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Steam Turbines
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Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.
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Chapter : Process
File Reference: CHE10206
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Steam Turbines
CONTENTS
PAGES
Engineering Encyclopedia
Process
Steam Turbines
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION
The two major components of a steam turbine are nozzles and blades. The blades are sometimes called
buckets. Nozzles are stationary; blades rotate.
Steam contains energy in the form of pressure and temperature. Nozzles convert this energy into velocity
energy. In a nozzle, the pressure drops and the velocity increases (Figure 1).
V1
F
V2
Nozzle
Bucket
(Blade)
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Steam Turbines
Curtis Stage
A Curtis stage is a special kind of stage that takes a relatively high pressure drop. It is used for single-stage
turbines and as the first stage in most older design multistage turbines. Present day turbine design uses a rateau
stage since material and blade attachment methods allow higher blade operating stresses.
A Curtis stage has one row of nozzles, followed by three rows of buckets. The sequence is as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Nozzles
Rotating buckets that develop power
Fixed buckets that turn the direction of the steam
A second row of rotating buckets, that develop more power.
All of the pressure drop takes place in the nozzles. Only velocity changes in the three rows of buckets.
Other Types of Stages
In a multistage turbine, each stage after the first one has one row of nozzles (stationary) and one row of blades
(rotating). These stages may be the "Rateau" type or the "reaction" type.
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Steam Turbines
TURBINE CLASSIFICATION
Turbines are divided into two classes, power generation and mechanical drive.
Turbines that generate electric power run at constant speed because the frequency of the generated power must
be constant. Because the turbine runs at constant speed, features can be designed to give a very high
efficiency. Tolerances between the moving and stationary parts are very close. Complex staging can be used.
Mechanical drive turbines are used for driving machinery such as compressors and pumps, where variable
speed is usually required. Some efficiency is sacrificed in order to increase mechanical strength. Tolerances
are larger, and fewer stages are used.
Classifications of Mechanical Drive Turbines
Mechanical drive turbines may be General Purpose or Special Purpose.
General Purpose Turbines are used for low power applications. They are covered by API Standard 611 and are
mass produced without regard to specific customer requirements. They are limited to steam supply conditions
of less than 600 psig and 750F. They also operate at speeds less than 6000 rpm.
General purpose turbines are usually single-stage turbines that may exhaust to a condensing system or to the
atmosphere. Since they are less reliable than other turbines, their applications are limited to noncritical
equipment. They are used as drivers for equipment that has a spare, such as pumps and fans. Such equipment
is "spared;" that is, it always has a backup.
Special Purpose Turbines are used for large power loads. The specifications are covered by API Standard 612.
They are manufactured to specific customer orders and requirements. These services are usually not spared;
therefore, the turbine must be highly reliable. Because these turbines are large machines, efficiency is
important, and multistage designs are used. The most common applications are gas compressors and large
pumps.
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Steam Turbines
Actual Work
Ideal (Isentropic) Work
P1 T1
h1
Work
P2 h 2
FIGURE 3. TURBINE ISENTROPIC EFFICIENCY
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Steam Turbines
Work
Useful Heat to Process
Cooling
Fuel
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Steam Turbines
Hi-Pressure Steam
Work
225 - 15 psig
The backpressure arrangement has a high cycle efficiency. No energy is lost. All of the energy in the
incoming steam is used to make work or for process heat. This assumes that there is a use for the medium- to
low-pressure steam and that it will not be vented to the atmosphere.
Turbines for backpressure service are simple and relatively low cost. They also have relatively high turbine
efficiencies, typically 60% to 80%. On the other hand, a large rate of steam is required for each horsepower
produced, because only part of the pressure energy in each pound of steam is used.
Engineering Encyclopedia
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Steam Turbines
The outlet pressure from a condensing turbine is very low, usually between 4 and 6 inHg absolute, or 2 to 3
psia. Because of the low exhaust pressure, maximum pressure energy is extracted from each pound of steam.
The theoretical steam rate is lower than for a backpressure machine. Because of the large pressure drop,
droplets of water form at the exhaust end of the turbine.
Condensing turbines cost more than backpressure turbines, because they have more stages and larger
diameters at the exhaust end of the turbine. Blades are longer and have complex shapes. The turbine
efficiency is lower because high velocities exist in the final stages, and because wet steam has a higher
viscosity than dry steam. It is also necessary to protect against erosion of the blades in a condensing turbine.
The condensing turbine also has a relatively low cycle efficiency, because only a portion of the steam energy is
converted to work. A large part is lost in the condenser. In fact, more heat is transferred to cooling water or air
than is converted to work. However, condensing turbines are necessary if power is required and there is no use
for the exhaust steam.
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Steam Turbines
Extraction Turbines
Frequently there is a use for part of the steam from a turbine but not all of it. In this case, an
extraction/condensing turbine can be used (Figure 7).
