Chapter 2 Thermo II v4-0506

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
CHAPTER 2:VAPOR POWER CYCLES

2.1
The Carnot Vapor Cycle

The Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle operating between
two specified temperature limits.
Take the Carnot cycle as an ideal cycle for vapor power plant.
Actually, the Carnot cycle is not suitable model for power plants.
In our discussion, we assume steam to be the working fluid since
it is the working fluid predominantly used in vapor power cycle.
Consider a steady-flow Carnot cycle executed within the
saturation dome of a pure substance, as shown in figure 2.1.
By referring figure 2.2, the fluid is heated reversibly and
isothermally in a boiler (process 2-3), expanded isentropically in
a turbine (process 3-4), condensed reversibly and isothermally in
a condenser (process 4-1), and compressed isentropically by a
compressor (or pump) to the initial state (process 2-1).
There are several impracticalities are associated with this cycle.
Thus, Carnot cycle cannot be approximated in actual devices and
is not a realistic model for vapor power cycles.
Figure 2.1
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Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Universiti Teknikal Malaysia Melaka
Thermodynamic II
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Figure 2.2
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Figure 2.3
2.2
The reason why the Carnot cycle is not used in vapor power
cycles:
a)
Pumping process 1-2 requires the pumping of a mixture of
saturated liquid and saturated vapor at state 1 and the
delivery of a saturated liquid at state 2. (Figure 2.1)
b)
To superheat the steam to take advantage of a higher
temperature elaborate control are required to keep TH
constant while the steam expand and does work. (Figure
2.3)
To resolve the difficulties associated with the Carnot cycle, the
Rankine cycle was devised.
Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles.
Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can
be eliminated by superheating the steam in the boiler and
condensing it completely in the condenser, as shown on a T-s
diagram in figure 2.4(e).
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Figure 2.4 (a)
Figure 2.4(b)
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Figure 2.4(c)
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Figure 2.4(d)
Figure 2.4(e): The simple ideal Rankine cycle.
The Rankine cycle is the ideal cycle for vapor power plants.
The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities and consist of the following four processes:
a)
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
b)
2-3 Constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
c)
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
d)
4-1 Constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is

compressed isentropically to the operating pressure of the boiler.
The water temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to a slight decrease in the
specific volume of the water.
The vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram
is greatly exaggerated for clarify.
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2.3
Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and

leaves as a superheated vapor at state 3.
The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat
originating from combustion gases, nuclear reactor, or other
sources is transferred to the water essentially at constant
pressure.
The boiler, together with the section where the steam is
superheated (the superheater), is often called the steam
generator.
The superheated vapor at state 3 enter the turbine, where it
expands isentropically and produces work by rotating the shaft
connected to an electric generator.
The pressure and the temperature of the steam drop during this
process to the values at state 4, where steam enters the
condenser.
At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid-vapor mixture
with a high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser,
which is basically a large heat exchanger, by rejecting heat to a
cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the
pump, completing the cycle.
Remembering that the area under the process curve on T-s
diagram represents the heat transfer for internally reversible
process.
The area under process curve 2-3 represents the heat transferred
to the water in the boiler and the area under the process curve 41 represents the heat rejected in the condenser.
The difference between these two (the area enclosed by the
cycle curve) is the net work produced during the cycle.
Energy Analysis of the Ideal Rankine Cycle
All four components associated with the Rankine cycle (the
pump, boiler, turbine, and condenser) are steady-flow devices,
and thus all four processes that make up the Rankine cycle can
be analyzed as steady-flow processes.
The kinetic energy and potential energy changes of the steam
are usually small relative to the work and heat transfer terms
and are therefore usually neglected.
Then the steady-flow energy equation per unit mass of steam
reduce to
qin qout win wout he hi

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(2.1)

