Power System Operation and Control

90
Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)
lOEE82
POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

SYLLABUS
Subject Code
1-OEE82
IAMarks
25
No. of Lecture Hrs./

Week
04
Exam
Hours
03
Total No. of Lecture

Hrs.
52
Exam
Marks
100
PART-A
UNIT-l
'.
CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

Power. system control and operating states, control center, digital computer configuration,
automatic
generation control, area control error, operation
without central computers, expression
.
'.
for tie-line flow and frequency deviation, parallel operation of generators, area lumped dynamic
model.
8 Hours
UNIT -2 & 3
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
Basic generator control Joops, Cross-coupling
between control loops, Exciter types, Exciter modeling, Generator modeling, Static performance
ofAVR loop.
AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL:
Auto~atic Load frequency control o:f.~iI!glearea systems,. Speed governing system? Hydraulic
valve actuator, Turbine generator response, Static performance of speed governor, Closing-of
ALFC loop, Concept of control area, Static response of primary ALEC loop, Integral control,
A~FC of multi-control area systems (POOL operationj.The Two-Area system, Modeling the
Tie-Line, Block .Diagram representation of Two-Area system, Static response of Two-Area
system and Tie-Line Bias control.
12 Hours
UNIT-4
CONTROL
OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE
POWER: Introduction, generation and
absorption of reactive power, relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node,
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Department of EEE, SJBIT
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Power System Operation and Control (pSOC)
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single machine infmite bus systems, methods of voltage control, sub synchronous resonance,
voltage stability, voltage collapse.
6 Hours
PART-B
UNIT -5
OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AN.D UNIT COMMITMENT:
Introduction, Optimal
operation of generators on a bus bar, Statement of the Unit Commitment problem, need and
importance of unit commitment, Constraint in Unit Commitment, Unit Commitment solution
methods-Priority lists method, Forward Dynamic Programming meihod( excluding problem),
. Spinning reserve. .
. 6 Hours
UNIT -6
POWER SYSTEM SECURITY: Introduction, 'factors affecting power system security,
Security analysis, - Contingency Selection,Techniques for contingency
evaluation-D.C. load flow
~..
arid. fast decoupled load flow.
.'
6 Houts
UNIT 7
SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL: Introduction, Energy management system, the
basis of power system state estimation(PSSE), mathematical description of PSSE process,
minimization technique for PSSE, Least Square estimation, Error and detection in PSSE, System
security and emergency controL
6 Hours
. UNIT-8
POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY: Introduction, Modes of failures of a 'system, Generating
system and its performance, derivation of reliability index, reliability measure for N-unit system,
cumulative probability outages-Recursive Relation, Loss of load probability, Frequency and
duration of a state.
8 Hours
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TEXTBOOKS:
1. Modem Power System Analysis-I J Nagarath and D P Kothari, TMH, 3rd Edition, 2003
2. Electrical Energy Systems Theory, O.J Elgerd, TMH,2008.

3.- . Power generation, operation and control-Allen J Wood & Woollenberg.John Wiley and
Sons ,Second Edition, 2009.

4. Electric Power Systems-B.M.Weedy and B.J. Cory, Wiley student edition, 1999
5. Computer Aided Power System Operation and Analysis-R.N. Dhar, Tata McGraw-Hill,
1987.
REFERENCE:
1.. Computer Aided Power System Analysis-G.L.Kusic, PHI,2019.
2: Power System Analysis, Operation and Control;. Abhijit .Chakrabarti and Sunita Halder,
PHI, Second Edition, 2009
3. Power system stability and control, Prabha Kundur,TMH, 9th reprint, 2007.
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CONTENTS-
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SI.No
1
Title of the Chapter
Page No.
UNIT - 1 CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF

POWER SYSTEMS
05
UNIT- 2 & 3 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGEREGULATOR &

2
30
AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
--
UNIT- 4 CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND REACTNE POWER
40 -
UNIT-5 OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT
65
COMMITMENT
5
--
--
- UNIT- 6 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
--
123
131
UNIT- 7 SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL
UNIT- 8 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY
Department ofEEE, SJBIT
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PART-A
UNIT-l
--
CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

