Important Points Summary from Bushongs Radiologic Science for Technologists.

Chapter 4: The Atom

An atom is the smallest particle that has all the properties of an element.
The fundamental particles of an atom are the electron, the proton, and the neutron.
The atom is essentially empty space.
In their normal state, atoms are electrically neutral; the electric charge on the
atom is zero.
Ionization is the removal of an orbital electron from an atom.
2n2 is the maximum number of electrons per shell where n is the shell number.
The number of electrons in the outermost shell of an atom is equal to its group in
the periodic table. The number of electrons in the outermost shell determines the
valence of an atom. The number of the outermost electron shell of an atom is
equal to its period in the periodic table.
No outer shell can contain more than eight electrons.
The force that keeps an electron in orbit is centrifugal force.
The atomic mass number and the precise mass of an atom are not equal.
Isotopes: are atoms that have the same atomic number but different atomic mass
numbers.
Isobar: are atomic nuclei that have the same atomic mass number but different
atomic numbers.
Isotones: are atoms that have the same number of neutrons but different numbers
of protons.
Isomers: have the same atomic number and the same atomic mass number.
Molecule: atoms of various elements may combine to form structures called
molecules.
Chemical compound: any quantity of one type of molecule.
The smallest particle of an element is an atom; the smallest particle of a
compound is a molecule.
Radioactivity: the emission of particles and energy in order to become stable.
Radioactive decay results in emission of alpha particles, beta particles, and
usually gamma rays.
Half-Life: of a radioisotope is the time required for a quantity of radioactivity to
be reduced to one-half its original value.
Radioactive Decay: activity remaining = original activity (0.5)n , where n = the
number of half-lives.
Alpha particle: a helium nucleus containing two protons and two neutrons.
Beta particle: an electron emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom.
X-rays and gamma rays are the only forms of ionizing electromagnetic radiation
of radiologic interest.
Chapter 5: Electromagnetic Radiation
An x-ray photon is a quantum of electromagnetic energy.

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The velocity of all electromagnetic radiation is 3 x 108 m/s.

Amplitude is one half the range from crest to valley over which the sine wave
varies.
Frequency is the number of wavelengths passing a point of observation per
second.
At a given velocity, wavelength and frequency are inversely proportional.
Velocity = Frequency x Wavelength (for us velocity is usually c, or the speed of
light)
The electromagnetic spectrum includes the entire range of electromagnetic
radiation.
Diagnostic ultrasound is not a part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency.
The only difference between x-rays and gamma rays is their origin.
Visible light is identified by wavelength, radiofrequency is identified by
frequency, and x-rays are identified by energy.
Photons interact with matter most easily when the matter is approximately the
same size as the photon or wavelength.
X-rays behave as though they are particles.
Visible light behaves like a wave.
Radiation attenuation is the reduction in intensity resulting from scattering and
absorption.
Inverse Square Law I1/I2 = (d2/d1)2 where I is the intensity at distance d from the
source.
Radiation intensity is inversely related to the square of the distance from the
source.
The inverse square law can be applied to distances greater than seven times the
longest dimension of the source.
The x-ray photon is a discrete bundle of energy.
The energy of a photon is directly proportional to its frequency.

Chapter 10: X-Ray Production

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion.
Approximately 99% of the kinetic energy of projectile electrons is converted to
heat.
Characteristic x-rays are emitted when an outer-shell electron fills an inner-shell
void.
Only the K-characteristic x-rays of tungsten are useful for imaging.
This type of x-radiation is called characteristic because it is characteristic of the
target element.
Bremsstrahlung x-rays are produced when a projectile electron is slowed by the
electric field of a target atom nucleus.
In the diagnostic range, most x-rays are bremsstrahlung x-rays.
A discrete spectrum contains only specific values.
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A continuous spectrum contains all possible values.

Characteristic x-rays have precisely fixed (discrete) energies and form a discrete
emission spectrum.
Bremsstralung x-rays have a range of energies and form a continuous emission
spectrum.
Maximum x-ray energy is associated with the minimum x-ray wavelength.
A change in mA or mAs results in a proportional change in the amplitude of the
x-ray emission spectrum at all energies.
A change in voltage peak affects both the amplitude and the position of the x-ray
emission spectrum.
A change in kVp has no effect on the position of the discrete x-ray emission
spectrum.
In the diagnostic range, a 15% increase in kVp is equivalent to doubling the mAs.
The overall result of added filtration is an increase in the average energy of the xray beam (higher quality, spectrum shift to the right) with an accompanying
reduction in x-ray quantity (reduced spectrum amplitude).
Increasing target atomic number increases the efficiency of x-ray production and
the energy of characteristic and bremsstrahlung x-rays.
Because of reduced ripple, operation with three-phase power or high frequency is
equivalent to approximate 12% increase in kVp or almost a doubling of mAs over
single-phase power.