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The boiler and the condenser do not involve any work, and the
pump and the turbine are assumed to be isentropic.
Then the conservation of energy relation for each device can be
expressed as follows:
w pump ,in h2 h1
Pump (q=0):
(2.2)
Or
w pump ,in v P2 P1
where
h1 h f @ P1 and v v1 v f @ P1
Boiler (w=0):
qin h3 h2
Turbine (q=0):
wturb ,out h3 h4
(2.5)
(2.6)
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from

th
Where
(2.4)
q out h4 h1
Condenser (w=0):
(2.3)
wnet
q
1 out
q in
qin
(2.7)
wnet q in q out wturb ,out w pump ,in
(2.8)
The thermal efficiency can also be interpreted as the ratio of the

area enclosed by the cycle on a T-s diagram to the area under
the heat addition process.
Example 2.1: The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle.

Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine
cycle. The steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350 C and is
condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the
thermal efficiency of this cycle.
Solution:
The schematic of the power plant and the T-s diagram are shown in
figure 2.5. We note that the power plant operates on the ideal Rankine
cycle. Therefore, the pump and the turbine are isentropic, there are no
pressure drops in the boiler and condenser, and steam leaves the
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condenser and enters the pump as saturated liquid at the condenser

pressure.
Figure 2.5(a)
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Figure 2.5(b)
Assumption:
1) Steady operating condition exists. 2) Kinetic and potential energy
changes are negligible.
Analysis:
First we determine the enthalpies at various points in the cycle, using
data from steam tables (Tables A-4, A-5, A-6)
State 1:
P1=75 kPa
Saturated liq.
State 2:
P2=3 MPa
s2=s1
h1=hf @ 75 kPa = 384.39 kJ/kg

v1=vf @ 75 kPa = 0.001037 m3/kg
wpump,in= v1(P2-P1) = (0.001037m3/kg)(3000-75kPa) = 3.03 kJ/kg

h2 = h1 + wpump,in = (384.39 + 3.03) kJ/kg = 387.42 kJ/kg
State 3:
T3 = 350C
P3 = 3 MPa,
h3 = 3115.3 kJ/kg s3 = 6.7426 kJ/kg.K

State 4:
P4 = 75 kPa (saturated mixture),

x4
s4 s f
s fg
s3 = s4
6.7428 1.213
0.8857
6.2434
h4 h f x 4 h fg 384.39 0.8857( 2278.6) 2402.6kJ / kg
Thus,
q in h3 h2 3115 .3 387.42 2727.9kJ / kg
q out h4 h1 2402.6 384.39 2018.2kJ / kg
and
q out
2018.2
1
0.260 @ 26.0%
qin
2727.9
The thermal efficiency could also be determined from equations (2.7)
and (2.8).
th 1
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That is, this power plant converts 26% of the heat it receives in the
boiler to net work. An actual power plant operating between the same
temperature and pressure limits will have a lower efficiency because of
irreversibilities such as friction.
2.4 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized

Ones.
The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine
cycle, as shown in figure 2.6, as a result of irreversibilities in
various components.
Fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings are the two
common sources of irreversibilities.
Fluid friction causes pressure drop in every components.
To compensate this pressure drop, larger work input to the pump
is required.
Due to the heat loss in various components, to maintain the
same level of net work output, more heat are needed to
transferred to the steam in the boiler in order to compensate
undesired heat loss.
In actual cycle, a pump required a greater work input, and the
turbine produces a smaller work output as a result of
irreversibilities.
The deviation of actual pumps and turbines from the isentropic
ones can be accurately accounted for, however, by utilizing
isentropic efficiencies, defined as
ws h2 s h1
wa h2 a h1
and
wa h3 h4 a
T
ws h3 h4 s
(2.9)
(2.10)
Where states 2a and 4a are the actual exit states of the pump
and the turbine, respectively, and 2s and 4s are the
corresponding states for the isentropic case (figure 2.7).
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Figure 2.6: Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal
Rankine cycle
Figure 2.7: The effect of pump and turbine irreversibilities on the ideal
Rankine cycle.
Example 2.2: An Actual Steam Power Cycle
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A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown in figure 2.8(a). If

the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is 87% and the isentropic
efficiency of the pump is 85%, determine:
a)
b)
The thermal efficiency of the cycle.

