91

CHAPTER 4
POTENTIAL FLOWS OF FRICTIONLESS LIQUID
As mentioned above the general task of creation of flow picture and
definition of its parameters consists in construction of lines of flow and
equipotential lines (for potential flow), definition of velocity field, fluid
pressures and forces acting on a body. Building streams needs conformity
with requirement of flow continuity.
In particular, satisfaction of flow continuity requirement for potential
flows is related to solution of Laplace's equation, which, from the point of
mathematics, is the simplest equation. Moreover, it is interesting to consider
potential flows as they are perfect in respect to minimum of energy loss,
because these streams have no revolving particles requiring additional
energy consumption.
7.1. Superposition of potential flows
Method of superposition is very important for analysis of potential
flows. The chief problem of this method is following. Let there be two
potential flows with velocity potentials 1 and 2 , which satisfy Laplace's
equation (2.67)

2 1 2 1

0
,

x 2
y2

2 2 2 2

0.
2
2
x
y

(7.1)

In this case velocity potential equal to sum of 1 and 2 ,

1 2

(7.2)

will also satisfy Laplace's equation (2.67), i.e. it will represent some new
stream of incompressible liquid. So according to (7.1) and (7.2) we have

2 2 2 1 2 1

x 2 y 2 x 2
y 2

2 2 2 2

0.
2
x 2

New combined stream with velocity potential 1 2 is the result of

superposition of two initial streams, that means a result of geometrical
summation of velocities of the first and second flows in each point of space.
Really, for complicated stream

92
1 2

V x1 V x 2 ,

x
x
x
(7.3)

1 2
Vy

V y1 V y2 .
y y
y

It is possible to show in a similar way that flow function for new

combined stream is equal to algebraic sum of flow functions of the initial
streams
1 2 ,
(7.4)
Therefore, superposition of two and more streams is brought to simple
algebraic summation of velocity potentials and flow functions of the initial
streams.
Thus, if we know the series of particular solutions of Laplace's equation
(2.66) or (2.67), then any linear combination of particular solutions will also
be the solution of this equation.
Vx

Therefore, if we have series of simplest solutions corresponding to

some simplest liquid streams, we can obtain more complex solutions for
combined streams by adding different combinations of these solutions.
7.2. Simplest potential flows
7.2.1. Rectilinear uniform stream
Lets consider the potential flow of incompressible liquid, which is
characterized with the fact that velocity has identical value and direction in
any point of the stream
Vx a , V y b ,
i.e. stream moves with constant velocity V equals to
V V x2 V y2 a 2 b 2 .
Velocity potential for this stream is determined as follows:
d

dx
dy V x dx V y dy a dx bdy 0 ,
x
y

ax by .

whence

In much the same manner for flow function

d
whence

dx
dy V x dy V y dx a dy bdx 0 ,
x
y

ay bx .

93
It is clear that on plane lines of flow represent a family of parallel lines
ay bx const ,
inclined to the axis 0 x at angle (fig. 7.1). Tangent of angle equals to
the following ratio
Vy b
tg

Vx a
Finally for rectilinear uniform stream with velocity V we can write
down velocity potential and flow function in the following way:
V x cos y sin ;
(7.1)

V y cos x sin .

(7.2)

94
In particular case, when stream is
parallel to axis 0 x functions and
will look like

Fig. 7.1. Rectilinear uniform stream

Fig. 7.2. Definition of flow rate

V x ;

(7.3)

V y .

(7.4)

It is clear that velocity potential (7.1) and flow function (7.2) of

rectilinear uniform stream satisfy Laplaces equation (2.66).
7.2.2. Source (drain)
Some point O from which liquid continuously flows out and then evenly
spreading along the radiuses is called source. Otherwise when liquid flows
into point O along the radiuses, this point is termed as drain.

95
As liquid flow rate Q remains constant along circumferences of any
radius it is possible to write down (fig. 7.2)
2

Q Vr ds V r d 2rV r ,
0

whereas Vr

Q
.
2 r

This stream occurs only along the radius therefore the velocity
projection on tangent to circumference is equal to zero Vs 0 .
Velocity potential for this stream is determined as follows:

Q
d
dr
ds Vr dr Vs ds
dr 0 ,
r
s
2 r
whereas velocity potential in polar co-ordinates
Q

lnr .
(7.5)
2
Lets define flow function:
d

dr
ds
ds Vr ds 0 ,
r
s
s

Vr
Vs 0 ,
and ds r d we shall have

s
2

r
r
Q
Q
d Vr ds
r d
d ,
2 r
2
and therefore flow function in polar co-ordinates
Q

