EMM 3122

Engineering Materials
Chap. 2: Mechanical Properties of
Alloy Metals
SEMESTER 1 (2016/2017)

Dr. Che Nor Aiza Jaafar

Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering Department
Engineering Faculty
University Putra Malaysia (UPM)
CNAIZA

Contents Review
Chap. 3: Mechanical properties of alloy metals
What you will learn?
- Concepts of stress and strain, tensile test
- True stress and true strain
- Shear stress and shear strain, hardness test and flexural
test

Mechanical Properties of Materials

The mechanical behavior of materials is described by their
mechanical properties which are measure by simple test.
Basic concept related to mechanical properties:
Stress, strain, elastic, plastic deformation, ductility, toughness.
The deformation process determine the mechanical properties
of materials: strength, hardness, stiffness and ductility
Deformation process :Elastic and plastic.

Strain-stress test
The concept is applying a uniaxial tensile load until bar breaks; increasing of
load and elongation are measured.

specimen

extensometer

specimen

Load - The force applied to a material

during testing. Force data is obtained
from Load cell

Strain gage or Extensometer - A device

used for measuring change in length
(strain).

Typical tensile test

machine

Tensile Test Machine

specimen

Concept of Stress and Strain in metal

Strength of materials can be tested by pulling the metal to
failure. Metals undergo deformation under uniaxial tensile force.

Engineering Stress:

Figure shows a metal bar in tension, i.e. the force F is

stretching force increases the length of the bar and
reduces its cross-section.
The area used in calculations of stress is generally the
original area Ao that existed before the application of the
forces (not the area after the force has been applied).
This stress is referred to as the engineering stress or
nominal stress :

F
s=
Ao

l0

[Unit: N/m2 or P]

Engineering Stress: Ratio of the applied load to the

original area of the specimen.

Metal bar in tension

Engineering Strain:
The dimensional change caused by a stress is called strain. In
tension (or compression), the strain is the ratio of the change
in length to the original length. The term strain is defined as:

l-l
e = lo

where l l0 = l, the change in length. Since strain is a ratio of

two lengths it has no units.

Engineering Strain: Ratio of the change in length to the original length.

Tensile Test

Commonly used test specimens

Results of such a tensile test can be
represented in the form of engineering
stressstrain curve.

Typical engineering
stress-strain curve

(Conti....)

Elastic and plastic

deformation
Typical stress-strain behavior for a
metal showing elastic and plastic
deformations.
The Proportional limit, P is the
gradual
elastic
to
plastic
transition.
The yield strength, y determine
using the 0.002 strain offset
method.

Elastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial

d
F
Elastic deformation:
Metal returns to its original
dimension after tensile force is
removed.

Elastic means reversible!

d = displacement (change in length)

Linearelastic

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

Plastic deformation:

The metal is deformed to such an extent that it cannot return to its

original dimension

F
Plastic means permanent!
linear
elastic

linear
elastic

dplastic

Plastic Deformation (Metals)

1. Initial

2. Small load

3. Unload

bonds
stretch
& planes
shear

delastic + plastic

linear
elastic

linear
elastic

dplastic

F
d

planes
still
sheared

Plastic = irrereversible

From an atomic perspective, plastic

deformation corresponds to the breaking of
bonds with original atom neighbors and then
reforming bonds with new neighbors.
After removal of the stress (load), the large
number of atoms that have relocated, do not
return to original position.

 Localized deformation of a ductile material during a tensile test

produces a necked region.
The image shows necked region in a fractured sample.

Permanent Deformation
Permanent deformation for metals is accomplished by a

process called slip, which involves the motion of dislocations.

Most structures are designed to ensure that only elastic

deformation results when the stress is applied.

A structure that has plastically deformed (experienced a

permanent change in shape) may not be capable of

functioning as intended.

Shear stress and strain

Shear stress ,

Shear strain,

S (Shear force)
A (Area of shear force application)

Amount of shear displacement

Distance h over which shear acts

q
Shear modulus
of elasticity
(modulus of
rigidity)

G=

Shear stress
Shear strain

Strain is always
dimensionless.