The net power output of the plant for a mass flow rate of 15
kg/s
Solution:
The schematic of the power plant and the T-s diagram of the cycle are
shown in figure 2.8(b). The temperatures and pressures of steam at
various points are also indicated on the figure. We note that the power
plant involves steady flow components and operates on the Rankine
cycle, but the imperfections at various components are accounted for.
Assumption:
1) Steady operating condition exists. 2) Kinetic and potential
energy changes are negligible.
Analysis:
a) The thermal efficiency of a cycle is the ratio of the net work output
to the heat input, and it is determined as follows:
Pump work input: w pump ,in
v1 P2 P1
P
P
0.001009 16000 9 19.0kJ / kg
0.85
ws , pump ,in
Turbine work output:

wturb ,output T ws ,turb ,out T h5 h6 0.87(3582.3 2114 .9) 1276.6kJ / kg
Boiler heat input: q in h4 h3 3647.3 160.1 3487.2kJ / kg

Thus,
wnet wturb ,out w pump ,in 1276.6 19 1257.6kJ / kg
th
wnet 1257.6
0.361@ 36.1%
qin
3487.2
Without the irreversibilities, the thermal efficiency of this cycle would

be 43.0% (example 2.3c)
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b)
The power produced by this power plant is
Wnet m wnet 15(1257.6) 18864kW
Figure 2.8(a)
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Figure 2.8(b)
2.5
The Factors That Can Increase The Efficiency of The

Rankine Cycle
Steam power plants are responsible for the production of the
most electric power in the world, and even small increases in
thermal efficiency can mean large savings from the fuel
requirements.
The basic idea behind all the modification of increase the thermal
efficiency of a power cycle is the same:
a)
Increase the average temperature at which heat is
transferred to the working fluid in the boiler or
b)
Decrease the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
The average fluid temperature should be as high as possible
during heat addition and as low as possible during heat rejection.
3 ways to increase the thermal efficiency in Rankine cycle:
i)
Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow,av)

Steam exists as a saturated mixture in the condenser at
the saturation temperature corresponding to the
pressure inside the condenser.
Therefore lowering the operating pressure of the
condenser automatically lowers the temperature of the
steam, and thus the temperature at which heat is
rejected.
The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the
Rankine cycle is illustrated in figure 2.9.
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Figure 2.9
For comparison purposes, the turbine inlet state is

maintained the same.
The colored area on this diagram represents the
increase in net work output as a result of lowering the
condenser pressure from P4 to P4.
The heat input requirement also increased (represented
by the area under curve 2-2), but this increase is very
small.
Thus, the overall effect of lowering the condenser
pressure is an increase in the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
The lower limits of the pressure on the condenser that
can be used is, it cannot be lower than the saturation
pressure corresponding to the temperature of the
cooling medium.
For effective heat transfer, temperature difference is
10C. The condenser pressure must be higher than
saturated pressure of temperature after adding the
temperature difference to the cooling medium
temperature.
Undesirable side effect of lowering the condenser
pressure:
a) Creates the possibilities of air leakage into the
condenser.
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b) Increase the moisture content of the steam at

the final stages of the turbine (figure 2.9) causes
the decrease of turbine efficiency and erodes the
turbine blades.
ii)
Superheating the steam to high temperatures

(Increase Thigh,av)
The average temperature at which heat is added to the
steam can be increased without increasing the boiler
pressure by superheating the steam to high
temperatures.
The effect of superheating on the performance of vapor
power cycle is illustrated on T-s diagram in figure 2.10.
Figure 2.10
The colored area on this diagram represents the

increase in the net work.
The total are under the process curve 3-3 represents
the increase in the heat input.
Desirable side effect of superheating the steam to
higher temperature:
a) Decrease the moisture content of the steam at the
turbine exit.
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iii)
The temperature to which steam can be superheated is

limited, depends on metallurgical consideration (type of
material that used in turbine especially turbine blade).
Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the
turbine inlet is about 620C.
Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,av)

