INDIRA GANDHI MEMORIAL

HIGH SCHOOL

BIOLOGY PROJECT
A.I.S.S.C.E. 2016 - 2017

NAME: Prateek Chattopadhyay

CLASS: XII

ROLL NO.:

INDEX
1. Acknowledgement
2. Certificate
3. What is aids??
4. Virus
5. Symptoms
6. Transmission
7. Treatment
8. Diagnosis

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It gives me immense pleasure to express my gratitude towards our
biology teacher

for her guidance support and

encouragement given by her. Without her motivation and help

successful completion of this project would not have been possible.

CERTIFICATE
I PRATEEK CHATTOPADHYAY hereby certify that, my project
entitled AIDS has been submitted by me to the biology department of
INDIRA GANDHI MEMORIAL HIGH SCHOOL, DUMDUM

for the

fulfillment of standard 12th Biological practical examination conducted

by Central Board of Secondary Education, New Delhi.

I Bid this project under the able supervision and guidance of our
biology teacher

Signature of Teacher:

Signature of External:

WHAT IS AIDS??
AIDS a disease in which there is a severe loss of the body's cellular immunity,
greatly lowering the resistance to infection and malignancy. AIDS stands for
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. AIDS is defined in terms of either a
CD4+ T cell count below 200 cells per L or the occurrence of specific diseases in
association with an HIV infection. In the absence of specific treatment, around
half of people infected with HIV develop AIDS within ten years. The most common
initial conditions that alert to the presence of AIDS are pneumocystis
pneumonia (40%), cachexia in the form of HIV wasting syndrome (20%),
and esophageal candidiasis. Other common signs include recurring respiratory tract
infections.
HIV are believed to have originated in non-human primates in West-central Africa
and were transferred to humans in the early 20th century. HIV-1 appears to have
originated in southern Cameroon through the evolution of SIV (cpz), a simian
immunodeficiency virus (SIV) that infects wild chimpanzees. The closest relative
of HIV-2 is SIV (smm), a virus of the sooty mangabey (Cercocebus atys atys), an
Old World monkey living in coastal West Africa.
AIDS was first clinically observed in 1981 in the United States. The initial cases
were a cluster of injecting drug users and homosexual men with no known cause of
impaired immunity who showed symptoms of Pneumocystis carinii pneumonia (PCP), a
rare opportunistic infection that was known to occur in people with very
compromised immune systems. Soon thereafter, an unexpected number of
homosexual men developed a previously rare skin cancer called Kaposi's
sarcoma (KS). Many more cases of PCP and KS emerged, alerting U.S. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and a CDC task force was formed to monitor
the outbreak.

VIRUS
AIDS is caused by a virus Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Following initial
infection, a person may not notice any symptoms or may experience a brief period
of influenza-like illness. Typically, this is followed by a prolonged period with no
symptoms. As the infection progresses, it interferes more with the immune
system, increasing the risk of common infections like tuberculosis, as well as
other opportunistic infections, and tumors that rarely affect people who have
working immune systems. These late symptoms of infection are referred to as
AIDS.

TYPE OF HIV VIRUS:

HIV can be divided into two major types:
1. HIV-1: related to viruses found in chimpanzees and gorillas living in western
Africa
2. HIV-2: viruses are related to viruses found in the endangered west African
primate sooty mangabey.

STRUCTURE:
An HIV virus particle is spherical and has a diameter of about 1/10,000 mm. HIV
does not have a cell wall or a nucleus.
The basic structure of the virus is as follows:
1. The viral envelope, the outer coat of the virus, consists of two layers of lipids;
different proteins are embedded in the viral envelope, forming "spikes" consisting
of the outer glycoprotein (gp) 120 and the transmembrane gp41. The lipid
membrane is borrowed from the host cell during the budding process (formation of
new particles). gp120 is needed to attach to the host cell, and gp41 is critical for
the cell fusion process.
2. The HIV matrix proteins (consisting of the p17 protein), lie between the
envelope and core.
3. The viral core, contains the viral capsule protein p24 which surrounds two single
strands of HIV RNA and the enzymes needed for HIV replication, such as reverse
transcriptase, protease, ribonuclease, and integrase; out of the nine virus genes,
there are three, namely gag, pol and env, that contain the information needed to
make structural proteins for new virus particles.