Chapter 11: X-Ray Emission

X-ray quantity is the number of x-rays in the useful beam.
X-ray quantity is directly proportional to the mAs.
X-ray quantity is proportional to the kVp2.
X-ray quantity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance form the
source.
Adding filtration to the useful x-ray beam reduces patient dose.
Penetrability is one description of the ability of an x-ray beam to pass through
tissue.
Attenuation is the reduction in x-ray intensity resulting from absorption and
scattering.
The HVL of an x-ray beam is the thickness of absorbing material necessary to
reduce the x-ray intensity to half its original value.
HVL is the best method for specifying x-ray quality.
Increasing the kVp peak increases the quality of an x-ray beam.
Increasing filtration increases the quality of an x-ray beam.
Added filtration results in increased HVL.
Chapter 12: X-Ray Interaction with Matter
Coherent scattering is of little importance to diagnostic radiology.

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The probability of the Compton Effect is inversely proportional to energy and

independent of atomic number.
Compton scattering reduces contrast in an x-ray image.
The photoelectric effect is total x-ray absorption interaction. The probability of
the photoelectric effect is inversely proportional to the third power of the x-ray
energy (1/E3).
The probability of photoelectric effect is directly proportional to the third power
of the atomic number of the absorbing material.
Pair production does not occur during x-ray imaging.
Photodisintegration does not occur in diagnostic radiology.
Differential absorption occurs because of Compton scattering, photoelectric,
effect, and x=rays transmitted through the patient.
Differential absorption increases as the kVp is reduced.
To image small differences in soft tissue, one must use low kVp to get maximum
differential absorption.
The interaction between x-rays and tissue is proportional to the mass density of
the tissue regardless of the type of interaction.
Attentuation is the product of absorption and scattering.

Chapter 13: Radiographic Film

Image-forming x-rays are those that exit the patient and interact with the image
receptor.
The base of radiographic film is 150 to 300 m thick, semi-rigid, lucent, and
made of polyester.
During silver halide crystal formation the silver bromide is precipitated while the
potassium nitrate, which is soluble, is washed away.
The latent image is the invisible change induced in the silver halide crystal.
An ion is an atom that has either too many or too few electrons and therefore is
electrically charged.
The result is the same whether the interaction involves visible light from an
intensifying screen or direct exposure by x-rays.
Large-grain emulsions are more sensitive than small-grain emulsions.
Crossover is the exposure of an emulsion by light from the opposite side of the
radiographic intensifying screen.
Rare earth screens are made with rare earth elements, those with atomic numbers
of 57 to 71.
Reciprocity Law: Exposure = Intensity x Time = Constant Optical Density.
The fog level for unprocessed film is approximately 0.2 mR.
Chapter 14: Processing the Latent Image
Developing is the stage of processing during which the latent image is converted
to a visible image.

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Fixing the silver halide that wasnt exposed to radiation is the process of clearing
it from the emulsion and hardening the emulsion to preserve the image.
Synergism occurs when the action of two agents working together is greater than
the sum of the action of each agent working independently.
Lack of sufficient glutaraldehyde may be the biggest cause of problems with
automatic processing.
Archival quality refers to the permanence of the radiograph: the image thus does
not deteriorate with age but remains in its original state.
Silver sulfide stain is the most common cause of poor archival quality.
The shorter dimension of the film should always be against the side rail in order
to maintain the proper replenishment rate.
Film transport time should not vary by more than 2% in either direction of the
time specified by the manufacturer.
Cleaning the tanks and the transport system should be a part of the routine
maintenance of any processor.
Most processing faults leading to damp film are due to a depletion of
glutaradehyde, the hardener in the developer.
A finished radiograph that is damp easily picks up dust particles that could result
in artifacts.

Chapter 15: Intensifying Screens

The radiographic intensifying screen amplifies the image-forming x-rays that
reach the screen-film cassette.
The phosphor converts the x-ray beam into light.
Isotropic emission means radiation with equal intensity in all directions.
Intensification factor = exposure required without screen / exposure required with
screens
Higher conversion efficiency results in increased noise.
Generally, those conditions that increase the IF reduce spatial resolution.
In mammography, the screen is positioned in contact with the emulsion on the
side of the film away from the x-ray source to reduce screen blur and improve
spatial resolution.
Screen-film compatibility is essential; use only those films for which the screens
are designed.
Rare earth radiographic intensifying screens have the principal advantage of
speed.
The combination of improved conversion efficiency and higher x-ray absorption
results in the increased speed of rare earth radiographic intensifying screens.
Chapter 16: Beam-Restricting Devices
Collimation reduces patient dose and improves contrast resolution.
Approximately 1% of incident x-rays reach the image receptor.
Scatter radiation increases as the field size of the x-ray beam increases.