Another way of increasing the average temperature during
the heat addition process is to increase the operating
pressure of the boiler, which automatically raises the
temperature at which boiling takes place.
This, in turn raises the average temperature at which heat
is added to the steam and thus raises the thermal
efficiency.
The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the
performance of vapor power cycle is illustrated in figure
2.11.
Figure 2.11
For fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the

left and the moisture content of steam at the turbine exit
increases.
This undesirable effect can be corrected, however, by
reheating the steam.
The effects of lowering the condenser pressure, superheating to

a higher temperature, and increasing the boiler pressure on the
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thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle are illustrated with an

example (example 2.3).
Example 2.3: Effect of boiler pressure and temperature on

efficiency
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal Rankine cycle.
The steam enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350C and is condensed
in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. Determine
a) The thermal efficiency of this power plant.
b) The thermal efficiency if steam is superheated to 600C instead
of 350C.
c) The thermal efficiency if the boiler pressure is raised to 15 MPa
while the turbine inlet temperature is maintained at 600C.
Solution:
The T-s diagrams of the cycle for all three cases are given in figure
2.12.
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Figure 2.12(a)
Figure 2.12(b)
2.12(c)
Figure
Analysis:
a)This is the steam power plant discussed in example 2.1, except
that the condenser pressure is lowered to 10 kPa. The thermal
efficiency is determined in a similar manner:
State 1: P1=10 kPa (Saturated liquid), h1=hf@10 kPa=191.83 kJ/kg
v1=vf@1o kPa=0.00101 m3/kg
State 2: P2=3 MPa, s1=s2
wpump,in=v1(P2-P1)=(0.00101)(3000-10) = 3.02 kJ/kg
h2=h1+wpump,in = (191.83+3.02) = 194.85 kJ/kg
State 3: P3=3 MPa, T3=350C
h3=3115.3 kJ/kg, s3=6.7428 kJ/kg.K
State 4: P4=10 kPa (saturated mixture),
x4
Thus,
s4 s f
s fg
s4=s3
6.7428 0.6493
0.8124
7.5009
h4 = hf + x4hfg = 191.83 + 0.8124(2392.8) = 2135.7 kJ/kg

qin = h3 h2 = 3115.3 194.85 = 2920.5 kJ/kg
qout = h4 h1 = 2135.7 191.83 = 1943.9 kJ/kg
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and
th 1
q out
1943.9
1
0.335 @ 33.5%
qin
2920.5
Therefore the thermal efficiency increases from 26.0% to 33.5% as

a result of lowering the condenser pressure from 75 kPa to 10 kPa.
At the same time, however, the quality of the steam decreases from
88.6% to 81.2% (in other words, the moisture content increases
from 11.4% to 18.8%).
b) States 1 and 2 remain the same in this case, and the enthalpies
at state 3 (3 MPa and 600C) an state 4 (10 kPa and s4=s3) are
determined to be
h3 = 3682.3 kJ/kg,
Thus,
h4 = 2379.9 kJ/kg (x4=0.914)
qin = h3 h2 = 3682.3 194.84 = 3487.5 kJ/kg

qout = h4 h1 = 2379.9 191.83 = 2188.1 kJ/kg
and
th 1
q out
2188.1
1
0.373 @ 37.3%
qin
3487.5
Therefore, the thermal efficiency increases from 33.5% to 37.3% as

a result of superheating the steam from 350C to 600C. At the
same time, the quality of the steam increases from 81.2% to 91.4%
( in the other words, the moisture content decreases from 18.8% to
8.6%).
c) State 1 remains the same in this case, but the other states
change. The enthalpies at state 2 (15 MPa and s2=s3), state 3 (15
MPa and 600C), and state 4(10 kPa and s3=s4) are determined in a
similar manner to be
h2 = 206.97 kJ/kg
h3 = 3582.3 kJ/kg
h4 = 2114.9 kJ/kg (x4 = 0.804)
Thus,
qin = h3 h2 = 3582.3 206.97 = 3375.3 kJ/kg
qout = h4 h1 = 2114.9 191.83 = 1923.1 kJ/kg
and
th 1
q out
1923.1
1
0.430 @ 43.0%
q in
3375.3
Discussion:
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The thermal efficiency increases from 37.3% to 43.0% as a result of