Poisons Ratio
When a bar is subjected to a simple tensile loading there is an increase in
length of the bar in the direction of the load.
Poissons ratio is the ratio of the strain in the lateral direction to that in
the longitudinal (axial) direction.
Poisons ratio =

e (lateral )

ey
=
=
e (longitudinal )
ez
w w0
=
0

Usually poisons ratio ranges from

0.25 to 0.4.
Example: Stainless steel
Copper

0.28
0.33

Stress-Strain Diagram

Ultimate
tensile
strength

s UTS

necking
Fracture strength /
Failure

Strain
Hardening

5
2
Elastic region
slope = Youngs modulus

Plastic
Region
Elastic
Region

=E
E=

E=

y
2 1

Plastic region
ultimate tensile strength
strain hardening
fracture

4
Strain, (DL/Lo)

Stress-Strain Diagram (conti)

Elastic Region (Point 12)
- The material will return to its original shape after the material
is unloaded (like a rubber band).
- The stress is linearly proportional to the strain in this region
Hookes Law

=E

or

E=

: Stress
E : Modulus of elasticity (Youngs Modulus)
: Strain

Yield Strength (sy)

Yield strength: a measure of resistance to plastic deformation.
In most metals (e.g., Al alloy)

doesnt have well defined yield

point.
Can use offset method to define

yield strength.
0.2% offset yield strength is that

strength at which 0.2 % plastic

deformation takes place.
Construction line, starting at 0.2 %

strain and parallel to elastic region

is drawn to 0.2% offset yield
strength.

Hookes Law
Hooke's Law: Stress proportional to strain (point 2)

s=Ee

Modulus of Elasticity, E:
(Young's modulus)

Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Modulus of elasticity (E) : Slope of the linear portion of the
stress-strain curve, it is usually specific to each material; a constant,
known value.

(Stress)
E=

E=

Stress

(Strain)

E is related to the atomic bonding strength.

Strain

Higher the bonding strength

higher is the modulus of elasticity.
Higher E metals are relatively stiff &
do not deflect easily.

Linear portion of the

Stress-strain curve

Examples: E of steel: 207 GPa.

E of Al: 76 GPa

21

Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS)

UTS (point 3): After yielding, the stress
necessary to continue plastic deformation in
metal increases to maximum (M) and then
decreases to the fracture point (F)
eventually.
The tensile strength (TS), also known as
ultimate tensile strength (UTS) the max
stress which the material can support
without breaking.
It is obtained by dividing maximum load by
original cross-sectional area of tensile
specimen.

s UTS = Fmax / A0

[N/m2 or Pa]

Neck acts
as stress
concentrator

Figure is typical engineering stressstrain

behavior to fracture of ductile metals such
as copper tested at room temperature.

UTS or TS: Stress at maximum in the engineering stress-strain curve (the largest value of stress).

Metals: occurs when noticeable necking starts.

Polymers: occurs when polymer backbone chains are aligned and about to break.

Tensile strength is lower if there are porosity or inclusion

in the material.

Stress-Strain Diagram (conti)

Strain Hardening (Point 4)
If the material is loaded again from Point 4, the curve will
follow back to Point 3 with the same elastic modulus (slope).
The material now has a higher yield strength of Point 4.
Raising the yield strength by permanently straining

material is called strain Hardening.

the

Strain Energy
When a load is applied to the material, the deformations cause

strain energy to be stored in the material.

The strain energy per unit volume or strain energy density is

equivalent to the area under the stress strain curve.

The area up to the yield point: modulus of resilience, ur.
The entire area under the stress strain diagram: modulus of

toughness, ut.

Strain Energy (conti..)

Modulus of Resilience, ur.
When
stress
reaches
the
proportional limit, the strainenergy density is the modulus of
resilience, ur.

1
1 s pl
u r = s ple pl =
2
2 E
2

Notice that r is equivalent to the shaded triangular area under the diagram.
Material resilience represents the ability of the material to absorb energy
without any damage to the material.
Unit: J / m3

Strain Energy (conti..)

Modulus of Toughness, ut
Modulus of toughness, ut, represents the entire area under
the stressstrain diagram.
It indicates the strain-energy density of the material just
before it fractures.
Modulus of toughness is imp. when
designing members that may be
accidentally overload.
High value ut the material will
distort greatly due to an overloading.
Low value ut the material may
suddenly fracture without warning of
an approaching failure.

