FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND LANGUAGES

HMLT 5203
Applying Theories of Learning to Instructional
Technology
ASSIGNMENT TITLE:

Write a paper describing the key personalities and their

respective learning theories
according to the various schools of thought: behaviorist,
cognitivist, constructivist and
connectivist.
Name: PRAKASH NAKARAJ A/L THIAGARAJOO
Matric Number: CGS01468120
NRIC: 760704055539
Telephone Number: 017-3899012
E-mail Address: prakash76@oum.edu.my

Tutors Name: ZAHARI BIN HAMIDON

Learning Centre: Kuala Lumpur Learning Centre

Semester: September 2016

ABSTRACT

Instructional design is a discipline that is concerned with understanding and improving on

aspects of education process of instructions .The purpose of any design activity is to devise
optimal means to achieve desired end. Learning has been defined in numerous ways by many
different theorists. Learning is one of the most important activities in which humans engage. It is
at the very core of the educational process, although most of what people learn occurs outside of
school. Various theories of learning have been suggested and these theories differ for a variety of
reasons. Understanding any theory requires a clear idea of what the theory is trying to explain.
This paper describes the 4 learning theories such as behaviorist, cognitivist , constructivism,
connectivist and how these theories can been seen in formal, informal and non-formal classroom
settings. The description on how learning theories applied in teaching and learning takes place in
formal, informal and non-formal classroom. When a particular word is used, people usually
assume everyone has a common understanding of what the word means. Unfortunately, such is
not always the case. In trying to understand the various theories of learning and their
implications for education, it is helpful to realize that the term learning means different things
to different people and is used somewhat differently in different theories.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

No.

Description

Page Number

1.0
1.1
2.0
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.0
3.1
3.2
4.0
4.1
4.2
5.0
5.1

Introduction
Literature Review
Behaviorism
Behaviorist Theorist B.F. Skinner
The Skinner Box and Operant Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
The Cognitivist
Jean Piage
Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
Constructivism
John Dewey
Jerome Bruner
Connectivism
Principles of connectivism:

2
2
3

6.0
6.1
6.2
6.3

Formal,informal and non-formal classroom.

10-13

5
6
8

Formal Classroom
Informal Classroom
Non-formal Classroom

7.0

Conclusion

14

8.0

References

15-16

1.0 Introduction
It can be said that learning is one of the most important activities in which every human beings.
It is the core of the educational process and learning can take place in formal ,informal or nonformal environment . Various theories of learning have suggested and these theories differ for a
variety of reasons. Understanding any theory requires a clear idea of what the theory is about.
Theories differ significantly in the perspectives on learning though each has influenced and
shaped instructional methods and practices to some degree. Learning Theories are important
factor to education and training because it guides teacher to effective way to meet the learning
needs of learners. Learning theories give a deeper incite on the mindset and background of the
learners.

1.1 Literature Review

The constructivist stance maintains that learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is

how people make sense of their experience (Merriam and Caffarella,1999, p. 260).
This learning theory states the mixer of a persons cognitive and practical approach would enable
individual to learn and solve a problem.
That learning is a process of constructing meaning; it is how people make sense of their
experience(Merriam & Caffaerall, 1999, p. 261).The learning method would enable learners to
use their experience to adapt or solve a problem.
An Intelligent Mediating Model for Collaborative e-Learning
Management Systems
Akanbi Caleb Olufisoye, Adagunodo E Rotimi
International Journal of Computer Science Issues. 2011;8(4):313319Iin this journal it has been stated that learning process will be restricted if
the knowledge and approach not shared by an instituation. To provide a well equipt knowledge
or information institutions should adopt a more share knowledge practice ways for its learner.
Behaviorism is comprised of several individual theories that have a common theme functioning
within them. This common theme is found in the ways the theorists define what learning is, and
how itis accomplished. The common assumptions of these theorists are threefold, as explained by
Merriamand Caffarella (1999).
2.0 Behaviorism
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This theory is simple to understand because it relies on observable behavior and describes
several universal laws of behavior. Its positive and negative reinforcement techniques can be
effective,such as in treatments for human disorders including autism, anxiety disorders and
antisocial behavior. Behaviorism is used by teachers who reward or punish student behaviors. Or
attitude .Behavior theorists define learning the acquisition of new behavior based on surrounding
factors..
2.1 Behaviorist Theorist B.F. Skinner
Skinner founded the school of thought known as radical behaviorism, which built on and
expanded the theory of behaviorism. Behaviorists rejected the study mental processes claiming
that they could not be studied objectively. If you've ever trained a dog or a horse, you will know
the importance of rewarding desired behaviors and punishing undesirable ones as reliably as
possible. We can thank Skinner for much of the knowledge we now have about training animals.
But have we ever thought of putting our dog or horse in a box to see if we could train them to do
other behaviors that they might not normally do. This is what Skinner did to scientifically
develop his theories of conditioning.
2.2 The Skinner Box and Operant Conditioning
He created operant conditioning chamber known as the Skinner Box. The box chamber
was enough reinforce or punish the behavior of the animal. For example, a rat may be rewarded
with a food pellet after pressing a bar or it may be punished with a small shock of electricity if it
does not press the bar. As you can probably imagine because of the reward or punishment which
followed the rat learned to press the bar.