LIFE CYCLE:
Step 1: Binding
A virus consists of an outer envelope of protein, fat and sugar wrapped around a
set of genes (in the case of HIV, genetic information is carried as RNA instead of
DNA) and special enzymes.
HIV has proteins on its envelope that are strongly attracted to the CD4+ surface
receptor on the outside of the T4-cell. When HIV binds to a CD4+ surface
receptor, it activates other proteins on the cell's surface, allowing the HIV
envelope to fuse to the outside of the cell.
Entry can be blocked by entry inhibitors.
Step 2: Reverse Transcription
HIV's genes are carried in two strands of RNA, while the genetic material of
human cells is found in DNA. In order for the virus to infect the cell, a process
called "reverse transcription" makes a DNA copy of the virus's RNA.
After the binding process, the viral capsid (the inside of the virus that contains
the RNA and important enzymes) is released into the host cell. A viral enzyme
called reverse transcriptase makes a DNA copy of the RNA. This new DNA is
called "proviral DNA."
Reverse transcription can be blocked by nucleoside reverse transcriptase
inhibitors (NRTIs) and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs).
Step 3: Integration
The HIV DNA is then carried to the cell's nucleus (center), where the cell's DNA
is kept. Then, another viral enzyme called integrase hides the proviral DNA into
the cell's DNA. Then, when the cell tries to make new proteins, it can accidentally
make new HIV.
Integration can be blocked by integrase inhibitors.

Step 4: Transcription
Once HIV's genetic material is inside the cell's nucleus, it directs the cell to
produce new HIV.
The strands of viral DNA in the nucleus separate, and special enzymes create a
complementary strand of genetic material called messenger RNA or mRNA
(instructions for making new HIV).
Transcription can be blocked by antisense antivirals or transcription inhibitors
(TIs), new classes of drugs that are in the earliest stage of research.
Step 5: Translation
The mRNA carries instructions for making new viral proteins from the nucleus to a
kind of workshop in the cell. Each section of the mRNA corresponds to a protein
building block for making a part of HIV.
As each mRNA strand is processed, a corresponding string of proteins is made.
This process continues until the mRNA strand has been transformed or
"translated" into new viral proteins needed to make a new virus.
Step 6: Viral Assembly and Maturation
The final step begins with the assembly of new virus. Long strings of proteins are
cut up by a viral enzyme called protease into smaller proteins. These proteins serve
a variety of functions; some become structural elements of new HIV, while others
become enzymes, such as reverse transcriptase.
Once the new viral particles are assembled, they bud off the host cell and create a
new virus. The virus then enters the maturation stage, which involves the
processing of viral proteins. Maturation is the final step in the process, and is
required for the virus to become infectious.
With viral assembly and maturation completed, the virus is able to infect new cells.
Each infected cell can produce a lot of new viruses.
Viral assembly can be blocked by protease inhibitors (PIs). Maturation, a new
target of companies developing anti-HIV drugs, may be blocked using maturation
inhibitors.

TRANSMISSION
1. Having anal or vaginal sex with someone who has HIV without using a condom or
taking medicines to prevent or treat HIV.
o

Anal sex is the highest-risk sexual behavior. For the HIV-negative

partner, receptive anal sex is riskier than insertive anal sex

Vaginal sex is the second-highest-risk sexual behavior.

2. Sharing needles or syringes, rinse water, or other equipment (works) used to

prepare drugs for injection with someone who has HIV. HIV can live in a used
needle up to 42 days depending on temperature and other factors.
3. From mother to child during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding. Although the
risk can be high if a mother is living with HIV and not taking medicine,
recommendations to test all pregnant women for HIV and start HIV treatment
immediately have lowered the number of babies who are born with HIV.
4. By being stuck with an HIV-contaminated needle or other sharp object. This is a
risk mainly for health care workers.
5. Oral sexputting the mouth on the penis (fellatio), vagina (cunnilingus), or anus
(rimming). In general, theres little to no risk of getting HIV from oral sex. But
transmission of HIV, though extremely rare, is theoretically possible if an HIVpositive man ejaculates in his partners mouth during oral sex. To learn more about
how to lower your risk, see Oral Sex and HIV Risk.
6. Receiving blood transfusions, blood products, or organ/tissue transplants that
are contaminated with HIV. This was more common in the early years of HIV, but
now the risk is extremely small because of rigorous testing of the US blood supply
and donated organs and tissues.

