Cantor set

In mathematics, the Cantor set is a set of points lying TR (Cn1 ), the explicit closed formulas for the Cantor
on a single line segment that has a number of remarkable set are,:[7]
and deep properties. It was discovered in 1874 by Henry
John Stephen Smith[1][2][3][4] and introduced by German
3n1
mathematician Georg Cantor in 1883.[5][6]

1 ( 3k + 1 3k + 2 )
C = [0, 1]
,
,
Through consideration of this set, Cantor and others
3n
3n
n=1 k=0
helped lay the foundations of modern point-set topology.
Although Cantor himself dened the set in a general, ab- or
stract way, the most common modern construction is the
Cantor ternary set, built by removing the middle thirds
3n1
of a line segment. Cantor himself mentioned the ternary

1 ([ 3k + 0 3k + 1 ] [ 3k + 2 3k + 3 ])
,

.
construction only in passing, as an example of a more C =
3n
3n
3n
3n
n=1 k=0
general idea, that of a perfect set that is nowhere dense.

This process of removing middle thirds is a simple example of a nite subdivision rule.

Construction and formula of the

ternary set

The Cantor ternary set C is created by iteratively deleting

the open middle third from a set of line segments. One
starts by deleting the open middle third (1/3, 2/3) from
the interval [0, 1], leaving two line segments: [0, 1/3]
[2/3, 1]. Next, the open middle third of each of these remaining segments is deleted, leaving four line segments:
[0, 1/9] [2/9, 1/3] [2/3, 7/9] [8/9, 1]. This process
is continued ad innitum, where the nth set is
(
)
Cn1
2 Cn1
It is perhaps most intuitive to think about the Cantor set

+
for n 1, and C0 = [0, 1].
as the set of real numbers between zero and one whose
3
3
3
ternary expansion in base three doesn't contain the digit
The Cantor ternary set contains all points in the interval
1. As the above diagram shows, the Cantor ternary set is
[0, 1] that are not deleted at any step in this innite proin bijection with the set of paths in a full binary tree on
cess:
countably many nodes. Such a path is completely determined by an innite series of instructions determining at

each node whether we go left or right as we traverse the

C := lim Cn =
Cn .
diagram. This in turn describes the ternary expansion of
n=1
n=1
the number. For example, such a path might begin (left,
right, right, left, left...) which describes the ternary numThe rst six steps of this process are illustrated below.
ber 0.02200.... In particular, the Cantor set is canonically
in bijection with the set of binary sequences.
Cn =

2 Composition
Since the Cantor set is dened as the set of points not excluded, the proportion (i.e., measure) of the unit interval
remaining can be found by total length removed. This
total is the geometric progression

Using the idea of self-similar transformations, TL (x) =

x/3, TR (x) = (2 + x)/3 and Cn = TL (Cn1 )
1

3 PROPERTIES

0.13 but also as 0.022222...3 , and 2 /3 , that can be written

as 0.23 but also as 0.12222...3 . (This alternative recurring
(
)

2n
1 2 4
8
1
1
= 1. representation of a number with a terminating numeral
= + + + + =
2
n+1
3
3
9
27
81
3
1