One of the hallmarks of Skinner's operant conditioning chamber was his cumulative
recorder. The cumulative recorder was a simple device that recorded every response of the
research subject.

2.3 Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on the physiology of digestion led to the
development of the first experimental model of learning, Classical Conditioning.
Pavlov (1902) started from the idea that there are some things that a dog does not need to learn.
For example, dogs dont learn to salivate whenever they see food. This reflex is hard wired into
the dog. In behaviorist terms, it is an unconditioned response . He showed the existence of the
unconditioned response by presenting a dog with a bowl of food and the measuring its salivary
secretions (see image below).

He devoted the rest of his career to studying this type of learning.

Pavlov knew that somehow the dogs in his lab had learned to associate food with his lab
assistant. This must have been learned, because at one point the dogs did not do it, and there
came a point where they started, so their behavior had changed. A change in behavior of this type
must be the result of learning.
In behaviorist terms, the lab assistant was originally a neutral stimulus. It is called neutral
because it produces no response.
3.0 The Cognitivist
The cognitivist revolution replaced behaviorism in 1960s as the dominant paradigm. Cognitivism
focuses on the inner mental activities on how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking,
memory, knowing, and problem-solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be describe as a
process involving mental activities and learning can be defined as change in a humans
schemata.
A response to behaviorism, people are not programmed animals that merely respond to
environmental stimuli; people are rational beings that require active participation in order to

learn, and whose actions are a consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but
only as an indication of what is occurring in the learners head.
Source from: https://www.learning-theories.com/cognitivism.html

3.1 Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget (1896 - 1980) was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s. He was assigned to
develop questions on English intelligence tests. He was curios with the reasons ,why children
gave wrong answers to the questions that needs logical thinking. He believed that incorrect
answers revealed differences in thinking between adults and children. What he wanted to
measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way of grading their
intelligence quotient .He was more interested in the concepts like the idea of number, time,
quantity, causality, justice emerged.
Before his founding reading mental cognitive was a common assumption in psychology that
children are less competent thinkers than adults. He showed that young children thinks
differently compared to adults.
According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure genetically inherited
and evolved on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.
3.2 Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
He was concerned with children rather than all the learners. He focuses on development rather
than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.
It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a
gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts and ideas.

4.0 Constructivism
Constructivism can be stated as theory based on observation and scientific study.This theory
focuses on how people learn. Human beings will construct their own knowledge and
understanding based from the experience they had faced before .
Educators would be able to use different teaching practice based on constructivist theory . It
usually means encouraging students to use active techniques such as experiments and real world

problem solving knowledge and to reflect and talk about what they are. The only facilitates and
guides the activity.
The main activity in a constructivist classroom is solving problems. Students explore the
topic and draw conclusions and exploration continues..

4.1 John Dewey

John Dewey was born in Burlington, Vermont to a family of modest means.
He stated that learning institution itself is social platform where interactive process takes place
He believed students will excel when they are allowed to interact and have opportunity to be
responsible for their own learning. The ideas of democracy and social reform are continually
discussed in his writings on education. Dewey makes a strong case for the importance of
education not only as a place to gain content knowledge but also as a place to learn how to live.
He stated that the purpose of education should not emphasize on the acquisition of the
determined skills but it should be on learners full potential , ability to use skills for better use.
He also pointed how education should take place within the classroom.
He stresses that only by allowing to relate information to prior experience would enable learners
to gain and use knowledge more effectively.
4.2 Jerome Bruner
Bruner was born blind on October 1, 1915 in New York City to Herman and Rose Bruner. He
was a psychology professor and worked on research involving cognitive psychology and
educational psychology. During the year 1967 he turned his attention to study the way children
learn. He coined the term "scaffolding" to describe the way children often build on the
information they have already mastered. He proposed three modes of representation:
a. Enactive representation (action-based)
b. Iconic representation (image-based)
c. Symbolic representation (language-based).
His founding and research helped launch the modern study of creative problem solving known as
the cognitive revolution. He believed that behaviorism rooted in animal experiments ignored
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many dimensions of human mental experience. In 1947 experiment, he found out children their
desires apparently shaping not only from their thinking but also the physical dimensions of what
they saw. In a subsequent work, he argued that the mind is not a passive learner and it is not a
stimulus-response machine but an active one, bringing complement of motives, instincts,
intentions to shape comprehension and perception.

