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Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
Overview
System Theory
Effects of Nonlinearities
Gain Compression
Desensitization and Blocking
Crossmodulation
Intermodulation
Adjacent Channel Power Rejection
Random Signals
Noise and Noise Figure
Input Referred Noise
Noise Figure of Lossy Circuits
Sensitivity
Dynamic Range
References
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
x1 y1
x2 y 2
x(t ) y (t )
then
x(t ) y (t )
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
vin1 (t ) = A1 cos 1t
vin 2 (t ) = A2 cos 2t
and the switch is on if vin1 > 0
Is the system (a) nonlinear or time variant?
Case (b)
Nonlinear - the control is sensitive to the polarity
of vin1
Time variant - because vout also depends on vin2
Case (c)
Linear
Time variant
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
n + sin (n / 2)
n
sin (n / 2)
Vout ( f ) = Vin 2 ( f )
Vin 2 f
f =
n
T1 n =
n
T1
n =
y (t ) = x(t )
y (t ) = 0 + 1 x(t ) + 2 x 2 (t ) + 3 x 3 (t ) + ...
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
vout = RI EE tanh
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
vin
2VT
y (t ) 1 x(t ) + 2 x (t ) + 3 x (t )
2
1 k y
k
=
k! x
x=0
Harmonics
If a sinusoid is applied to our system, the output exhibits frequency components that
are integer multiples of the input
If x(t ) = A cos t
3 A3
2 A2
= 1 A cos t +
(1 + cos 2t ) +
(3 cos t + cos 3t )
2
4
3 3 A3
2 A2
2 A2
3 A3
cos t +
cos 2t +
cos 3t (1)
=
+ 1 A +
2
The term with the input frequency - the fundamental, the higher order terms - the
harmonics
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
y (t ) = 1 A + 3 A3 cos t
4
3
av = 1 A + 3 A3
4
av 1
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
1
3
3
3 A 21-dB
4
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
10
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
11
y (t ) = 1 x(t ) + 2 x 2 (t ) + 3 x 3 (t )
3
3
3
2
y (t ) = 1 A1 + 3 A1 + 3 A1 A2 cos 1t + ...
4
2
2
y (t ) = 1 + 3 A2 A1 cos 1t + ...
2
1 The gain is a decreasing function of A2; for sufficiently large A2, the gain drops to
zero, and we say the signal is blocked
1 In RF design blocking signals usually refers to interferers that desensitize a
circuit even if the gain does not fall to zero
1 RF receivers require to withstand blocking signals 60 to 70dB greater than the
wanted signal
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
12
Cross Modulation
Phenomenon that occurs when a weak signal and a strong interferer pass through
a nonlinear system: the transfer of the amplitude modulation (or noise) of the
interferer to the amplitude of the weak signal
m2 m2
3
2
y (t ) = 1 + 3 A2 1 +
+
cos 2 mt + 2m cos m t A1 cos 1t + ...
2
2
2
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
13
Intermodulation (1)
1 When two signals with different frequencies are applied to a nonlinear system,
the output in general exhibits some components that are not harmonics of the input
frequencies - intermodulation
1 Intermodulation arises from mixing of the two signals when their sum is raised to
a power greater than unity
y (t ) = 1 x(t ) + 2 x 2 (t ) + 3 x 3 (t )
3
3
2
2
+
+
2
2
A
2
A
1
3 2
3 1 A1 cos 11t
2
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
A
2
A
+
+
1
3 1
3 2 A2 cos 1 2 t
2
4
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
14
Intermodulation (2)
Second-order terms:
At 21, 22:
At 1 2 :
1
2
2 2 A1 cos 2 11t
2
1
2
2
A
2 2 cos 2 1 2 t
Third-order terms:
1
3
2 3 A2 cos 31 2 t
4
At 31, 32 :
1
3
2 3 A1 cos 311t
4
At 21 2 :
2
2
A
A
3 1
2 (cos (2 11 + 1 2 ) t + cos (2 11-1 2 ) t )
4
At 1 22 :
3
2
2
A
A
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
15
Intermodulation (3)
Very important: the third-order intermodulation (IM3) terms at 21 -2 and 22 -1
If the difference between 1 and 2 is small, the IM3 components (21 - 2) and
(22 - 1) are in the vicinity of 1 and 2 ((21 - 2) ~ 1) signal corruption due
to the two strong interferers!