occurs in any positional system.) When we remove the

3
n=0
middle third, this contains the numbers with ternary nuSo that the proportion left is 1 1 = 0.
merals of the form 0.1xxxxx...3 where xxxxx...3 is strictly
This calculation shows that the Cantor set cannot con- between 00000...3 and 22222...3 . So the numbers retain any interval of non-zero length. In fact, it may seem maining after the rst step consist of
surprising that there should be anything left after all,
Numbers of the form 0.0xxxxx...3
the sum of the lengths of the removed intervals is equal
to the length of the original interval. However, a closer
1 /3 = 0.13 = 0.022222...3
look at the process reveals that there must be something
left, since removing the middle third of each interval in 2 /3 = 0.122222...3 = 0.23
volved removing open sets (sets that do not include their
Numbers of the form 0.2xxxxx...3 .
endpoints). So removing the line segment (1 /3 , 2 /3 ) from
1
the original interval [0, 1] leaves behind the points /3
and 2 /3 . Subsequent steps do not remove these (or other) This can be summarized by saying that those numbers
endpoints, since the intervals removed are always inter- that admit a ternary representation such that the rst digit
nal to the intervals remaining. So the Cantor set is not after the decimal point is not 1 are the ones remaining
empty, and in fact contains an uncountably innite num- after the rst step.
ber of points (as follows from the above description in
The second step removes numbers of the form
terms of paths in an innite binary tree).
0.01xxxx...3 and 0.21xxxx...3 , and (with appropriIt may appear that only the endpoints are left, but that ate care for the endpoints) it can be concluded that the
is not the case either. The number 1/4, for example, is remaining numbers are those with a ternary numeral
in the bottom third, so it is not removed at the rst step, where neither of the rst two digits is 1. Continuing
and is in the top third of the bottom third, and is in the in this way, for a number not to be excluded at step n,
bottom third of that, and in the top third of that, and so on it must have a ternary representation whose nth digit
ad innitumalternating between top and bottom thirds. is not 1. For a number to be in the Cantor set, it must
Since it is never in one of the middle thirds, it is never not be excluded at any step, it must admit a numeral
removed, and yet it is also not one of the endpoints of representation consisting entirely of 0s and 2s. It is
any middle third. The number 3/10 is also in the Cantor worth emphasising that numbers like 1, 1 /3 = 0.13 and
7
set and is not an endpoint.
/9 = 0.213 are in the Cantor set, as they have ternary
numerals
consisting entirely of 0s and 2s: 1 = 0.2222...3 ,
In the sense of cardinality, most members of the Cantor 1
7
/
=
0.022222...
3
3 and /9 = 0.2022222...3 . So while a
set are not endpoints of deleted intervals. Since each step
removes a nite number of intervals and the number of number in C may have either a terminating or a recurring
steps is countable, the set of endpoints is countable while ternary numeral, one of its representations will consist
entirely of 0s and 2s.
the whole Cantor set is uncountable.

3
3.1

Properties

The function from C to [0,1] is dened by taking the numeral that does consist entirely of 0s and 2s, replacing all
the 2s by 1s, and interpreting the sequence as a binary
representation of a real number. In a formula,

Cardinality

)
(

ak k
k
=
f
a
3
2 .
k
It can be shown that there are as many points left behind
2
k=1
k=1
in this process as there were to begin with, and that therefore, the Cantor set is uncountable. To see this, we show For any number y in [0,1], its binary representation can
that there is a function f from the Cantor set C to the be translated into a ternary representation of a number
closed interval [0,1] that is surjective (i.e. f maps from C x in C by replacing all the 1s by 2s. With this, f(x) =
onto [0,1]) so that the cardinality of C is no less than that y so that y is in the range of f. For instance if y = 3 /
5
of [0,1]. Since C is a subset of [0,1], its cardinality is also = 0.100110011001... , we write x = 0.200220022002...
2
3
no greater, so the two cardinalities must in fact be equal, = 7 / . Consequently, f is surjective; however, f is not
10
by the CantorBernsteinSchroeder theorem.
injective interestingly enough, the values for which
To construct this function, consider the points in the [0,
1] interval in terms of base 3 (or ternary) notation. Recall that some points admit more than one representation
in this notation, as for example 1 /3 , that can be written as

f(x) coincides are those at opposing ends of one of the

middle thirds removed. For instance, 7 /9 = 0.2022222...3
and 8 /9 = 0.2200000...3 so f(7 /9 ) = 0.101111...2 = 0.112
= f(8 /9 ).

3.3

The Hausdor Dimension Theorem

So there are as many points in the Cantor set as there are

in [0, 1], and the Cantor set is uncountable (see Cantors
diagonal argument). However, the set of endpoints of the
removed intervals is countable, so there must be uncountably many numbers in the Cantor set which are not interval endpoints. As noted above, one example of such a
number is , which can be written as 0.02020202020...3
in ternary notation. In fact, given any x [1, 1] , there
exist a, b C such that x = a b . This was rst demonstrated by Steinhaus in 1917, who proved, via a geometric
argument, the equivalent assertion that {(x, y) R2 :
y = x + c} (C C) = for every c [1, 1] .[8]
Since this construction provides an injection from [1, 1]
to C C , we have |C C| |[1, 1]| = c as an immediate corollary. Assuming that |A A| = |A| for any
innite set A (a statement shown to be equivalent to the
axiom of choice by Tarski), this provides another demonstration that |C| = c .