Power system control and operating states, control center, digital computer configuration,
automatic generation control, area control error, operation without central computers, expression
for tie-line flow and frequency deviation, parallel operation of generators, area lumped dynamic
model.
8 Hours
General
Electrical Technology was founded on the remarkable discovery by Faraday that a changing
magnetic flux creates an electric field. Out of that discovery, grew the largest and most complex
engineering achievement of man; the electric power system. Indeed, life without electricity is
now unimaginable. Electric power systemsform the basic infrastructure of a country. Even as we
read this, electrical energy is being produced at rates in excess of hundreds of giga-watts (1 GW
= 1,006,000,000 W). Giant rotors spinning at speeds up to 3000 rotations per minute bring us.the
energy stored in.the potential energy of water, or Lnfossil fuels. Yet we notice electricity only
when the lights go out!
While the basic features of the electrical power system have remained practically unchanged in
the past century, but there are some significant milestones in the evolution of electrical power
systems.
Topics to be studied
(i) Introduction to SCADA
(ii) Control Centre
(iii)Digital Computer Configuratjo_n

(iv)Automatic Generation Control
(v) Area Control Error
i
(vi)Operation Without Central Computers

(vii)
Expression for Tie Line Flow
(viii)
Parallel Operation of Generators
(ix)Area Lumped DYE.emicModel.

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Introduction
Electrical energy is an essential ingredient for the industrial and all round development of
any country. It is generated centrally in bulk and transmitted economically over long
distances.
Electrical energy is conserved at every step in the process of Generation, Transmission,
Distribution and utilization of electrical energy. The electrical utility industry is probably the
largest and most complex industry in the world and hence very complex and challenging
problems to be handled by power engineering particularly, in designing future power system
to deliver increasing amounts of electrical energy. This calls for perfect. understanding,
analysis and decision making of the system. This power system operation and its control play
a very important task in the world of Electrical.Power Engineering.
Power Quality
. Power quality is characterized by Stable AC voltages
at
near nominal values and at near rated frequency subject to
acceptable minor variations, free from annoying voltage flicker, voltage sags and
frequency fluctuations.
Near sinusoidal current and voltage wave.forms free from higher order harmonics
All electrical equipments are rated to operate at near rated voltage and rated frequency.
Effects of Poor Power Quality

Maloperation of control devices, relays etc.
Extra losses in capacitors, transformers and rotating machines
Fast ageing of equipments
Loss of production due to service interruptions
Electro-magnetic interference due to transients'
power fluctuation not tolerated by power electronic parts
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Major causes o_fPoorPower Quality
- Nonlinear Loads
- Adjustable speed drives
- Traction Drives
- Start of large motor loads
- Arc furnaces
- Intermittent load transients
- Lightning
- Switching Operations
- Fault.Occurrences
Steps to address Power Quality issues

Detailed field measurements
Monitor electrical&.. parameters at various places to assess
the operating conditions
in terms of
..
",
&
power quality.
Detailed studies using a computer model. The accuracy of computer model is first built to
the degree where the observed simulation values matches with those of the field
measurement values. This provides lIS with a reliable computer model using which we
workout remedial measures.
For the purpose of the analysis we may use load flow studies, dynamic simulations,
EMTP simulations, harmonic analysis depending on the objectives of the studies.
We also-evaluate the effectiveness of harmonic' filters through the computer model built,
paying due attention to any reactive power compensation that these filters rna):provide.at
fundamental frequency for normal system operating conditions .

The equipment ratings will also be addressed to account for harmonic current flows
and consequent overheating.
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Power Quality Solutions:

Poor power quality in the form of harmonic distortion or low power factor increases stress on a
facility's electrical system. Over time this increased electrical stress will shorten the life
expectancy of electrical equipment. In addition to systemlIegradation, poor power quality can
cause nuisance tripping and unplanned shutdowns within electrical system.
In an increasingly automated electrical world, it is important for a facility to evaluate power
quality. Harmonic distortion, low power factor, and the presence of other transients can cause
severe damage to electrical system equipment. PSE provides system analysis and evaluation of
power quality issues and makes recommendations for system design solutions.
Structure of Power Systems