.
(7.6)
2
Dependences of velocity potential (7.5) and flow function (7.6) near
source (drain) satisfy Laplaces equation (2.68) and are particular solutions
of this equation. Source corresponds to positive value of flow rate Q and
drain corresponds to negative value of Q .
because

In this case the lines of flow are radial lines coming out from point O
and equipotential lines are concentric circles drawn from point O (fig. 7.3).
In Cartesian rectangular coordinates equations of velocity potential and
flow function become look like:
Q

ln( x 2 y 2 ) ;
(7.7)
4

96
Q
y
arctg .
2
x
If source (drain) is placed not at point of origin (fig. 7.4), then
Q

ln ( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 ;
4
y y0
Q

arctg
.
2
x x0

(7.8)

(7.7)
(7.8)

Stream close to source (drain) is defined in all points except center

being special point (point O ). Therefore source and drain are as
hydrodynamic features.

Fig. 7.3. Flow close to source

Fig. 7.4. Source (drain) on plane

7.2.3. Rotational flow. Flat vortex

Lets consider a stream in which velocity potential (7.5) and flow
function (7.6) are swapped:

Q
Q
,
lnr ,
2
2

where Q is some constant, which physical meaning should be defined for

new stream.
To define stream mode lets find lines of flow by having equated stream
function to constant:

or

Q
ln r const
2

97
r const .

Therefore, in this case the set of lines of flow will be a family of

concentric circles with center in point O .
Using expressions (2.61) lets calculate velocity and direction at
arbitrary point M having polar co-ordinates r and (fig. 7.5):
Vr

1
Q

0.
0 , Vs
r

2
r
r

Therefore, velocity Vs in point M

is directed along tangent to the circle
with radius r toward increasing angle
(i.e. counterclockwise). Thus all liquid
particles move along concentric circles
with constant velocity.

Fig. 7.5. Definition of circulation

Lets find out physical meaning of constant Q . For this purpose we

shall calculate the value of circulation within considered stream (see fig. 7.5)
VS ds

or

Q
Q
0 2r rd 2

d ,
0

i.e. arbitrary constant Q is equal to circulation .

Thus expressions of velocity potential and flow function of flat vortex
look like

,
2

(7.9)

lnr .
(7.10)
2
Equating velocity potential with constant we shall find family of
equipotential lines:

98

const
2

or

const ,
i.e. the set of equipotential lines is a family of straight lines coming out from
the center of vortex and orthogonal to lines of flow.
Flow in liquid defined by functions (7.9) and (7.10) is called rotational
flow and point O vortical point or flat vortex, which intensity is determined
by value of circulation . Lines of flow and equipotential lines of rotational
flow are shown on fig. 7.6.

99
It is necessary to notice that
rotational flow characterizes circular
movement of total mass of liquid. Local
revolutions of particles (except center of
vortex) are absent and it is typical for
potential flow.

Fig. 7.6. Rotational flow

Fig. 7.7. Velocities induced

by single vortex

Velocity Vs in any point outside the center of vortex will be represent in

the following form:

100
Vs

,
2 r

in proportion with moving away from cylinder velocity decreases in

compliance with hyperbolical law Vs r const (fig. 7.7). In vortex center (
r 0 ) the value of velocity tends to infinity. However, in fact, due to liquid
viscosity there is a core in center of vortex, which revolves as solid body.
According to Bernoulli equation presence of high velocities in the center of
vortex results in low pressure within internal area of vortex. This fact explains
suction action of natural vortexes (tornados).
In Cartesian rectangular coordinates equations of velocity potential
(7.9) and flow function (7.10) of single vortex with center in point O( x0 , y0 )
which does not coincide with point of origin will take the following form:

y y0

arctg
;
2
x x0

(7.11)

ln ( x x0 )2 ( y y0 )2 . (7.12)
4

7.2.4. Dipole
Dipole is a complex flow which is obtained as a result of summing
source and drain with flow rates Q and Q , which are located infinitely close
to each other. In itself such flow have no real meaning, however in
combination with other flows, dipole allows to get important cases of stream
(for example flow about cylinder).
Lets consider source and drain with flow rate Q and Q , which are
symmetric in relation to point of origin located on axis 0 x at distance 2
(fig. 7.8). Using method of superposition of potential flows we can write down
velocity potential of dipole:
Q
Q
1 2
lnr1
lnr2
2
2
or, taking into account that for any point M with co-ordinates x , y
r12 ( x )2 y 2 and r22 ( x )2 y 2 ,
we shall receive