In a typical two tone test: A1 = A2 = A
The ratio of the amplitude of the output
IM3 products to 1A defines the IM
distortion
Example: if 1A = 1Vpp and 33A3/4
= 10mVpp then the IM3 components
are at 40dBc
IM is a critical effect in RF systems!
IP3 point (third intercept point)
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
16
Intermodulation (4)
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
17
Intermodulation (5)
9
y (t ) = 21 + 3 A 2 A cos 11t +
4
3
+
2 3 A 3 cos ( 2 11 -1 2 )t +
4
If 21 >>
9
23 A 2
4
21 AIP 3
+
2
A
1
A cos 1 2 t
3
4
3
2 3 A 3 cos ( 2 1 2 -11 )t + ...
4
3
= 2 3 A 3 IP 3
4
AIP 3 = IP 3 =
4 21
3 23
A1 dB
0 .145
=
9 .6 dB
AIP 3
4/3
1 IP3 characterizes only third-order nonlinearities; if the input signal is increased, the
condition 1A>> 93A3/4 no longer holds, the gain drops, and higher order IM
products become significant
1 Many circuits have IP3 beyond the allowable input range, sometimes even higher
than the supply voltage
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
18
Intermodulation (6)
Method of measuring the IP3
Ain input level at each frequency
A 1, 2 amplitude of the output components @1 and 2
AIM3 amplitude of the IM3 products
From the previous equation:
A 1, 2
Then
3
2 3 A 3 in
= 21 Ain and AIM 3
4
A 1, 2
AIP2 3
4 21 1
=
= 2
2
AIM 3
3 3 Ain
Ain
Expressed in dB:
20 log AIP 3
1
= (20 log A 1, 2 20 log AIM 3 ) + 20 log Ain
2
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Microelectronic
Systems
19
Intermodulation (7)
Graphical calculation
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Microelectronic
Systems
20
y1 (t ) = 1 x(t ) + 2 x (t ) + 3 x (t )
2
[
]
+ [ x(t ) + x (t ) + x (t )]
+ [ x(t ) + x (t ) + x (t )]
y2 (t ) = 1 1 x(t ) + 2 x 2 (t ) + 3 x 3 (t )
2
y2 (t ) = 1 y1 (t ) + 2 y1 (t ) + y (t )
2
3
3 1
y2 (t ) = 1 1 x(t ) + 3 1 + 21 2 2 + 13 3 x 3 (t ) + ...
AIP 3 =
4
21 1
3 2 3 1 + 2 1 2 2 + 13 3
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
21
2
+
2
+
1
3 3 1
1 2 2
1 3
=
2
A IP 3 4
21 1
1
1
3 22
12
= 2 +
+ 2
2
A IP 3
A IP 3 ,1 2 1
A IP 3 , 2
As 1 increases, the overall IP3 decreases: with higher gain in the first stage, the
second stage senses larger input levels, producing much greater IM3 products
Since each stage has a narrow passband, out-of-band signals are heavily
attenuated, and:
1
1
12
2 + 2
For more stages:
2
A IP 3
A IP 3 ,1 A IP 3 , 2
12
12 12
1
1
2 + 2 + 2 + ...
2
A IP 3
A IP 3 ,1 A IP 3 , 2
A IP 3 , 3
Note that AIP3, AIP3,1, AIP3,2 are voltage quantities rather than power quantities
and rather real values, not dB
For gain greater than 1, the IP3 of latter stage becomes increasingly critical
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
22
Problem
Intermodulation lead to higher in
band noise power
Signal power leakage to the
adjacent channel degrade
adjacent channel (used by other
users) SNR
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
23
ACPR [dBc ] =
Alternative method:
ACPR [dBc ] =
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
P1 10 log (1230 / 30 )
P2
24
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Microelectronic
Systems
25
Time average - consider one resistor and measure the noise n(t) over a long time
T, and calculate the average as:
T /2
1
n(t ) = lim
n(t )dt
T T
T / 2
Ensemble (statistical) average - consider an ensemble of identical resistors and
average simultaneous samples of the noise waveforms in an ensemble:
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
26
1
2
2
(t )dt
n (t ) = lim
n
T T
T / 2
n 2 (t ) = n 2 (t )Pn (n )dn
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
27
1
(x m )
Px (x ) =
exp
2 2
2
x
1
u2
exp
erf ( x ) =
du
2
2 0
1
(x m )
Px (x1 < x < x2 ) =
dx
exp
2
2
2
x1
x2
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