High-pressure steam is fed to the inlet of the turbine. After one or more stages, medium- or low-pressure steam
is extracted from the turbine. The remainder of the steam proceeds through the low-pressure stages of the
turbine and exits at normal condensing pressure, 2 to 3 psia. This portion of the steam is condensed and
returned to the steam generator.
The extraction/condensing turbine is used to balance steam requirements of a plant with power requirements.
Maximum power is extracted from the steam that is used in processes. The low efficiency condensing part of
the cycle uses only the surplus steam.
This type of turbine is more complex and therefore more expensive than either of the other two types.
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Steam Turbines
MECHANICAL COMPONENTS
The steam path through a turbine is outlined in Figure 8.
Trip and Throttle Valve
The trip and throttle valve is a manual (start up) valve and a safety device that shuts off the supply of steam in
case of a malfunction. The usual malfunctions are:
The trip valve takes a minimum pressure drop when it is open. The trip valve is sometimes combined with the
governor valve.
Governor Valve
The governor valve is the main control for the rate of steam flow into the turbine. It acts with the governor to
maintain the speed of the turbine. The governor valve may be a single valve, or for more complex machines, it
may be multiple valves. It may be operated mechanically or hydraulically.
Steam Chest
The steam chest is a chamber between the governor valve and the nozzles; in the steam chest, the steam
pressure and temperature are at their highest values in the turbine.
Steam
Supply
Turbine
Exhaust
Trip and
Throttle
Valve
Governor
Valve
Steam
Chest
Nozzles
and
Blades
Hand
Valve
Nozzles
and
Blades
(Single Valve
Turbines Only)
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Hand Valve
Hand valves may be provided on turbines that have a single governor valve. When the turbine is not
operating at full load, the efficiency will be improved if some of the nozzles are closed off. Hand valves are
used for this purpose.
Nozzles
Nozzles convert the pressure energy of the steam to kinetic or velocity energy.
Blades
Blades convert steam velocity to mechanical energy.
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CALCULATIONS
Theoretical Steam Rate is the amount of steam required to produce the horsepower if the turbine were an ideal
machine. The units are pounds of steam per horsepower hour (lb/hp-hr).
Actual Steam Rate (also called water rate) is the pounds of steam per horsepower hour that is required in a real
(nonideal) turbine.
Condition of Exhaust Steam. The temperature and pressure of the inlet steam are known. The exhaust
pressure is usually known, however the enthalpy of the exhaust steam must be calculated. The enthalpy
determines the temperature of the exhaust if the exhaust steam is superheated. If the exhaust is saturated, the
enthalpy determines the percent moisture.
Efficiency of an Operating Turbine. To monitor the performance of an operating turbine, the efficiency is
calculated. The inlet steam temperature and pressure and the outlet steam temperature and pressure are known.
EXAMPLE CALCULATION - THEORETICAL STEAM RATE,
ACTUAL STEAM RATE, AND OUTLET TEMPERATURE
The method used for predicting turbine conditions uses the Mollier Chart for steam. Work Aid 1 is a
calculation form for this type of problem. The following example illustrates the calculation.
Given:
Inlet steam pressure
600 psia
700F
2 psia
Turbine efficiency
75%
1000 hp
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CALCULATIONS (CONTD)
Calculate:
Solution:
Use the Mollier chart for steam (Elliot Bulletin H-37B, inside back cover); see Figure 9 for a graphic illustration
of this problem.
1.
Locate the Inlet Steam Temperature and Pressure on the Mollier diagram.
Read inlet enthalpy, h1
2.
1350 Btu/lb
Move vertically downward, along a line of constant entropy, to the outlet pressure of 2 psia.
Read the outlet enthalpy, h2
923 Btu/lb
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CALCULATIONS (CONTD)
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CALCULATIONS (CONT'D)
3.
4.
h 1 - h2
1350 - 923
427 Btu/lb
__ 2545___
Isentropic h
Btu
hp hr
Btu
427
lb
2545
TSR
5.96
=
5.
lb
hp hr
____TSR_ _____
Turbine Efficiency
_5.96 lb/hp-hr_
0.75
7.95 lb/hp/hr
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Steam Turbines
7.
7950 lb
hr
320 Btu/lb
h1 - Actual h
1350 - 320
1030 Btu/lb
8.4%
130F
Actual h2
NOTE:
Since the outlet steam is saturated, and the pressure is known, you can also obtain the
temperature from a steam table.
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Steam Turbines
400 psia
40 psia
650F
320F
28,000 lb/hr
Calculate:
Procedure:
Work Aid 2 is a calculation form for this type of problem.
See Figure 10 for a graphic illustration of this problem.
Turbine Efficiency
1.
1335 Btu/lb
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3.
1127 Btu/lb
=
h1 - h2 is
1335 - 1127
208 Btu/lb
1200 Btu/lb
h1 - h2 act
1335 - 1200
135 Btu/lb
hact
his
Calculate hact:
hact
4.