1 2
or

Q
Q
ln ( x )2 y 2
ln
( x )2 y 2

4
4

101

Q
( x )2 y 2 .
ln ( x )2 y 2 ln
(7.13)

4
Approaching of source and drain to point of origin (i. e. at ( 0 )) the
value in figured brackets of expression (7.13) tends to zero and we could not
obtain any stream. Therefore we shall enter an additional condition, that
says: when source and drain draw together product of intensity Q on
distance 2 should remain constant and equal to certain value
M Q 2 const . Value M is called moment of dipole.

Fig. 7.8. Definition of velocity potential of dipole

Now it is possible to write down

2
2
( x )2 y 2
Q 2 ln ( x ) y ln

lim
.
2 o
4
2
Q2 M

When epsilon tends to zero 0 the first multiplier approaches to

M
value
and
the
second
is
a
value
of
derivative
4
f ( x , y )
f ( x ,y ) f ( x ,y )
lim
of function f ( x , y ) ln( x 2 y 2 ) ,
x
2 0
2

2x
ln( x 2 y 2 ) 2
i.e.
.
x
x y2
Thus, finally, expression of velocity potential of dipole in Cartesian
rectangular coordinates will look like:

M
x
.
2 x 2 y 2

Similar reasoning for flow function

(7.14)

102

1 2
so

Q
Q
Q
y
y

1
2

arctg
arctg

2
2
2
x
x

lim

2 o
Q 2 M

Q 2
2

y
y

arctg

x
x ,
2

arctg

final expression of stream function of dipole in Cartesian rectangular

coordinates comes to the following form:

M
y
.
2
2 x y 2

(7.15)

Lets write down expressions of velocity potential and flow function of

dipole in polar co-ordinates

M r cos M cos

;
2 r 2
2 r

(7.16)

M r sin
M sin

.
2 r 2
2 r

(7.17)

Expressions of velocity potential (7.14), (7.16) and flow function (7.15),

(7.17) satisfy Laplaces equation and are its partial solutions. The flow near
dipole is potential except in the center where potentiality is disrupted.
To determine lines of flow it is necessary to equate flow function to
constant:
y
C,
x2 y2
whereas

1
1
x y
.
2C

2C 2
2

It is clear, that a set of lines of flow is a family of circles with centers

located on axis 0 y and touching axis 0 x in the point of origin (fig. 7.9).

103
Thus, liquid flows out from point of
origin along these circles and backs to
point of origin.

Fig. 7.9. Flow close to dipole

Fig. 7.10. Dipole in stream

Set of equipotential lines

1
1
y x
2C

2C 2
2

is a family of circles orthogonal to streamlines with centers on axis 0 x

touching axis 0 y in point of origin (see fig. 7.9).
7.3. Irrotational flow about circular cylinder by rectilinear stream
This flow is obtained as superposition of rectilinear forward-moving
stream along axis 0 x (velocity V ) and dipole with moment M in point of
origin (fig. 7.10).
Velocity potential and flow function of rectilinear stream moving along
axis 0 x :

104

1 V x ; 1 V y .
For stream caused by dipole with moment M :
M
x
M
y
2

;
.
2
2 x 2 y 2
2 x 2 y 2
To define velocity potential and flow function of complex stream it is
necessary to sum velocity potentials and flow functions of initial streams.
Therefore, in our case, for functions and of new stream we shall have:
M
x
1 2 V x
;
(7.18)
2 x 2 y 2
M
y
1 2 V y
;
(7.19)
2 x 2 y 2
Lets consider the zero line of flow 0 . We have
V y

M
y
0
2 x 2 y 2

or

M
1
y V
0.
2
2
2

V
x

Thus for zero line of flow we shall get two equations:

y 0,
M
x2 y2
.
2 V
As a result, zero line of flow represents itself axis 0 x and circle with
radius, determining by the formula
r0

M
.
2 V

(7.20)

Assuming given circle as hard border and considering flow outside this
circle we can interpret obtained flow as flow about round cylinder of infinite
length. Lines of flow in this case are shown in fig. 7.11.
Velocity potential and flow function for flow about cylinder with radius
r0 (7.20) in polar co-ordinates are the following:

2
r0
V 1 r sin
r

r0
V 1 r cos
r

(7.21)
(7.22)

105
Projections of velocities in polar co-ordinates in arbitrary point of
stream ( r , ) are the following:
2

r0

Vr
V 1 cos ;
r
r

(7.23)

1
r
Vs
V 1 0 sin .
r
r

Expression for velocity Vs clearly shows that velocity circulation about

cylinder is equal to zero. Really, integrating along the circle covering the
cylinder we shall receive
2

Vsds Vs rd V 1

r0
r

r cos

On the surface of cylinder when r r0 we have:

Vr 0;
Vs 2V sin .