3.3 The Hausdor Dimension Theorem

An essential property of Cantor sets is giving suciency
of fractals for any given Hausdor dimension r :
Theorem. For any given r > 0, there are uncountable
fractals with Hausdor dimension r in n-dimensional Euclidean space Rn , (n [r]). [9]

3.4 Topological and analytical properties

Although the Cantor set typically refers to the original,
middle-thirds Cantor described above, topologists often
talk about a Cantor set, which means any topological
space that is homeomorphic (topologically equivalent) to
it.
As the above summation argument shows, the Cantor set
is uncountable but has Lebesgue measure 0. Since the
Cantor set is the complement of a union of open sets,
it itself is a closed subset of the reals, and therefore a
complete metric space. Since it is also totally bounded,
the HeineBorel theorem says that it must be compact.

The Cantor set contains as many points as the interval

from which it is taken, yet itself contains no interval of
nonzero length. The irrational numbers have the same
property, but the Cantor set has the additional property
of being closed, so it is not even dense in any interval,
unlike the irrational numbers which are dense in every For any point in the Cantor set and any arbitrarily small
neighborhood of the point, there is some other number
interval.
with a ternary numeral of only 0s and 2s, as well as numIt has been conjectured that all algebraic irrational num- bers whose ternary numerals contain 1s. Hence, every
bers are normal. Since members of the Cantor set are not point in the Cantor set is an accumulation point (also
normal, this would imply that all members of the Cantor called a cluster point or limit point) of the Cantor set,
set are either rational or transcendental.
but none is an interior point. A closed set in which every
point is an accumulation point is also called a perfect set
in topology, while a closed subset of the interval with no
interior points is nowhere dense in the interval.

3.2

Self-similarity

Every point of the Cantor set is also an accumulation

point of the complement of the Cantor set.

For any two points in the Cantor set, there will be some
ternary digit where they dier one will have 0 and the
other 2. By splitting the Cantor set into halves depending on the value of this digit, one obtains a partition of the
Cantor set into two closed sets that separate the original
two points. In the relative topology on the Cantor set, the
points have been separated by a clopen set. Consequently,
the Cantor set is totally disconnected. As a compact toRepeated iteration of TL and TR can be visualized as an tally disconnected Hausdor space, the Cantor set is an
innite binary tree. That is, at each node of the tree, one example of a Stone space.
may consider the subtree to the left or to the right. Taking the set {TL , TR } together with function composition As a topological space, the Cantor set is naturally
homeomorphic to the product of countably many copies
forms a monoid, the dyadic monoid.
of the space {0, 1} , where each copy carries the discrete
The automorphisms of the binary tree are its hyperbolic topology. This is the space of all sequences in two digits
rotations, and are given by the modular group. Thus, the
Cantor set is a homogeneous space in the sense that for
any two points x and y in the Cantor set C , there exists N
2 = {(xn )|xn {0, 1} for n N}
a homeomorphism h : C C with h(x) = y . These
homeomorphisms can be expressed explicitly, as Mbius which can also be identied with the set of 2-adic intetransformations.
gers. The basis for the open sets of the product topology

The Cantor set is the prototype of a fractal. It is selfsimilar, because it is equal to two copies of itself, if each
copy is shrunk by a factor of 3 and translated. More
precisely, there are two functions, the left and right selfsimilarity transformations, TL (x) = x/3 and TR (x) =
(2 + x)/3 , which leave the Cantor set invariant up to
homeomorphism: TL (C)
= TR (C)
= C.

The Hausdor dimension of the Cantor set is equal to

ln(2)/ln(3) 0.631.

are cylinder sets; the homeomorphism maps these to the

subspace topology that the Cantor set inherits from the

5 HISTORICAL REMARKS

natural topology on the real number line. This charac- 3.6 Cantor numbers
terization of the Cantor space as a product of compact
spaces gives a second proof that Cantor space is compact, If we dene a Cantor number as a member of the Cantor
set, then[12]
via Tychonos theorem.
From the above characterization, the Cantor set is homeomorphic to the p-adic integers, and, if one point is removed from it, to the p-adic numbers.