7. Eating food that has been pre-chewed by an HIV-infected person. The

contamination occurs when infected blood from a caregivers mouth mixes with
food while chewing. The only known cases are among infants.
8. Being bitten by a person with HIV. Each of the very small number of
documented cases has involved severe trauma with extensive tissue damage and
the presence of blood. There is no risk of transmission if the skin is not broken.
9. Contact between broken skin, wounds, or mucous membranes and HIV-infected
blood or blood-contaminated body fluids.
10. Deep, open-mouth kissing if both partners have sores or bleeding gums and
blood from the HIV-positive partner gets into the bloodstream of the HIVnegative partner. HIV is not spread through saliva.

SYMPTOMS
1. Pain areas: in the abdomen
2. Pain circumstances: can occur while swallowing
3. Cough: can be dry
4. Whole body: fatigue, fever, loss of appetite, malaise, night sweats, or sweating
5. Gastrointestinal: nausea, persistent diarrhoea, vomiting, or watery diarrhea
6. Mouth: ulcers or white tongue
7. Groin: sores or swelling
8. Throat: difficulty swallowing or soreness
9. Also common: headache, opportunistic infection, oral thrush, pneumonia, red
blotches, severe unintentional weight loss, skin rash, or swollen lymph nodes

DIAGNOSIS
1. ELISA Test: ELISA, which stands for enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, is
used to detect HIV infection. If an ELISA test is positive, the Western blot test
is usually administered to confirm the diagnosis. If an ELISA test is negative, but
you think you may have HIV, you should be tested again in one to three months.
ELISA is quite sensitive in chronic HIV infection, but because antibodies aren't
produced immediately upon infection, you may test negative during a window of a
few weeks to a few months after being infected. Even though your test result may
be negative during this window, you may have a high level of the virus and be at risk
of transmitting infection.
2. Home Tests: The only home test approved by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administration is called the Home Access Express Test, which is sold in
pharmacies.
3. Saliva Tests: A cotton pad is used to obtain saliva from the inside of your
cheek. The pad is placed in a vial and submitted to a laboratory for testing. Results
are available in three days. Positive results should be confirmed with a blood test.
4. Viral Load Test: This test measures the amount of HIV in your blood.
Generally, it's used to monitor treatment progress or detect early HIV infection.
Three technologies measure HIV viral load in the blood: reverse transcription
polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), branched DNA (bDNA) and nucleic acid
sequence-based amplification assay (NASBA). The basic principles of these tests
are similar. HIV is detected using DNA sequences that bind specifically to those in
the virus. It is important to note that results may vary between tests.
5. Western Blot: This is a very sensitive blood test used to confirm a positive
ELISA test result.

TREATMENT
HIV is treated using a combination of medicines to fight HIV infection. This is
called antiretroviral therapy (ART). ART isnt a cure, but it can control the virus so
that you can live a longer, healthier life and reduce the risk of transmitting HIV to
others.
ART involves taking a combination of HIV medicines (called an HIV regimen) every
day, exactly as prescribed.
These HIV medicines prevent HIV from multiplying (making copies of itself), which
reduces the amount of HIV in your body. Having less HIV in your body gives your
immune system a chance to recover and fight off infections and cancers. Even
though there is still some HIV in the body, the immune system is strong enough to
fight off infections and cancers.
By reducing the amount of HIV in your body, HIV medicines also reduce the risk of
transmitting the virus to others.
ART is recommended for all people with HIV, regardless of how long theyve had
the virus or how healthy they are. If left untreated, HIV will attack the immune
system and eventually progress to AIDS.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. www.google.co.in
2. www.wikipedia.org
3. www.aids.gov
4. www.ucshealth.org
5. www.biology.kenyon.edu
6. www.cdc.gov
7. www.poz.com
8. www.aidsinfo.nih.gov
9. www.itg.be
10. NCERT biology textbook class XII