0.
0

(7.24)

Expectedly, velocities on the cylinder surface are directed along

tangent (sign minus indicates that velocities are directed toward decreasing
angles ).
There stream splits in points A ( 180 ) and C ( 0 ) i.e. these
points are stagnation points because velocity in these points is equal to zero
Vs 0 . The highest value of velocity is achieved in points B ( 90 ) and D
( 270 ) where velocity in absolute value equals to double velocity at
infinity Vs 2V (fig. 7.12).

106

Fig. 7.11. Irrotational flow about round

cylinder

Fig. 7.12. Velocities and pressure on

cylinder surface

Outside the cylinder when radius r increases the value Vr also rises
and Vs decreases. At r we have Vr V cos and Vs V sin , and
total velocity V Vr2 Vs2 V that corresponds to the condition of flow
about cylinder by stream with velocity V far before cylinder.
Lets define values of pressure on the cylinder surfaces and forces
acting on the cylinder by stream. Neglecting body forces then in steady
vortex-free motion of incompressible liquid pressure in any point of stream
will be defined by Bernoulli equation (3.17)

V 2
p
C.
2
In compliance with Bernoulli equation for flow filament (see fig. 7.12)
moving from infinity along the cylinder surface
V2
Vs2
,
p
p
2
2
where p , V are parameters of undisturbed flow (at infinity); p , Vs are
pressure and velocity on the cylinder surface.
Pressure differential p p is usually expressed in shares of dynamic
head of undisturbed flow q

V2
, then
2

107
p p p p

Cp
q
,
V2
2

(7.25)

where C p is pressure factor.

Thus pressure factor can be obtained using Bernoulli equation
2

V
C p 1 s .
V

(7.26)

The last formula is common and does not depend on bodys shape. As
Vs
it is evident, pressure factor depends on ratio of velocities
. Pressure
V
factor has maximum value C p 1 (this value is true for incompressible
liquid). At Vs V pressure factor has negative values C p 0 . In points
where Vs V pressure factor C p 0 .
Pressure factor (7.26) on the cylinder surface can be determined by
formula taking into account (7.24)
C p 1 4 sin 2

(7.27)

108
and does not depend on velocity of
undisturbed flow and cylinder radius.

Fig. 7.13. Pressure distribution over

cylinder surface

Distributing of pressure factor along cylinder surfaces is represented on

fig. 7.13.
Only forces of pressure act on cylinder within stream. We can see from
formula 7.27 or in fig. 7.13 that overpressure is distributed over cylinder
surface symmetrically as in relation to axis 0 x as relatively to axis 0 y . It is
evident, that resultant pressure force along axes 0 x and 0 y will equal to
zero, and, therefore, total force equals to zero too.
Lets define drag force X and lift Y acting on the cylinder. An element
of cylinder with ds r0 d is under action of overpressure force ( p p0 )ds
(length of cylinder is assumed to be equal to unit). In projections onto
coordinate axes (see fig. 7.13) we can obtain:

r 1 4 sin sin d .

dX ( p p )ds cos qC p r0 cos d q r0 1 4 sin 2 cos d ;

dY ( p p )ds sin qC pr0 sin d q

Having integrated above mentioned expressions

109
2

X q r0

1 4 sin cos d 0 ;
2

0
2

Y q r0

1 4 sin sin d 0 .
2

Thus, cylinder moving in a potential stream does is independent in

relation to influence of liquid. This fact, as it is known, is called EulerDAlembert paradox.
The situation in real stream
differs. Viscosity and friction
result in redistribution of pressure
along the cylinder surface and
occurring resistance force. In
addition, at large Reynolds
number stream stalls from the
surface that results in pressure
drop in the area of stall.

Fig. 7.14. Theoretical and experimental

pressure distribution over cylinder surfaces
at different Reynolds numbers

Comparison of theoretical and experimental curves of pressure

distribution is shown in fig. 7.14. Theoretical pressure distribution coincides
with experimental results only on the front side of cylinder. On the back side
flow stall results in divergence of experimental and theoretical data.