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Compression of anatomy improves spatial and contrast resolution and lowers

patient dose.
Collimation reduces patient dose and improves contrast resolution.
Under no circumstances should the x-ray beam exceed the size of the image
receptor.

Chapter 17: The Grid

Reduced image contrast results from scattered x-rays.
Grid ration = h / D
High-ratio grids increase patient radiation dose.
The use of high-frequency grids requires high radiographic technique and results
in higher patient radiation dose.
The principal function of a grid is to improve image contrast.
The contrast improvement factor (= contrast with grid / contrast without grid) is
higher for high-ratio grids.
As the Bucky factor (patient dose with grid / patient dose without grid) increases,
radiographic technique and patient dose increase proportionately.
Selectivity = primary radiation transmitted through grid / scatter radiation
transmitted through grid
Grid characteristics
o high-ratio grids have high contrast improvement factors
o high-frequency grids have low contrast improvement factors
o heavy grids have high selectivity and high contrast improvement factors
The main disadvantage of parallel and crossed grid is grid cutoff.
High-ratio grids have less positioning latitude than low-ratio grids.
Off-level grid causes grid cutoff across image; underexposed, light image
Off-center grid causes grid cutoff across image; underexposed, light image
Off-focus grid causes grid cutoff toward edge of image
Upside-down grid causes severe grid cutoff toward edge of image.
In general, grid ratios up to 8:1 are satisfactory at tube potentials below 90 kVp.
Grid ratios above 8:1 are used when kVp exceeds 90kVp.
Grid selection factors
o patient dose increases with increasing grid ratio
o high-ratio grids are usually used for high-kVp examinations
o patient dose at high kVp is less than that at low kVp
One disadvantage of the air-gap technique is image magnification with associated
focal spot blur.
Chapter 18: Radiographic Exposure
kVp controls radiographic contrast.
With a constant exposure time, mA controls x-ray quantity and therefore patient
dose.
X-ray quality remains fixed with a change in mA.
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Short exposure time reduces motion blur.

mAs controls optical density (OD).
mAs is one measure of electrostatic charge.
Only the x-ray quantity is affected by changes in mAs.
Distance has no effect on radiation quality.
Distance (SID) affects OD.
Changing the focal spot for a given kVp/mAs setting does not change x-ray
quantity of quality.
Half-wave rectification results in the same radiation quality as that for full-wave
rectification, but the radiation quantity is halved.
The radiation quality does not change when going from half-wave to full-wave
rectification; however, the radiation quantity doubles.
Three-phase power results in higher x-ray quantity and quality.
High-frequency generation results in even higher x-ray quantity and quality.

Chapter 19: Image Quality

Spatial resolution improves as screen blur decreases, motion blur decreases, and
geometric blur decreases.
Radiographic noise is the random fluctuation of OD of the image.
The use of high mAs, low kVp settings, and slower image receptors reduces
quantum mottle.
Radiographic quality rules
o fast image receptors have high noise and low spatial resolution and
contrast resolution.
o high spatial resolution and contrast resolution require low noise and slow
image receptors
o low noise accompanies slow image receptors with high spatial resolution
and contrast resolution
An increase in LRE (log relative exposure) of 0.3 results from doubling the
radiation exposure.
Higher fog density reduces the contrast of the radiographic image.
Base plus fog OD has a range of approximately 0.1 to 0.3.
The reciprocity law states that OD on a radiograph is proportional only to the total
energy imparted to the radiographic film.
Radiographic contrast is the product of image receptor contrast and subject
contrast.
Film contrast is related to the slope of the straight-line portion of the characteristic
curve.
Latitude and contrast are inversely proportional.
Geometric factors
o magnification
o distortion
o focal-spot blur
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Magnification factor = source-to-image receptor distance / source-to-object

distance
Minimizing magnification
o large SID: use as large a source-to-image receptor distance as possible
o small OID: place the object as close to the image receptor as possible
Unequal magnification of different portions of the same object is called shape
distortion.
Distortion depends on the objects:
o thickness
o position
o shape
Thick objects are more distorted than thin objects.
If the object plane and image plane are not parallel, distortion occurs.
Focal-spot blur occurs because the focal spot is not a point.
Focal-spot blur is the most important factor in determining spatial resolution.
The focal-spot blur is small on the anode side and large on the cathode-side.
kVp is the most important influence on subject contrast.
Patient motion is usually the cause of motion blur.
Principles to be considered when planning a particular examination:
o use of intensifying screens decreases patient dose by a factor of at least 20
o as the speed of the image receptor increases, radiographic noise increases
and spatial resolution is decreased.
o low-contrast imaging procedures have a wider latitude, margin of error, in
producing an acceptable radiograph.
Keep exposure time as short as possible.
The primary control of radiographic contrast is kVp.
The primary control of OD is mAs.

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