Generating Stations, transmission lines and the distribution systems are the main components of
an electric power system. Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
thm.smissi~nlines, which_also connect one power. system (grid, area) to another. A distribution
system connects all the loads in a particular area to the transmission lines.
For economical technical reasons, individual power systems are organized-in the form of
electrically connected areas or regional grids.
As power systems increased in size, so did the number of lines, substations, transformers,
switchgear etc. Their operation and interactions became more complex and hence it is necessary
to monitor this information simultaneously for the total system at a focai point called as E-iiergy
Control Centre. The fundamental design feature is increase in system reliabil~ty and economic
feasibility.
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Major Concerns of Power System Design and Operation
Quality: Continuous at desired frequency and voltage level
Reliability: Minimum failure rate of components and systems
Security: Robustness" nonnaI state even after disturbances
Stability: Maintain synchronism under disturbances
Economy: Minimize Capital, running and maintenance Costs
1.2Need for Power System Management

Demand for Power Increasing every day
- No of transmission line, Sub-stations, Transformers, switchgearetc.,
Operation and Interaction is more and more complex
Essential to monitor simultaneously for the total system at it focal point
ENERGY LOAD CENTRE
Components of power system operation and control
Information gathering and processing
. Decision and.control
System integration
Energy Load Centre

The function of energy load centre is to control the function of coordinating the response
in both normal and emergency conditions. Digital Computers are very effectively used
for the purpose. Their fmiction is. to process the data, detect abnormalities, alarm the
human oper~tor by lights, buzzers, screens etc., depending on the severity of the
problem.
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Control Centre of a Power System

Human Machine Interface - equipped with
~ -.CR.T presentations
Keyboards - change parameters
Special function keyboards- alter transformer taps, switchline capacitors etc.,
Light-Pen cursor - open or close circuit breakers
Alarm lights, alarms, dedicated telephone communications with generating

stations and transmission substations, neighboring power utilities
Control Features - Control Centre

System Commands - Mode of control
Units - base / peak load
AGC - Automatic Generation Control
Data Entry :
Alarms - To find source ofalarm and necessary action,
Plant/Substation selection
Special Functions - To send/retrieve data etc.,
Readout control- Output to CRT/printers etc.,
CPU control - Selection for the computer
Functions of Control Centre
Short, Medium and ~ong-teim Load Forecasting.
System Pla~niD~:
Unit Commitment and maintenance Scheduling
Security Monitoring
State Estimation
Economic Dispatch
toad Frequency Control
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SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition:

One of key processes of SCADA is the ability to monitor an entire system in real time. This is
facilitated by data acquisjtions including meter reading, checking statuses of sensors, etc that are
communicated at regular intervals depending on the system.
A well planned and implemented SCADA system not only helps utilities deliver power reliably
and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower the costs and achieve higher customer
satisfaction and retention.
SCADA - Why do we need it?
If we did not have SCADA, we would have very inefficient use of human
resources and this would cost us (Rs.Rs.Rs)
In today's restructured environment SCAPAls critical in handling the volume Of data