raising the boiler pressure from 3 to 15 MPa while maintaining the
turbine inlet temperature at 600C. At the same time, however, the
quality of the steam decreases from 91.4% to 80.4% (in other
words, the moisture content increases from 8.6% to 19.6%).
2.6
The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

As mentioned before, increasing the boiler pressure will increase
the thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle, but it also increases
the moisture content of the steam to unacceptable levels.
There are two possibilities to overcome the increase of moisture
content in this case.
a) Superheat the steam to very high temperature before it
enters the turbine. This would be the desirable solution
since the average temperature at which heat is added
would also increase, thus increasing the cycle efficiency.
This is not a viable solution, however, since it will require
raising the steam temperature to metallurgical unsafe
levels.
b) Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat
it in between. In other words, modify the simple ideal
Rankine cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a
practical solution to the excessive moisture problem in
turbines, and it is commonly used in modern steam power
plants.
The T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and the
schematic of the power plant operating on this cycle are shown
in figure 2.13(a) and 2.13(b).
The difference of this cycle between the simple ideal Rankine
cycles is the expansion process takes place in two stages.
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Figure 2.13(a)
Figure 2.13(b)
In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded

isentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the
boiler where it is reheated at constant pressure, usually to the
inlet temperature of the first turbine stage.
Steam then expands isentropically in the second stage (low
pressure turbine) to the condenser.
Thus the total heat input and the total turbine work output for a
reheat cycle become:
qin q primary q reheat h3 h2 h5 h4
(2.11)
wturb ,out wturb , I wturb , II h3 h4 h5 h6
(2.12)
Power plant cycle efficiency increase by increasing the average

temperature at which heat is added to the steam.
Increasing the number of expansion and reheat stages can
increase the average temperature during the reheat process.
As the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum
temperature.
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The use of more than two reheat stages, however, is not

practical.
Example 2.4: The Ideal Reheat Rankine Cycle

Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal reheat Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 15 MPa and 600C
and is condensed in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa. If the
moisture content of the steam at the exit of the low pressure turbine is
not to exceed 10.4%, determine:
a)
b)
The pressure at which the steam should be reheated.

The thermal efficiency of the cycle.
Assume the steam is reheated to the inlet temperature of the highpressure turbine.
Solution:
shown in figure 2.14(a) and figure 2.14(b). We note that the power
plant operates on the ideal reheat Rankine cycle. Therefore, the pump
and the turbines are isentropic, there are no pressure drops in the
boiler and condenser, and steam leaves the condenser and enters the
pump as saturated liquid at the condenser pressure.
Assumption:
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Figure 2.14(a)
Figure 2.14(b)
Analysis:
a) The reheat pressure is determined from the requirement that the
entropies at states 5 and 6 be the same:
State 6:
P6 = 10kPa,
x6 = 0.896 (saturated mixture)
s6 = sf + x6 sfg = 0.6493 + 0.896(7.5009) = 7.370 kJ/kg.K
Also,
h6 = hf + x6 hfg = 191.83 + 0.896(2392.8) = 2335.8 kJ/kg
Thus,
State 5:
T5 = 600C,
P5 = 4.0 MPa
s5 = s6
h5 = 3674.4 kJ/kg
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Therefore, steam should be reheated at a pressure of 4 MPa or lower

to prevent a moisture content above 10.4%
b) To determine the thermal efficiency, we need to know the enthalpies
at all others states:
State 1:
P1 = 10 kPa (Saturated liquid)