28
S x ( f ) = lim
XT ( f )
T
where
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
29
f2
f2
f2
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
f1
f1
30
S y ( f ) = Sx ( f ) H ( f )
where
H ( f ) = H (s = j 2f )
The spectrum of the signal is shaped by the transfer function of the system
If x(t) is Gaussian, so is y(t)
In general, PDF and PSD have no relationship:
thermal noise: Gaussian PDF, white PSD
flicker noise: Gaussian PDF, 1/f PSD
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Noise (1)
Thermal noise
1 Brownian random motion of thermally agitated charge carriers
1 Generated in every physical resistors
1 Modeled by a voltage source in series (Thevenin representation) or current source
in parallel (Norton representation) with the PSD given by:
2
V
4kTf
= 4kTGf
I n2 = n2 =
R
R
V = 4kTRf
2
n
Vn2 = Vrms / Hz
Is not power! We tacitly assume that this voltage is applied across a 1- resistor
to generate a power of 4kTR in a 1-Hz bandwidth
Example: 1k Vn,rms = 4nV/Hz1/2,
50 Vn,rms = 4nV/Hz1/2
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Microelectronic
Systems
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Noise (2)
G
D
Cgs
gg
InG
gmvgs
InD
S
where is a bias-dependent factor: ~ 2/3 in long channel devices; ~ 2 - 3 in
short channel devices
gd0 - the zero-bias drain conductance ( = gm for long channel devices)
Gate noise
2
I nG
= 4 kT g g f
2 C gs2
gg =
5gd 0
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Microelectronic
Systems
33
Noise (3)
Shot noise (Schottky noise)
Gaussian white process associated with the transfer of charge across an energy
barrier (e.g., a p-n junction)
I = 2 qI DC f
2
n
where
For a bipolar transistor the collector and emitter shot noise is modeled as a current
source connected between C and E and another between B and E
In MOS devices the shot noise of the very small gate leakage current can be
neglected
white noise, no temperature dependence
Example: for a IDC = 1mA In,rms = 18pA/Hz1/2
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
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Noise (4)
Flicker noise (1/f noise, pink noise)
Random trapping of charge at oxide interface modeled as a voltage source in
series with gate
Modeled by a noise current source with a spectral density given by:
2
K gm
I n2 =
f
2
f WLC ox
2
I nG
= 4 kT g g f
Cgs
InG
gg
gmvgs
S
InD
2
nD
K gm
= 4 kT g d 0 f +
f
2
f WLC ox
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
35
1 The noise of a two-port system can be modeled by two input noise generators: a
series voltage source Vn2 and a parallel current source In2
1 Require both Vn2 and In2 for adequate representation
1 Vn2 is determined by shorting the input port of the two circuits and equating the
output noise
1 In2 is determined by opening the input port of the two circuits and equating the
output noise
1 Even though a circuit may have no physical input noise current, the representation
using input-referred sources must include In2
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
36
The circuit should produce the same output noise in both cases!
Short the input port and equate the output noise:
2
g m2 Vn2 = I nD
2
g m2 I n2 Z in = I nD
For
2
nD
I = 8kT / 3 g m Z in
2
n
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
37
Noise Factor =
SNRin
SNRout
(2)
(1)
1 Noise figure (or noise factor) measures the SNR degradation as a signal pass
through a system
1 If a system has no noise, then SNRin = SNRout NF = 1 = 0dB
1 In reality, the finite noise of a system degrades the SNR, yielding NF > 1
1 If the input signal contains no noise, then SNRin = and NF = (even though
the system has a finite internal noise): this does not occur in real world!