Efficiency
135
208
0.65
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Steam Turbines
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Steam Turbines
2545
hact
Btu
hp hr
Btu
135
lb
2545
bhp
18.9 lb/hp-hr
_28,000 lb/hr_
18.9 lb/hp-hr
1480 hp
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Steam Turbines
2545
his
ASR
Efficiency
TSR
ASR
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PERFORMANCE CURVES
Figure 11 is a typical performance curve for a condensing turbine. The curves for backpressure turbines are
similar in format.
Steam Conditions:
Inlet
Exhaust
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Low efficiency
Erosion of blades
Vibration
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WORK AID 1:
Steam Conditions:
P1:
psia
T1:
P2:
psia
Turbine Efficiency
bhp required
hp
1.
h1 (from Mollier)
Btu/lb
2.
Btu/lb
3.
his
h 1 - h2
)-(
4.
=
5.
2545
2545
=
=
his
(
)
lb
hp hr
ASR
__TSR __ = _(
Turbine Eff. (
)_ = _________ __lb_
)
hp-hr
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WORK AID 1:
6.
hp x ASR
)x(
hp
Actual h
Actual h2
__________ Btu/lb
h1 - Actual h
__________ Btu/lb
)x(
)-(
__________ F
% Moisture
__________
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WORK AID 2:
P1:
__________ psia
T1:
__________ F
P2:
__________ psia
T2:
__________ F
__________ lb/hr
1.
2.
__________ Btu/lb
h2 isentropic
Btu/lb
3.
Btu/lb
4.
h is
h1 - h2 is
)-(
=
5.
h act
Btu/lb
h1 - h2 act
)-(
6.
Turbine Efficiency
Btu/lb
h act
______
h is
(
)
____________ = ___________
(
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WORK AID 2:
7.
Water Rate
bhp
2545__
h act
(
(
) lb/hr_ = _________ hp
) lb/hp-hr
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WORK AID 3:
P1:
T1:
psia
P2:
bhp:
psia
h1 (from Mollier)
2.
3.
4.
5.
lb/hr
__________ Btu/lb
h2 isentropic
__________ Btu/lb
h isentropic
_____ Btu
lb
TSR =
ASR =
6.
Turbine Efficiency
7.
8.
hp
hp-hr
(
(
TSR = _(
ASR
(
h1 - h actual
)x(
)-(
)_ = _________
)
) =________ Btu/lb
) = ________ Btu/lb
______________ %
T2
______________ F
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WORK AID 4
Correction Factors
Efficiency
Multiplier
Condition
P1
P2
P2
N
=
=
=
=
600 psig
50 psig
0 psig
1,800 rpm
=
=
=
=
0.80
1.12
0.90
0.68
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WORK AID 5
STEAM TURBINES
COMMON OPERATING PROBLEMS
Problem
Insufficient Power Developed
Possible Cause
Erosion of Blades
Low efficiency
Deposits
Erosion
Broken blades
Damaged bearings
Misalignment of piping
Low Efficiency
Vibration
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GLOSSARY
Actual Steam Rate (ASR)
Backpressure Turbine
A steam turbine that does not exhaust into a condenser. The exhaust
pressure will typically be 15 psig or higher.
Blade
Buckets
Curtis Stage
A type of steam turbine stage with one row of nozzles and one or more
rows of buckets. The usual sequence of components is: nozzles, rotating
buckets, stationary turning buckets, rotating buckets.
Cycle Efficiency
In a steam turbine cycle, the sum of power output plus useful heat divided
by fuel input.
Extraction
Governor
Governor Valve
Hand Valve
A valve used to shut off the steam supply to a portion of the inlet nozzles.
Impulse Blades
Rotating turbine blades in which only velocity decreases; pressure does not
decrease.
Nozzle
Overspeed Trip
A protection device that senses excessive turbine speed and shuts off the
steam supply.
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Rateau Stage
A steam turbine stage with one row of nozzles and one row of blades. A
relatively small pressure drop is taken in the rotating blade of a Rateau
stage.
Stage
A section of a steam turbine containing one set of nozzles and one or more
row of blades.
Reaction Blades
Steam Chest
A chamber upstream of the first stage nozzles of a steam turbine. The area
of highest steam temperature and pressure in a turbine.
Turbine Efficiency
The theoretical steam rate divided by the actual steam rate. Also, the
actual work output divided by the theoretical work output for a given
pressure range.
Water Rate
The actual steam rate required per unit of power. (Pounds per horsepowerhour.)
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Supplementary Text
Vendor's Bulletins
Elliot Bulletin H-37B, Multivalve Turbines
Elliot Bulletin H-31K, Single-stage Turbines
Industry Standards
API 611 General Purpose Steam Turbines for Refinery Services
API 612 Special Purpose Turbines for Refinery Services
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