5.0 Connectivism
This theory is a integration of principles explored by chaos, network, and complexity and self
organization theories. Learning is a process that occurs within clouds core elements and not
under the control of the individual. Learning defined as actionable knowledge , focused on
connecting specialized information sets and the connections that enable us to learn more than
our current state of knowing.
It is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on fastly improving environment of
learning and continually being acquired. The ability to understand and adapt new techniques
creates a new landscape for learning.
5.1 Principles of connectivism:

Learning and knowledge rests in diversity of opinions.

Learning is a process of connecting specialized nodes or information sources.

Learning may reside in non-human appliances.

Capacity to know more is more critical than what is currently known

Nurturing and maintaining connections is needed to facilitate continual learning.

Ability to see connections between fields, ideas, and concepts is a core skill.

Currency (accurate, up-to-date knowledge) is the intent of all connectivist learning activities.

Decision-making is itself a learning process. Choosing what to learn and the meaning of
incoming information is seen through the lens of a shifting reality. While there is a right answer
now, it may be wrong tomorrow due to alterations in the information climate affecting the
decision.

The flow of information is vital to produce an effectiveness company management. In a

knowledge economy, the flow of information is the equivalent of the oil pipe in an industrial
economy. Creating, preserving, and utilizing information flow should be a key organizational
activity. Knowledge flow can be likened to a river that meanders through the ecology of an
organization. In certain areas, the river pools and in other areas it ebbs.
Art Kleiner (2002) explores Karen Stephensons quantum theory of trust which explains not
just how to recognize the collective cognitive capability of an organization, but how to cultivate
and increase it. Inside a good social networks people are able to foster and maintain knowledge
flow. Their commitment results in effective knowledge flow enabling the personal
understanding of activities .
Individual is the starting point of connectivism .A persons knowledge is comprised of a network
which feeds into organizations and institutions and gives feed back into the network and
continue to provide learning to individual. This cycle of knowledge development allows learners
to remain current in their field through the connections they have formed.

6.0 Formal, informal and non-formal classroom.

After reading and searching for articles regarding formal ,informal classroom and non-formal
classroom here I would like to share the information in this paper.

6.1 Formal Classroom

In Formal classroom, lessons are normally delivered by trained teachers in a systematic
intentional way within a school. Formal education has a well-defined and systematic curriculum.
This curriculum is based on certain aims and objectives. Organized and guided by a formal
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curriculum. The curriculum contains content standards that has specific statements on what the
students must know and can do within a specific period of schooling, covering the areas of
knowledge, skills and values. The ministry of education provides curriculum as a guideline for
schools in Malaysia. The curriculum is designed in a way that builds on the pupil's background
knowledge and is allowed to develop with them. Teach basic skills while solving problems.
Formal learning theory is the formal study of inductive problems and their intrinsic solvability.
Teacher training colleges train teachers according to new KSSR , KSSM module, new teaching
method and now days more focus is on 21st century teaching method. The classrooms are well
organized example, the way the tables are arranged. While I was a teacher, I used to set students
table like U shape in the class or ask the students to sit in pairs. Because this is to cater students
need, the teacher can quickly assist the students and keep an eye on the students movement. In
modern learning era the process of education is not merely restricted the four walls of the
classroom. There are more activities outside the classroom than inside it.
Classroom activities in a traditional classroom for example revolve inside the classroom
itself around and are controlled by the teacher, who delivers information or knowledge and will
be incharge on the type of learning activities that the students would engage. Students are
expected to study the information from classroom activities and homework. The knowledge
being learned is seen as a knowledge being passed from one individual to another individual.
student.
We can have an example , when a teacher lets the student analyze their past test results
and the way in which they got those results. This includes amount of study time and study
strategies. By looking at their past study strategies it can help them come up with strategies in the
future in order to improve their performance. Here the teacher uses behaviorism and cognitivism
theories to make her/his students to analyze and evaluate their own performance. This kind of
practice is still used in our Malaysian education system of teaching. While preparing a lesson
plan the teacher must have a good knowledge on what the students had known when they come
into the classroom this technique or approach has been constructed in constructivism.
6.2 Informal classroom

Informal classroom learning can be define to as learning by experience or just as experience.