h1 = hf@10 kPa = 191.83 kJ/kg,
v1 = vf@10 kPa = 0.00101
kJ/kg
State 2:
P2 = 15 MPa,
s2 = s1
wpump,in = v1(P2-P1) = (0.00101)(15000-10) = 15.14 kJ/kg
h2 = h1 + wpump,in = 191.83 + 15.14 = 206.97 kJ/kg
State 3:
P3 = 15 MPa,
h3 = 3582.3 kJ/kg,
State 4:
P4 = 4 MPa,
s4 = s3
h4 = 3154.3 kJ/kg (375.5C)
T3 = 600C
s3 = 6.6776 kJ/kg.K
Thus,
qin h3 h2 h5 h4 3582.3 206.97 3674.4 3154.3 3895.4kJ / kg
q out h6 h1 2335.8 191.83 2144.0kJ / kg
and
th 1
q out
2144.0
1
0.450 @ 45.0%
qin
3895.4
Discussion:
This problem was solved in example 2.3(c) for the same pressure and
temperature limits but without the reheat process. A comparison of the
two resuts reveals that reheating reduces the moisture content from
19.6% to 10.4% while increasing the thermal efficiency from 43.0% to
45.0%.
2.7
The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle

A careful examination of the T-s diagram of the Rankine cycle
redrawn in figure 2.15 reveals that heat is transferred to the
working fluid during process 2-2 at a respectively low
temperature.
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This lowers the average heat addition temperature and thus the
cycle efficiency.
Figure 2.15
To remedy this shortcoming, we look for ways to raise the

temperature of the liquid leaving the pump (called the
feedwater) before it enters the boiler.
One such possibility is to transfer heat to the feedwater from the
expanding steam in a counter flow heat exchanger built into the
turbine, that is, to use regeneration.
This solution is also impractical because it is difficult to design
such a heat exchanger and because it would increase the
moisture content of the steam at the final stages of the turbine.
A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is
accomplished by extracting steam from the turbine at various
points.
This steam, which could have produced more work by expanding
further in the turbine, is used to heat the feedwater instead.
The device where the feedwater is heated by regenerator is
called a regenerator @ feedwater heater.
Regeneration not only improves cycle efficiency, but also
provides a convenient means of deaerating the feedwater
(removing the air leaks in at the condenser) to prevent corrosion
in the boiler.
It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at
the final stages of the turbine (due to the large specific volumes
at low pressures).
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is
transferred from the steam to the feedwater either by mixing the
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two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing

them (closed feedwater heaters).
2.7.1 Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing

chamber, where the steam extracted from the turbine mixes with
the feedwater exiting the pump.
Ideally, the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the
heater pressure.
The schematic of a steam power plant with one open feedwater
heater (also called single stage regenerative cycle) and the T-s
diagram of the cycle are shown in figure 2.16(a) and 2.16(b).
Figure 2.16(a)
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Figure 2.16(b)
In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine

at the boiler pressure (state 5) and expands isentropically to an
intermediate pressure (state 6).
Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the
feedwater heater, while the remaining steam continues to
expand isentropically to the condenser pressure (state 7).
This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the
condenser pressure (state 1).
The condensed water, which is also called the feedwater, then
enters an isentropic pump, where it is compressed to the feed
heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the feed water heater,
where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine.
The fraction of the steam extracted is such that the mixture
leaves the heater as saturated liquid at the heater pressure
(state 3).
A second pump raises the pressure of the water to the boiler
pressure (state 4).
The cycle is complete by heating the water in the boiler to the
turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plant it is convenient to work with
quantities expressed per unit mass of the steam flowing through
the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially
in the turbine and is extracted at state 6.
The remaining (1-y) kg expands completely to the condenser
pressure.
Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in the different
components.
If the mass flow rate through the boiler is m , for example, it will
be 1 y m through the condenser.