110
7.4. Rotational flow about circular cylinder
Lets superimpose rotational flow caused by flat vortex, located in the
point of origin and having intensity onto the stream mentioned in previous
subsection to get the rotational flow about circular cylinder.
Thus, potential of velocity of new flow will be a sum of functions (7.21)
and (7.9), and stream function is a sum of functions (7.22) and (7.10):

r
0
V 1 r cos
;
2
r

r
0
V 1 r sin
ln r .
r
2

(7.27)
(7.28)

As a result the picture of rotational flow about cylinder will look like it is
shown in fig. 7.15.
In arbitrary point of stream with coordinates ( r , ) velocities can be
determined by the following formulas:

r
Vr
V 1 0 cos ;
r
r

1
r
0
Vs
V 1 sin
.
r
r
2

(7.29)

Make sure that in considered case circulation of velocity around the

cylinder is equal to vortex intensity . Indeed, having integrated velocity Vs
over circle enclosing the cylinder we can get the following formula
2

r
0

r cos
r
2

Vsds Vs rd V 1

.
0

Velocities on the cylinder surface ( r r0 ) are equal to the following

values:

111
Vr 0;

Vs 2V sin
2 r0

(7.30)

Fig. 7.15. Rotational flow around circular

cylinder at 0 4 rV 0

The first expression indicates continuity of flow.

Position of stagnation points A and C is defined from the condition of
equality to zero of velocity Vs , i.e.Vs 0 , or
sin st

.
4 r0V

(7.31)

Obviously, this value of sine will correspond to two angels located in the
3 and 4th quarters at 0 . As it is clear from formula, the critical points will
move downwards with increase of circulation absolute value. In case, when
4 r0V we shall get sin st 1 .
rd

It means that stagnation points become coincident and picture of flow

will look like it is represented in fig. 7.16.
With further increase of circulation absolute value , i.e. at
4 r0V sine can not exceed 1 , stagnation points go down in the
stream and the picture of flow becomes similar to shown in fig. 7.17.
Contrary to former cases, when all streamlining fluid moves to infinity, in this
case fluid circulate around the cylinder, at that this circulating fluid is
separated from the rest fluid with enclosed streamline.

112

Fig. 7.16. Rotational flow about

circular cylinder at 4 r0V

Fig. 7.17. Rotational flow about

circular cylinder at 4 r0V

Imposition of circulation stream breaks symmetry of streamlines in

relation to axis 0 x . Above the cylinder velocities of rotational flow will be
directed in the same direction as velocities of irrotational flow and below the
cylinder velocities of rotational flow are directed in the opposite direction. As
a result of addition of velocities there is an area of increased velocities
occurring above the cylinder and field of reduced velocities occurring under
the cylinder.
Using substitution of formula (7.31) into formula (7.30) for velocity Vs
will become
Vs 2V (sin sin st ) ,
and pressure factor on cylinder surface (7.26) is determined by the formula
C p 1 4(sin sin st )2

Distribution of pressure factor over cylinder surface for rotational flow is

represented on fig. 7.18.
As it is clear from the picture, symmetry of streamlines in relation to
axis 0 x is broken therefore pressure force should appear.

113
As well as in the case of the
circulation-free flow about cylinder we
have:

Fig. 7.18. Pressure distribution

over cylinder surface at st 15

dX q C p r0 cos d ;
dY q C p r0 sin d ,
where C p is pressure factor, which is determined as follows:
2

C p 1 2 sin
.
2 V r0

Integrating along the whole circle we shall obtain:

X 0;
Y V
.
Thus drag force of cylinder is equal to zero (paradox of Euler
DAlembert), however in case of rotational flow about cylinder there is the lift
force acting along axis 0 y . Expression for definition of this force coincides
with Zhoukovskys formula for lift force (3.61).

114
In real stream rotational flow can be obtained having rotated a cylinder.
Due to viscosity, liquid surrounding the cylinder will revolve together with the
cylinder (but with less velocity, than it follows from calculation of rotational
flow). If now a stream will run onto the revolved cylinder, lift will appear.
The repeatedly tests indeed confirmed these conclusions and found
out considerable lift of the cylindrical shafts revolved in air flow in the wind or
in the wind tunnel.
In practice attempts were made to use lift of revolving cylinder. The
Flettner ship was built so, using revolved cylinders instead of sail.