Fracture strength
Fracture strength (Point 5)
If the material is stretched (pulled) beyond Point 3, the stress
decreases as necking and non-uniform deformation occur (less
energy required to stretch the material).
Fracture or failure (breaking strength) will finally occur at Point 5
corresponds to the stress at fracture.
The more ductile the metal the more is the necking before
failure.
Drop in stress strain curve is due to stress calculation based on
original area (Ao).

Ductility
Ductility: A measure of the plastic deformation that has been
sustained at fracture.
It can be measured by:
(i) percent elongation (% plastic strain at fracture)
(ii) percent reduction in area.
A material that suffers very little plastic deformation is brittle.

Engineering
tensile
stress,

smaller %EL
(brittle if %EL<5%)
larger %EL
(ductile if
%EL>5%)

Engineering tensile strain,

Percent Elongation
Percent elongation is a measure of ductility of a material.
It is the elongation of the metal before fracture expressed as

percentage of original length.

% Elongation = Final length initial Length

x 100%

Initial Length

% EL =

Lf Lo
x 100
Lo

Measured using a caliper fitting the fractured metal together.

Example:- % elongation of pure Al = 35 %
For 7076-T6 Al alloy = 11 %

6-20

Percent Reduction in Area

Percent reduction area is also a measure of ductility of

material.
The diameter of fractured end of specimen is measured
using caliper.
% Reduction Initial area Final area
=
Area
Initial area

% AR =

Ao A f
Ao

x100

Percent reduction in area in metals decreases in case of

presence of porosity.

6-21

Toughness
Toughness: The ability of a metal to deform plastically
and to absorb the energy in the process before fracture..
A combination of strength and ductility and opposite of
brittleness.
A material with high strength and high ductility will have
more toughness than a material with low strength and high
ductility.
To measure toughness calculate the area under the
stress strain curve from a tensile test.
Units = energy per volume.

Toughness
Small toughness: ceramics
Large toughness: metals

Brittle fracture :
Ductile fracture:

A tough material has

strength and ductility.

elastic energy
elastic + plastic energy

The Stress-strain curve for different

materials

True Stress and True Strain*

The decrease in engineering stress beyond the tensile strength on the

engineering stress-strain curve is related to definition of engineering
stress. We used the original Ao in calculation, but this not precise
because the area continually changes. Therefore we define:

(a) True stress - The load, F divided by the actual cross-sectional

area, Ai (small) of the specimen at that load, given by st = F/Ai

(b) True strain - The strain calculated using actual length, li (large) and
not original dimensions, given by t = ln(li /l0).

If no volume change occurs during deformation: Aili = Aolo therefore true

and engineering stress and strain related according to:

True stress:

True strain:

sT = s1 e
eT = ln1 e

True stress is always greater than engineering stress.

True Stress and True Strain

The relation between the true stress-true

strain diagram and engineering stressengineering strain diagram.
The curves are identical to the yield
point.

Units and conversion factors

Polymer deformation
In
an
undeformed
thermoplastic polymer
tensile sample:
(a) The polymer chains are
randomly oriented.
(b) When a stress is
applied, a neck develops as
chains become aligned
locally. The neck continues
to grow until the chains in
the entire gage length have
aligned.
(c) The strength of the
polymer is increased. The
chain
will
break
if
continues stress is applied.

Hardness and Hardness Testing

Hardness: the resistance to plastic deformation (e.g., a local

dent or scratch).
Two reasons hardness test is used extensively in industry

for quality control:

(a) Much simpler than tensile test
(b) Can be non-destructive.
Hardness is directly proportional to strength.

Hardness and Hardness Testing

General procedure:
Press the indenter that
is harder than the metal
Into metal surface.

Withdraw the indenter

Measure hardness by
measuring depth or
width of indentation.

Rockwell hardness
tester
The depth or size of the indentation is measured, and
corresponds to a hardness number.

Hardness

(conti)

Large hardness means:

resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in
compression.
better wear properties.
The softer the material, the larger and deeper the
indentation (and lower hardness number).
apply known force

measure size
of indent after
removing load

e.g.,
10 mm sphere

D
most
plastics

brasses
Al alloys

Smaller indents
mean larger
hardness.

d
easy to machine
steels
file hard

cutting
tools

increasing hardness

nitrided
steels

diamond

Why use hardness test?

Easy to perform
Quick - 1 to 30 seconds
Relatively inexpensive
Non-destructive
Finished parts can be tested - but not ruined
Virtually any size and shape can be tested
Practical quality control procedure incoming or outgoing of
materials.