This aspect should be considered during the analysis of the
regenerative Rankine cycle.
By referring figure 2.16, the heat and work interactions of a
regenerative Rankine cycle with one feedwater heater can be
58

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the boiler as

follows:
qin h5 h4
q out 1 y h7 h1
wturb ,out h5 h6 1 y h6 h7
w pump ,in 1 y w pumpI ,in w pumpII ,in
(2.13)
(2.14)
(2.15)
(2.16)
where,
m6
(Fraction of steam extracted) (2.17)
m5
w pumpI ,in v1 P2 P1
(2.18)
w pumpII ,in v3 P4 P3
(2.19)
The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result

of regeneration.
This is because regeneration raises the average temperature at
which heat is transferred to the steam in the boiler by raising the
temperature of the water before it enters the boiler.
The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of
feedwater heaters is increased.
2.7.2 Closed Feedwater Heaters
Heat is transferred from the extracted steam to the feedwater

without any mixing taking place.
The two streams now can be at different pressures, since they do
not mix.
The schematic of a steam power plant with one closed feedwater
heater and the T-s diagram of the cycle are shown in figure
2.17(a) and 2.17(b).
59

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
Figure 2.17(a)
Figure 2.17(b)
In an ideal closed feedwater heater, the feedwater is heated to

the exit temperature of the extracted steam, which ideally leaves
the heater as a saturated liquid at the extraction pressure.
In actual power plants, the feedwater leaves the heater below
the exit temperature of the extracted steam because a
temperature difference of at least a few degrees is required for
any effective heat transfer to take place.
The condensed steam is then either pumped to the feedwater
line or routed to another heater or to the condenser through a
device called trap.
A trap allows the liquid to be throttled to a lower pressure region
but traps the vapor.
The enthalpy of steam remains constant during this throttling
process.
The open and closed feedwater heater can be compared as
follows:
Open feedwater heater

Simple
Closed feedwater heater

Complex
60

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
Inexpensive
Good heat transfer characteristic
Require separate pump for each
heater
Expensive
Heat transfer less effective
Not require separate pump for
each heater
Most steam power plants use a combination of open and closed

feedwater heater as shown in figure 2.18.
Figure 2.18
Example 2.5: The Ideal Regenerative Rankine Cycle.
Consider a steam power plant operating on the ideal regenerative
Rankine cycle with one open feedwater heater. Steam enters the
turbine at 15 MPa and 600 C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 10 kPa. Some steam leaves the turbine at a pressure of 1.2
MPa and enters the open feedwater heater. Determine the fraction of
steam extracted from the turbine and the thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Solution:
shown in figure 2.19(a) and 2.19(b). We note that the power plant
operates on the ideal cycle regenerative Rankine cycle. Therefore, the
61

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
pumps and the turbines are isemtropic; there are no pressure drops in
the boiler, condenser, and feedwater heater; and steam leaves the
condenser and the feedwater as saturated liquid.
Figure 2.19(a)
62

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
Figure 2.19(b)
Assumption:
Analysis:
First, we determine the enthalpies at various states:
State 1:
P1 = 10 kPa (Saturated liquid)

h1 = hf@10 kPa = 191.83 kJ/kg , v1 = vf@10 kPa = 0.00101 m3/kg
State 2:
P2 = 1.2 MPa,
s1 = s2
wpumpI,in = v1(P2-P1) = 0.00101(1200-10) = 1.20 kJ/kg
h2 = h1 + wpumpI,in = 191.83 + 1.20 = 193.03 kJ/kg
State 3:
P3 = 1.2 MPa
(Saturated liquid)
v3 = v f@1.2MPa = 0.001139 m3/kg
h3 = hf@1.2MPa = 798.65 kJ/kg
State 4:
P4 = 15 MPa,
s4 = s3
wpumpII,in = v3(P4-P3) = 0.001139(15000-1200) = 15.72 kJ/kg
h4 = h3 + wpumpII,in = 798.65 + 15.72 = 814.37 kJ/kg
State 5:
P5 = 15 MPa,
h5 = 3582.3 kJ/kg,
State 6:
P6 = 1.2 MPa,
s6 = s5
h6 = 2859.5 kJ/kg (T6 = 218.3C)
State 7:
P7 = 10 kPa,
x7
s7 s f
s fg
T5 = 600C
s5 = 6.6776 kJ/kg
s7 = s5
6.6776 0.6493
0.8037
7.5009
h7 h f x 7 h fg 191.83 0.8037( 2392.8) 2114 .9kJ / kg
The energy analysis of open feedwater heater is identical to the

