observer at rest with respect to the object
rest mass is the mass of a body as measured in the bodys rest frame / alternative correct and
unambiguous definition;

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mass of object in observers frame of reference;

or
mass when not moving;
relative to observer;

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spacetime

principle of equivalence

black hole
Schwarzschild radius

a frame of reference accelerating far from all masses with acceleration a;

is completely equivalent to a frame of reference at rest in a gravitational field of field strength
equal to a;
Accept the impossibility of distinguishing gravitational from inertial effects for full marks.
an observer cannot tell the difference between the effect of acceleration (in one direction) and
a gravitational field (in the opposite direction);
Accept It is impossible to distinguish between inertial or gravitational forces
or there is no way in which gravitational effects can be distinguished from
inertial effects / OWTTE.
if an object is dense enough it will cause extreme warping of spacetime such that any light
leaving the surface will not be able to escape the spacetime surrounding the object
centre is single point to which all mass would collapse;
surface is where the escape speed is equal to c;
within this surface, mass has disappeared from the universe;

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Option B Engineering
B.1 Rigid Bodies and Rotational Dynamics
Torque
Moment of inertia
Rotational and
translational equilibrium

A torque is an influence which tends to change the rotational motion of an object. Calculated
by the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from the point of rotation.

HYPERPHYSICS

The reluctance of a body to change its angular velocity

The sum of the clockwise torques is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise torques.

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The net sum of all force vectors is zero.

B.2 Thermodynamics
Thermodynamic
system
indicator diagram

graph of pressure against volume for a gas

a process where the volume remains constant, therefore there is no work done (

isochoric (isovolumetric)

)
a process that takes place at constant volume
a process where the pressure remains constant
a process that takes place at constant pressure
a process where the temperature remains constant, therefore the internal energy remains
constant for an ideal gas,

isobaric
isothermal

adiabatic

work (derivation)
entropy, S [J K-1]
1st law of thermodynamics
2nd law of thermodynamics

a process where no heat enters or leaves the system,

a process in which there is no energy (heat) exchange;
between system and surrounding;
or
all the work done;
either increases or decreases the internal energy of the system;
force on piston = pA;
where A is area of piston. Piston moves distance x;
work done = pAx;
Ax = V, so W = p V;
S [J K-1], measure of disorder of a system
the degree of disorder (in the system)
Q = U + W where Q is the thermal energy going into the system (if positive), U is the
increase in internal energy of the system (if positive) and W is the work done by the system
on the surroundings (if positive).
in any process, (reaction, event etc.) the overall entropy of the universe/a closed system

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increases
total entropy (of the universe);
is increasing;
heat engine
Thermal efficiency of a heat
engine
Carnot cycle

M04H2 TZ2 B4
Forster

is the work done divided by the thermal energy taken from the hot reservoir.

Porter
Forster

B.3 Fluids and Fluid Dynamics

laminar flow
streamlines
pascals principle
Stokes Law

smooth flow OR non-turbulent flow OR flow with low Reynolds number

A streamline is a path traced out by a massless particle as it moves with the flow.
pressure exerted anywhere in a confined incompressible fluid is transmitted equally in all
directions throughout the fluid
The force acting in resistance to the fall (of a particle through a liquid) is equal to 6rv, in
which r is the radius of the sphere, is the viscosity of the liquid, and v is the velocity of fall.

spec papers
Nasa
wikipedia
Britannica.com

B.4 Forced Vibrations and Resonance

damping
natural frequency (of
vibration)
forced oscillations
resonance

the process whereby energy is taken from the oscillating system (usually due to friction)
that frequency (or frequencies) at which a system oscillates when disturbed from its
equilibrium state
a system resonates when a periodic force is applied to it;
and the frequency of the force is equal to the natural frequency of vibration of the system /
OWTTE;

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