The most common uses for hardness tests is to verify the heat
treatment of a part and to determine if a material has the
properties necessary for its intended use.
Establishing a correlation between the hardness result and the
desired material property allows this, making hardness tests
very useful in industrial and R&D applications.

Hardness Scales

There are four major hardness scales:

Brinell - HB
Knoop - HK
Rockwell - HR
Vickers HV

Each of these scales involve the use of a specifically shaped

diamond, tungsten carbide or hardened steel indenter.
The hardness values are determined by measuring either the
depth of indenter penetration or the size of the resultant
indent.
All of the scales are arranged so that the hardness values
determined increase as the material gets harder.
The hardness values are reported using the proper symbol,
HR, HV, HK etc indicating the test scale performed.

Hardness: Measurement

The bend test (Flexural test)

The transverse bending test is most frequently employed, in which a
rod specimen having either a circular or rectangular cross-section is
bent until fracture using a three point flexural test technique.
P
b

Rectangular sample geometry

Sample under 3 point bending

Flexural stress (sf): calculated at any point on the load-deflection

curve:

sf = 3PL/2bd2

(1)

sf is stress in the outer fibre flexural strength (MPa)

P is the load (force) at a given point on the load
- deflection curve (N)
L is the length of the support span (mm)
b is width (mm)
d is thickness (mm)

Flexural test
Flexural strength (sfM) or modulus of
rupture: the maximum flexural stress
required to fracture a specimen in
bending test. It is defined as its ability to
resist deformation under load.

Some materials that do not break at

strains of up to 5% give a load
deflection curve that shows a point at
which the load does not increase with
an increase in strain, that is a yield
point, Y (curve b). The flexural strength
may be calculated for these materials by
letting P (Eq 1) equal to Y.

sfm = 3YL/2bd2

(2)

(conti)
B
Y

P
B

Typical Curves of Flexural Stress ()

versus Flexural Strain (e). Curve a:
specimen that breaks before yielding,
Curve b: specimen that yield and then
breaks before the 5 % strain limit and
Curve c: specimen that neither yields nor
breaks before the 5% strain limit.

Flexural test

Flexural stress at break (sfb): is calculated

according eq. 1 for materials may give a load
deflection curve that show a break point, B
without yield point (curve a in the figure) in
which case :

(conti)
B
Y

B
P

sfb = sfm

Flexural strain, ef: nominal fractional

change in the length of an element of the
outer surface of the test specimen at
midspan, where the maximum strain occurs.

ef = 6Dd/L2

(3)

where ef is strain in the outer surface, mm/mm,

D is maximum deflection of the center of the
beam, mm.

Typical Curves of Flexural Stress () versus

Flexural Strain (e). Curve a: specimen that
breaks before yielding, Curve b: specimen
that yield and then breaks before the 5 %
strain limit and curve c: specimen that
neither yields nor breaks before the 5%
strain limit.

Flexural test (Polymeric material)

Modulus of Elasticity (MOE) or flexural modulus is the ratio, within the
elastic limit, of stress to corresponding strain. It is calculated by drawing a
tangent to the steepest initial straight-line portion of the load-deflection
curve :

E = L3m/4bd3

(3)

E = modulus of elasticity in bending (MPa)

L = the length of the support span (mm)
b = sample width (mm)
d = sample thickness (mm)
m = slope of the tangent to the initial straight-line portion of the
load-deflection curve (N/mm) of deflection.

The Bend Test for Brittle

Materials

The stress-strain behavior of brittle ceramics is not

usually obtained by a tensile test.
(i) It is difficult to prepare and test brittle specimens with
specific geometry (tensile specimen).
(ii) It is difficult to grip brittle materials without fracturing
them.
(iii) Ceramics fail after roughly 0.1% strain; specimen
have to be perfectly aligned.

The bend test (flexural test) often used for measuring the
strength of brittle materials.

Flexural test for brittle materials

(c)2003 Brooks/Cole, a division of Thomson Learning, Inc. Thomson Learning is a trademark used herein
under license.

(a) The bend test often used for measuring the strength of brittle
materials, and (b) the deflection obtained by bending.

Flexural strength sf = 3FL/2wh2

Modulus of Elasticity / Flexural modulus (E) = L3 F/4wh3d
d = deflection of the beam when a force (F) is applied.

TERIMA KASIH