(1) Every real number in [0, 2] is the sum of two

Cantor numbers.

The Cantor set is a subset of the reals, which are a metric

(2) Between any two Cantor numbers there is a numspace with respect to the ordinary distance metric; thereber that is not a Cantor number.
fore the Cantor set itself is a metric space, by using that
same metric. Alternatively, one can use the p-adic metric
on 2N : given two sequences (xn ), (yn ) 2N , the dis- 4 Variants
tance between them is d((xn ), (yn )) = 1/k , where k is
the smallest index such that xk = yk ; if there is no such
index, then the two sequences are the same, and one de- 4.1 SmithVolterraCantor set
nes the distance to be zero. These two metrics generate
Main article: SmithVolterraCantor set
the same topology on the Cantor set.
We have seen above that the Cantor set is a totally disconnected perfect compact metric space. Indeed, in a sense it
is the only one: every nonempty totally disconnected perfect compact metric space is homeomorphic to the Cantor
set. See Cantor space for more on spaces homeomorphic
to the Cantor set.

Instead of repeatedly removing the middle third of every piece as in the Cantor set, we could also keep removing any other xed percentage (other than 0% and 100%)
from the middle. In the case where the middle 8 /10 of
the interval is removed, we get a remarkably accessible
case the set consists of all numbers in [0,1] that can
The Cantor set is sometimes regarded as universal in be written as a decimal consisting entirely of 0s and 9s.
the category of compact metric spaces, since any compact metric space is a continuous image of the Cantor set; By removing progressively smaller percentages of the
however this construction is not unique and so the Can- remaining pieces in every step, one can also construct
tor set is not universal in the precise categorical sense. sets homeomorphic to the Cantor set that have positive
The universal property has important applications in Lebesgue measure, while still being nowhere dense. See
functional analysis, where it is sometimes known as the SmithVolterraCantor set for an example.
representation theorem for compact metric spaces.[10]
For any integer q 2, the topology on the group G=Zq
(the countable direct sum) is discrete. Although the
Pontrjagin dual is also Zq , the topology of is compact. One can see that is totally disconnected and perfect - thus it is homeomorphic to the Cantor set. It is
easiest to write out the homeomorphism explicitly in the
case q=2. (See Rudin 1962 p 40.)

3.5

Measure and probability

The Cantor set can be seen as the compact group of binary sequences, and as such, it is endowed with a natural Haar measure. When normalized so that the measure
of the set is 1, it is a model of an innite sequence of
coin tosses. Furthermore, one can show that the usual
Lebesgue measure on the interval is an image of the Haar
measure on the Cantor set, while the natural injection into
the ternary set is a canonical example of a singular measure. It can also be shown that the Haar measure is an
image of any probability, making the Cantor set a universal probability space in some ways.

4.2 Cantor dust

Cantor dust is a multi-dimensional version of the Cantor
set. It can be formed by taking a nite Cartesian product
of the Cantor set with itself, making it a Cantor space.
Like the Cantor set, Cantor dust has zero measure.[13]
A dierent 2D analogue of the Cantor set is the
Sierpinski carpet, where a square is divided up into nine
smaller squares, and the middle one removed. The remaining squares are then further divided into nine each
and the middle removed, and so on ad innitum.[14] The
3D analogue of this is the Menger sponge.

5 Historical remarks
Cantor himself dened the set in a general, abstract way,
and mentioned the ternary construction only in passing,
as an example of a more general idea, that of a perfect
set that is nowhere dense. The original paper provides
several dierent constructions of the abstract concept.