There is no program of study or prescriptive methods. Methods used are the one that the person
teaching knows how to teach and normally based on their own experience. Learning starts the
day we are born and continues on until the day we die.
According to Eraut (2004), informal learning and experiential learning are partnering concepts
since they both are typically grounded in everyday learning.
There are no set formulas or guidelines. Examples of informal learning include activities such as
teaching our how to brush his or her teeth. There is no prescriptive program of study for this.
Constructivist teaching at its core focuses on students' active role in their own learning. Informal
education is incidents and spontaneous. There is no conscious effort involved in it. Informal
education is not given according to any fixed timetable.
Coombs and Ahmed describe informal learning as:
the lifelong process by which every individual acquires and accumulates knowledge, skills,
attitudes and insights from daily experiences and exposure to the environment at home, at
work, at play: from the example and attitude of families and friends; from travel, reading
newspapers and books; or by listening to the radio or viewing films or television. Generally
informal education is unorganised, unsystematic and even unintentional at times, yet accounts
for the great bulk of any persons total lifetime learning including that of a highly schooled
person.
(Coombs and Ahmed, 1974, p. 8)

Informal learning includes situations where you involved people without a formal certification to
teach others example a few months back I organized a dynamic building course for our
Education Technology division staff from 11 departments and the main focus to build a strong
team of workers in our organization. On the third day of course ,all the participants were asked to
go to the beach for outdoor team building activity. There we were taught by a former soldier on
how to build a raft,he was so clear and knowledgeable in his instructions and guidance. After the
rafting activity ,then we came to know that he doesnt have any certificate on sea rafting or
outdoor activities. Here we can conclude that the soldier learnt from experience and used
constructivism theories.

10

Learning happens anywhere, any time. The learner is inspired to learn because of an immediate
desire to know how to do something or understand a topic. In the informal learning context,
those leading the learning are likely to be emotionally close to the person who is learning, such
as a mother, father, grandparent or other caregiver. An adult child teaching an older parent how
to use new technology is an example. Learning your mother tongue is an excellent example of
informal learning. Imagine if a child were not exposed to any language for the first 5 years.
When my daughter was 3 years old I took her out for a walk and suddenly it rained(drizzling) I
told to her head with her hands. After a few weeks later ,while shopping in KL it rained ,my
daughter ask me to cover my head even though we were inside a shop. This can be considered as
informal learning. It had changed the social structure of the education, informal learning can
strengthen and increase the learners' knowledge and help individuals learning. Informal
classroom promotes the use of prior knowledge to help students gain a broad understanding of
concepts. Each experience will be a different mixture of these different aspects each will lead to
a different form of learning.

6.3 Non-formal classroom

Non-formal learning is often defined by activities outside the formal learning setting.
This type of education may be led by a qualified teacher or by a leader with more experience.
Non-formal education is highly enriching and builds an individuals skills and capacities. Tours,
informational signage, exhibits displays and demonstrations are often considered non-formal
learning . Many non-formal organizations or institutions have education staff or curators who
oversee the education.
Learning is purposive but voluntary learning that takes place in a diverse range of
environments and situations for which teaching/training and learning is not necessarily their sole
or main activity. Learning is a loosely defined term covering various structured
learning situations, such as football training or youth will learn from playing or experience they
gain from spending more time in playing football. The development of technique is only learnt
through experience and practice while on field. To create personal relevance, learners need to
understand the benefits and importance of the skills for their own interests.

11

Teachers can promote this relevance by incorporating real-life situations and experiences
into their students' learning. Constructivist teaching at its core focuses on students' active role in
their own learning . Early Childhood Education can be stated as non-formal learning because it
is not like the pedagogical method of education for school-aged children. focuses on how young
children benefit from early educational experiences that will prepare them for school both
cognitively and socially in later years. These educational programs are for young children, most
commonly between the ages of 3-5. Here cognitivism plays an important part that is when
Piagets theories are based on the observations that preschoolers actively explore with their
bodies and senses to gain information about the world. Piaget theorized that there are predictable
stages of cognitive development

7.0 Conclusion
Theories of learning are efforts to explain how people learn either in formal, informal and nonformal classroom. Different theories are based on different assumptions and are appropriate for
explaining some learning situations but not others. Theories of learning can inform teaching and
the use of different instructional resources including technology but ultimately the learning
activities in which the student actually engages mental, physical, and social determine what a
student learns in the classroom. Some theorists argue that transfer does not even occur at all and
believe that students transform what they have learned into the new context. I believe students
transform their knowledge in an active way when they are given opportunity to practice or in
hand on projects. There does appear to be some evidence that both formal and informal learning
requires a period of reflection and interaction between the learner and subject matter. Learning is
a natural lifelong process and it can vary from incidental learning to intentional learning example
in non-formal learning. It can be stated that learners adapt and process information in two ways
through assimilation such as processing information in such a way that it is compatible with the
learners current understanding of the subject matter. Educators and trainers need to study
learning theory so that they can be more effective as educators. This will help to bridge the gap
between learning theory and effective educators.

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