1 Take care whether discuss about noise figure or noise factor
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
38
VRS2 + (Vn + I n RS )
NF =
VRS2
2
(
Vn + I n RS )
NF = 1 +
4kTRS
2
(
Vn + I n RS )
= 1+
VRS2
or
NF =
Vn2,out
2
v ,tot
2
RS
Vn2,out
Av2,tot 4kTRS
1 V2n,out is the total noise at the output; A v,tot the total gain from Vin to Vout
1 No correlation between VRS and Vn (or In), but correlation between Vn and In
1 NF is typically specified for a 1-Hz BW
1 Vn and In are also measured in 1-Hz BW
1 NF is function of source impedance RS
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
39
NF =
= 4kT (RS // RP )
Vn ,out
VRS2 ,out
2
RS ,out
=AV
2
v
2
RS
= A 4kTRS
2
v
Av =
RP
RS + RP
RS
= 1+
RP
NF is minimized by maximizing RP
The condition for minimum noise figure does not coincide with that for maximum
power transfer RS = RP
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
40
= A V
2
3
2
v2
2
n ,in 2
where
1 =
Rin1
RS + Rin1
2 =
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
Rin 2
Rout1 + Rin 2
3 =
RL
Rout 2 + RL
41
Vn2,in1
12 4kTRS
2
(
I n 2 Rout1 + Vn 2 )
+
12 Av21 4kTRS
1 (I n 2 Rout1 + Vn 2 )
VRS2 + (I n1 RS + Vn1 )
=
+ 2 2
4kTRS
4kTRS
1 Av1
Av ,tot = 1 Av1 2 Av 2 3
NFtot = NF1, RS +
NF2, RS 1
Av21
NF1,RS, NF2,RS - noise figure of the1st and 2nd stage with respect to a
source impedance RS
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
42
12 Av21Vin2
Pout ,av1 =
4 Rout1
Vin2
Psource,av1 =
4 RS
So that:
RS
AP1 = A
Rout1
2
1
2
v1
(I n 2 Rout1 + Vn 2 )
1 (I R + V )
R
+ 2 2 n 2 out1 n 2 = NF1, RS + 2 out2 1
1 Av1
4kTRS
1 Av1 RS
4kTRout1
2
NFtot = NF1, RS
NFtot = NF1, RS +
NF2, Rout1 1
AP1
where
NF2, Rout1
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
2
(
I n 2 Rout1 + Vn 2 )
= 1+
4kTRout1
43
NFtot = 1 + ( NF1 1) +
NFm 1
NF2 1
+ ... +
AP1
AP1 ... AP (m 1)
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
44
Pin,av
Vin2 / 4 RS
Vin2 Rout
= 2
= 2
L=
Pout,av VTH / 4 Rout VTH RS
2
n ,out
= 4kTRout
NF =
Vn2,out
Av2,tot
RL2
(RL + Rout )2
Av ,tot
VTH
RL
=
Vin RL + Rout
Vin2
1
1
= 4kTRout 2
=L
VTH 4kTRS
4kTRS
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
45
NFFilt = L
NFtot = NFFilt +
NFLNA 1
NFLNA 1
= L + ( NFLNA 1)L = L NFLNA
= NFFilt +
1
AP , Filt
L
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
46
Sensitivity (1)
Sensitivity is the minimum power level of the input signal that the receiver can
detect while providing a required SNR at the output (for a required Bit Error Rate)
NF =
P /P
SNRin
= s,in n,in
SNRout
SNRout
equivalent, in dB:
Ps,in [dBm] = Pn,in [dBm / Hz] + NF[dB] + SNR out [dB] + 10 log (BW)
min
Psmin
, in [dBm] = Pn , in [dBm / Hz] + NF[dB] + SNR out [dB] + 10 log (BW)
Institute of
Microelectronic
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47
Sensitivity (2)
Pn,in - the available noise power that the source resistance RS delivers to a
matched input is:
Pn,in =
4 kTR S
= kT = 174 dBm / Hz = 4 10 21 W
4 Rin
min
Psmin
[dBm]
=
174
dBm
/
Hz
+
10
log
(BW)
+
NF[dB]
+
SNR
, in
out [dB]
min
min
Sensitivit y = Psmin
[dBm]
=
Input
Noise
Floor
+
SNR
=
INF
+
SNR
, in
out
out
Sensitivity:
1 is function of bandwidth
1 degrades with higher data
rates (BW increases)
1 Input Noise Floor - INF
Input Noise Floor = Output Noise Floor - Gain
Institute of
Microelectronic
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48
DR =
Pin,max [dBm]
Pin,min [dBm]
1
(20 log A 1, 2 20 log AIM 3 ) + 20 log Ain
2
Pout PIM 3 ,out
20 log AIP 3 =
PIIP 3 = Pin +
CMOS RFIC Design
Institute of
Microelectronic
Systems
49
PIIP 3 = Pin +
Pin =
Pin , max
2 PIIP 3 + INF
=
3
Pin,min is sensitivity
min
Pin , min = INF + SNR out
2 PIIP 3 + INF
2
min
min
SFDR =
INF + SNR out = (PIIP 3 INF ) SNR out
3
3
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Systems
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References
B. Razavi - RF Microelectronics
http://info.nsu.ac.kr/cwb-data/data/ycra2/Basic_Concepts_in_RF_Design.pdf
(ICE669 Wireless Transceiver Design Lecture / H.J. Yoo Information and Communication University, Seoul, Korea)
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