This set would have been considered abstract at the time

In Lebesgue measure theory, the Cantor set is an example when Cantor devised it. Cantor himself was led to it
of a set which is uncountable and has zero measure.[11]
by practical concerns about the set of points where a

6 See also
Hexagrams (I Ching)
Cantor function
Cantor cube
Antoines necklace
Koch snowake
KnasterKuratowski fan
List of fractals by Hausdor dimension
Moserde Bruijn sequence

7 Notes
Cantor cubes recursion progression towards Cantor dust

[1] Henry J.S. Smith (1874) On the integration of discontinuous functions. Proceedings of the London Mathematical
Society, Series 1, vol. 6, pages 140153.
[2] The Cantor set was also discovered by Paul du BoisReymond (18311889). See footnote on page 128 of:
Paul du Bois-Reymond (1880) Der Beweis des Fundamentalsatzes der Integralrechnung, Mathematische Annalen, vol. 16, pages 115128. The Cantor set was also
discovered in 1881 by Vito Volterra (18601940). See:
Vito Volterra (1881) Alcune osservazioni sulle funzioni
punteggiate discontinue [Some observations on pointwise discontinuous functions], Giornale di Matematiche,
vol. 19, pages 7686.
[3] Jos Ferreirs, Labyrinth of Thought: A History of
Set Theory and Its Role in Modern Mathematics (Basel,
Switzerland: Birkhuser Verlag, 1999), pages 162165.
[4] Ian Stewart, Does God Play Dice?: The New Mathematics
of Chaos
[5] Georg Cantor (1883) "ber unendliche, lineare Punktmannigfaltigkeiten V" [On innite, linear point-manifolds
(sets)], Mathematische Annalen, vol. 21, pages 545591.
[6] H.-O. Peitgen, H. Jrgens, and D. Saupe, Chaos and
Fractals: New Frontiers of Science 2nd ed. (N.Y., N.Y.:
Springer Verlag, 2004), page 65.

Column capital with pattern like Cantor set. Engraving of Ile de

Philae from Description d'Egypte by Jean-Baptiste Prosper Jollois and Edouard Devilliers, Imprimerie Imperiale, Paris, 18091828

trigonometric series might fail to converge. The discovery did much to set him on the course for developing an
abstract, general theory of innite sets.

[7] Mohsen Soltanifar, A Dierent Description of A Family

of Middle-a Cantor Sets, American Journal of Undergraduate Research, Vol 5, No 2, pp 912, 2006
[8] Carothers, N. L. (2000). Real Analysis. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press. pp. 3132. ISBN 978-0521-69624-1.
[9] Mohsen Soltanifar, On A Sequence of Cantor Fractals,
Rose Hulman Undergraduate Mathematics Journal, Vol 7,
No 1, paper 9, 2006

A column capital from the Ancient Egyptian site of the is[10] Stephen Willard, General Topology, Addison-Wesley
land of Philae carries a pattern which resembles the CanPublishing Company, 1968.
tor set. Cantor may have seen the image, as his cousin
[11] the Cantor set is an uncountable set with zero measure
was an Egyptologist.[15]

[12] Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws, Manfred Schroeder, Dover,

1991, p.164-165.
[13] Helmberg, Gilbert (2007). Getting Acquainted With Fractals. Walter de Gruyter. p. 46. ISBN 978-3-11-0190922.
[14] Helmberg, Gilbert (2007). Getting Acquainted With Fractals. Walter de Gruyter. p. 48. ISBN 978-3-11-0190922.
[15] Lumpkin, Beatrice (1 January 1997). Geometry Activities
from Many Cultures. Walch Publishing. p. 17. ISBN
978-0-8251-3285-8. Napoleons Expedition brought this
picture to Europe in their report, Description de L'Egypte.
Notice the startling resemblance to the Cantor set diagram. ... Did George Cantor see pictures of the Egyptian
columns before he conceived the set...? We don't known,
but it is a possibility, because Cantors cousin was a student of Egyptology.

References
Steen, Lynn Arthur; Seebach, J. Arthur Jr. (1995)
[1978], Counterexamples in Topology (Dover reprint
of 1978 ed.), Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag,
ISBN 978-0-486-68735-3, MR 507446 (See example 29).
Gary L. Wise and Eric B. Hall, Counterexamples in
Probability and Real Analysis. Oxford University
Press, New York 1993. ISBN 0-19-507068-2. (See
chapter 1).

External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), Cantor set,
Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN 9781-55608-010-4
Cantor Sets and Cantor Set and Function at cut-theknot
Cantor Set (PRIME)
Cantor Dust Demo Program

EXTERNAL LINKS

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