needed in a timely fashion.
Servicerestoration would involve travel time and would be significantly higher
It is essential tq maintairi reliability
SCADA - Architecture
Basic elements are sensors which measure the desired quantities
Current Transformers CTs - measure currents and Potential Transformers PTsmeasurevoltages.
Today there is a whole new breed ofIntelligent eiectronic devices (IEDs)
This data is fed to a remote terminal unit (RTU)
.:
The.master computer or unit resides at the .controlcenter EMS
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SCADA - Process
Master unit scan RTUs for reports, if reports exist, RTU sends back the data and the
master computer places it in memory
In some new substation architectures there could be significant local processing of data
which could then be sent to the control center.
The data is then displayed on CRTs and printed
SCADA - Logging
The SCADA provides a complete log of the system
The log could be provided for the entire system or part of the system
Type of information provided Time of event
- Circuit breaker status
.- Current measurements, voltage measurements, calculated flows, energy, etc.
. - Line and equipment ratings
SCADA as a System
There are many parts of a working SCADA system. A SCADA system usually includes signal
hardware ,(inp~t and output), controllers, networks" user interface (HMI), communications
equipment and software. All together, the term SCADA refers to the entire central system. The
central system usually monitors data from various sensors that are either in close proximity or off
site (sometimes miles away).
.:
For the most part; the brains of a SCADA s~stem are perfoimed by the Remote Terminal Units
(sometimes referred to as the RTU). The Remote Terminal Units consists
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of a programmable logic converter, The RTU are usually set to specific requirements, however,
most RTU allow human intervention, for instance, in a factory setting, the RTU might control the
setting of a conveyer belt, and the speed can be changed or overridden at any time by human
intervention. In addition, any changes or errors are usually automatically logged for and/ordisplayed. Most often, a SCADA system will monitor and make slight changes to function
optimally; SCADA systems are considered closed loop systems and run with relatively little
human intervention.
SCADA can be seen a,sa system with many data elements called points. Usually each point is a
, monitor or sensor. Usually points can be either hard or soft. A hard data point can be an actual
monitor; a soft point can beseen as an application or software calculation. Data elements from
. hard and soft points are usually always recorded and loggedto create a time stamp or history
User Interface -: Human Machine Interface' (HMI)
A SCADA system includes a user interface, usually called Human Machine Interface (HMI).
The HMI of a SCADA'
system is where data is processed and presented to be viewed and
. :.
monitored by a human operator. This interface usually includes controls where the individual can
interface with the SCADA system.
HMI's are an easy way to standardize the facilitation of monitoring multiple RTV's or PLC's
(programmable logic controllers). Usually RTV's or PLC's will run a pre programmed process,
but monitoring each of them jndividually can be difficult, usually because they are spread out
over the' system. Because.RTV's and PLC's historically had no standardized method to display or
. present data to an'operator, the SCADA system communicates with PLC's throughout the system
network and processes information that is easily disseminated by the HMI.
HMI's can also be linked to a database, which can use data gathered from PLC's or RTU's to
provide graphs on trends, logistic info, schematics for a specific sensor or
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Machine or even make troubleshooting guides accessible. In the last decade, practically all
SCADA systems include an integrated HMI and PLC device making it extremely easy to run and
monitor a SCADA system.
Today's SCADA systems, in response to changing business needs, have added new
functionalities and are aiding strategic advancements towards interactive, self healing smart grids
of the future. A modem SCADA system is also a strategic investment which is a must-have for
utilities of all sizes facing the challenges of the competitive market and increased levels of real
time data exchange that comes with it (Independent Market Operator, Regional Transmission
Operator, Major C&I establishments etc). A well planned..and implemented SCADA system not
only helps utilities deliver power reliably and safely to their customers but it also helps to lower
the costs and achieve higher customer satisfaction and retention. ~odem SCADA systems are
already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities towards achieving:
New ievelsin electric grid reliability- increased reyenue ..

Proactive problem detection and resolution .:_higher reliability.
Meeting the mandated power quality requirements -- increased customer satisfaction.
Real time strategic decision making - cost reductions and increased revenue
Critical Functions of SCADA

Following functions are carried out every 2 seconds:
Switchgear Position, Transformer taps, Capacitor banks
Tie line flows and interchange schedules"
Generator loads, voltage etc.,
Verification on links between computer and remote equipment
Modern SCADA systems are already contributing and playing a key role at many utilities
towards achieving:
- New levels in electric grid reliability - increased revenue.
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- Proactive problem detection and resolution - higher reliability.
- Meeting the mandated power quality requirements - increased customer

satisfaction.
- Real time strategic decision making -=COStreductions and increased revenue.
1.4 Digital Computer Configuration

Major functions
- Data acquisition control
- Energy Management
- System Security
F9r best/secured operation 100%redundancy is used - Dual Digital Computers
i) on-line computer - monitors and controls the system
ii) Backup computer - load forecasting or hydro thermal allocations
The digital computers are usually employed in a fixed-cycle operating mode with priority
interrupts wherein the computer periodically performs a list of operation. The most critical
functions have the fastest scan cycle. Typically the following categoties are scanned every 2
seconds:
An status points such as switchgear position (open or closed), substation loads and
voltages, transformer tap positions, and capacitor banks etc.,
Tie line flows and interchange schedules
Generator loads, voltage, operating limits and boiler capacity
.:
Telemetry verificationto detect failures and errors in the bilateral communication links
between the digital computer and the remote equipment.
1.5 Important Areas of Concern in power System

Au~omaticGeneration Control (AGC)
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On-line Computer Control that maintains overall system frequency and net tie-line load
exchange through interconnection
Economic Load Dispatch
- O~
computer control to supply load demand using ali interconnected
system's power in the most economical manner
AGC is the name given to a control system having three major objectives:
a. To hold system frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value (50 or 60Hz)
b. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas
c. To maintain each unit's generation at the most economic value.
To implementanAGC system, the followinginformation is required:

Unit megawatt output of each committed unit
Megawatt flow over each tie line to neighboring systems .:
System frequency
Usually, neighboring power companies are interconnected by one .or more transmission lines
called Tie Lines. The objective is to buy or sell power with neighboring systems whose
operating costs make such transactions profitable. Also, even if no power is being transmitted
over ties to neighboring system, if one system has a sudden loss of a generating unit, the units
throught all the interconnection will experience a frequency change and can help in restoring
frequency.
Advantages of interconnected system
-
Reduces Reserve Capacity - thus reduces installed capacity

Capital Cost/kW is less for larger Unit
- in India single unit can support >500MW because of
interconnection
Effective Use of Generators

Optimization of Generation - installed capacity is reduced
Reliability
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Disadvantages of interconnected system

Fault get Propagated - calls for fast switchgear
CB rating increases
Proper management required - EMS and it must be automated - Economic load dispatch
- Base load and Peak Load
National Regional Electricity Boards

Northern Regional Electricity Board
Western Regional Electricity Board
Southern Regional Electricity Board

Eastern ~egional Electricity Board
North-east Regional Electricity Board
Goal- To have National Grid to improve efficiency of the whole National Power Grid
.
Control Area Concept

All generators are tightly coupled together to form - Coherent Group
- all generators respond to changes in load or speed changer settirig
Control Area - frequency is assumed to be csnstant throughout in static and dynamic
conditions
For the purpose of analysis, a control area can be reduced to a single speed governor, turbo
generator and load system
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Interconnected Power System
-_
Electrical
boundary of
the area
Functions
Exchange or sale of power
Disturbed areas taking other area's help
Long distance sale and transfer of power
1.6 Area Control Err~r -
ACE
To maintain a net interchange of power with its area neighbors, an AGC uses real power flow
measurements ?f all tie linesa emanating from.the area and subtracts the scheduled interchange
to calculate an error value. The net power interchange, together with a gain, B (MW/O.IHz),
I
called the frequency bias, as a multiplier on the frequency deviation is called the Area Control
Error (ACE) given by,
k
Pk-_ r, + B{f
act _
fo) MW
- k=l
Pk = Power in Tie lIne - +ve - out of the area

Ps - Scheduled Power Interchange
fo - Base frequency, fact- Actual frequency
+ve ACE indicates flow out of the area.
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ACE - Input to AGC
... .SII. nllll.to

f1Mntoq
in lIRa
}
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.The real power summation of ACE loses information as to the flow of individual tie lines but is
concerned with area net generation. The tie lines transfer power through the area from one
neighbor to the next, called 'Wheeling Power'. The wheeling power cancels algebraically in the
-ACE. Thus one area purchases or sells blocks of power (MWb) with non-neighbor utilities.
Power Sale from A to C
A - selling a power 'p' to C, then ACE for A = P

Power export starts until its AGE forces ACE to become zero
AreaC infroduces '-p' into its ACE
Power flows in to area C until its ACE becomes zero
Areas B & C must be aware of the power exchange as they are also
interconnected _
The minimum requirements of AGC on controlling the interchange of power and frequency havebeen established by NERC - North American Electric Reliability Council, which is comprised of
representatives of the major operating power pools. This committee specifies the following
criteria as minimum performance expected by AGe. A. Normal System Conditions
- ACE = 0 at least once in 10 min period
- - Deviation of ACE from zero must be within allowable limits B.
Disturbances Conditions
- ACE must return to zero within 10 min
- Corrective action from AGC must be within a minimum disturbance
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Daily Load Cycle
. The allowable limit, La of the average deviation on power systems (averaged over 10
minutes) is :
Ld = O.025~L -+ 5.0 MW
~L = ~PI ~t MW/hr
The value of ~L is determined annually and is taken from the daily load cycle. A power
system is said to beina disturbance condition if the ACE signal exceeds 3Ld.
.1.7 Operation without Central Computers or AGC
Power Syst~ms are capable of functioning even without Central Computer and/or AGC
- Due to a result of Turbine Generator speed controls in the generating station and
natural load reg~Jation
- Thus generators within an area are forced to share load and cause
interconnected areas to share load
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50.5
~
~
>.
~ 50
GI
=50
Q;
50
S.
Q;
49.5
49.5
Excess Gen Deficient Gen
LOBaseLoad
Load(M\V)
Generatio~(M\\I)
The area connected load is defined by the curve LL as shown. As there is.increase in load the
rotating machinery in the area is forced to increase the speed .:
Basic Equations
GA = Go +lOBi (fa~t- fo)
GA= Total Generation,
MW
LA=Lo +10P2 (fact- fo)
MW
Go = Base generation
LA= Total-Load, Lo= Base load, fact= System frequency,