energy analysis of mixing chambers. The feedwater heater is generally
well insulated (Q 0) , and they do not involve any work interaction
(W 0) .
By neglecting the kinetic and potential energies of the

steams, the energy balance reduces for feedwater heater to
E in E out
m h
i
63
he

Thermodynamic II
Chapter 2
Version 3
yh6 (1 y )h2 1( h3 )
where y is the fraction of steam extracted from the turbine
y m6
m5
Solving for y and substituting the enthalpy values, we find

y
h3 h2 798.65 193.03
0.2271
h6 h2 2859.5 193.03
Thus,
qin h5 h4 3582.3 814.37 2767.9kJ / kg
q out 1 y h7 h1 (1 0.2271)(2114 .9 191.83) 1486.3kJ / kg
and
th 1
q out
1486.3
1
0.463 @ 46.3%
qin
2767.9
Discussion:
This problem was worked out in example 2.3 for the same pressure
and temperature limits but without the regeneration process. A
comparison of the two results reveals that the thermal efficiency of the
cycle has increased from 43.0% to 46.3% as a result of regeneration.
The net work output decreased by 171 kJ/kg, but the heat input
decreased by 607 kJ/kg, which results in a net increase in the thermal
efficiency.
64


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Thermodynamic II

CHAPTER 2:VAPOR POWER CYCLES

The Carnot Vapor Cycle

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Figure 2.4 (a)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Figure 2.4(e): The simple ideal Rankine cycle.

Water enters the pump at state 1 as saturated liquid and is

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state 2 and

qin qout win wout he hi

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle is determined from

wnet q in q out wturb ,out w pump ,in

The thermal efficiency can also be interpreted as the ratio of the

Example 2.1: The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle.

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

condenser and enters the pump as saturated liquid at the condenser

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

h1=hf @ 75 kPa = 384.39 kJ/kg

wpump,in= v1(P2-P1) = (0.001037m3/kg)(3000-75kPa) = 3.03 kJ/kg

h3 = 3115.3 kJ/kg s3 = 6.7426 kJ/kg.K

P4 = 75 kPa (saturated mixture),

h4 h f x 4 h fg 384.39 0.8857( 2278.6) 2402.6kJ / kg

q in h3 h2 3115 .3 387.42 2727.9kJ / kg

q out h4 h1 2402.6 384.39 2018.2kJ / kg

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

2.4 Deviation of Actual Vapor Power Cycles from Idealized

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

A steam power plant operates on the cycle shown in figure 2.8(a). If

The thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Turbine work output:

Boiler heat input: q in h4 h3 3647.3 160.1 3487.2kJ / kg

wnet wturb ,out w pump ,in 1276.6 19 1257.6kJ / kg

Without the irreversibilities, the thermal efficiency of this cycle would

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

The power produced by this power plant is

Wnet m wnet 15(1257.6) 18864kW

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

The Factors That Can Increase The Efficiency of The

Lowering the condenser pressure (Lowers Tlow,av)

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

For comparison purposes, the turbine inlet state is

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

b) Increase the moisture content of the steam at

Superheating the steam to high temperatures

The colored area on this diagram represents the

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

The temperature to which steam can be superheated is

Increasing the boiler pressure (Increases Thigh,av)

For fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the

The effects of lowering the condenser pressure, superheating to

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle are illustrated with an

Example 2.3: Effect of boiler pressure and temperature on

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

h4 = hf + x4hfg = 191.83 + 0.8124(2392.8) = 2135.7 kJ/kg

Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal

Therefore the thermal efficiency increases from 26.0% to 33.5% as

h4 = 2379.9 kJ/kg (x4=0.914)