~I = Cotangent
MW/O.l
fo= Base frequency
of generation-frequency characteristic,
Hz<O
P2 = Cotangent of load-frequency characteristic,'MW/O.l
Hz> 0
1.7.2 Isolated Operation in A - response to load change
GG = Generator
LL = Load
<'~C = Comp.osite Generator plu; Load
(.;
<,
"
...."
<,
....... , ....... ,
50
MW
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For Steady State Frequency - Total generation = Total effective load This is
defined by the intersection of GG and LL curves as shown - 10.
Combined characteristic of GG and LL is CC. The composite generation load frequency
characteristics is given by,
GA = Go +1OPI (fact- fo), LA =
Lo + 1OJh (fact- fo)

GA - LA= Go +1OPI (fact- fo) - Lo -1 OP2 (fae!- fo)
Increase in load in 'A' moves the load frequency curve to position L'L'. The new system
frequency will now be defined by the intersection labeled as Ii at 49.9Hz.Then it is desired to
return the system frequency to 50.0Hz i.e., point h.
Setting AGC in 'A' - shifting of GG to G' G' takes place to meet frequency demand of
50.0Hz- 12
Resulting combined char~cteristic is C'C' In terms of increments,
A=GA
- Go+ Lo - LA = 1O~I (fact- fo) -1O~ (fact- fo)

=
A=GA
lOBA XA ~f
MW
- Go + Lo - LA = 1O~I (fact- fo) -1O~2(fact- fo).

=10BAXAM
MW
BA - Naturalregulationcharacteristic - % gen for O.IHz
o'
XA ~ Generating Capacity of
Frequency deviation = M
Considering Tie line flow, Frequency deviation
Hz
A
+ f'j,TL - Net Megawatt change
~TL = ~GA - ~LA

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Let two areas A and B are interconnected through a Tie Line. Thus both Generation and Load
frequency are equal to 50.0 Hz. There is no initial Tie Line Power Flow.
-_
== 51.1i-__,,"'_":::;:'iik-~e-----::;~---;0:.
i-II
50
r:: 49.91---~"""""~~~~+,_-~
Disturbance occur at B causing frequency to drop to 49.9Hz

Area generation does riot match with effective load in A
Difference between II and 12 - difference between generation arid load - net excess
power in the area - flows out of A towards B
.,
."
, Contributory" effects in A are'decrease in load power L1Land increase

generation' L1G'
III
Tie Line Flow from A to B = L1T L = (~GA - ~LA ) MW

If area A has AGC, tie line flows increases - ~TL' and ~TL" representing increased
amountsof bias due to AGe.
Frequency change due to disturbance B for a tie line power flow from A to B is Af'=
L1TL/ (lOBB XB)
B _
Hz
~TL = (lOBA XA)
AB /
(lOBA XA + 10BB XB) MW
Net po~er change if! B is

- AB - ~TL
= (lOBB XB) AS/ (lOBA XA +lOBB XB)

IOBBXB)~f
Hence, Af / AB= l/(lOBA XA+ lOBs XB)
AB=(lOBAXA+
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Power System Operation
and Control
(PSOC)
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Example
Two areas A and B are interconnected. Generating capacity of A is 36,OOOMwwith
regulating characteris"tic of 1.5%/O.1Hz. B has 4000MW with 1%/O.1Hz. Find each area's
share of +400MW disturbance (load "increase) occurring in B and resulting tie line flow.
Sol:
Af= AB 1 (10 BAXA + 10 BBXB = 400/ -10(0.015)(36,000) -10(0.01)(4000) =0.06896 Hz
Tie Line flow = ATL= (lOBA XA) ABI(lOBA XA +IOBB XB) = 5400*400/4800 =
372.4MW
Smaller system need only 27.6 MW
Frequency regulation is much better"
1.8 Parallel Operation of Generators

Tie line flows and frequency droop described for interconnected power areas are composite
characteristics based on par~lel operation of generators: Each area could maintain its speed w
= 2 f,.then aload common.to both areas, by superposition have the terminal voltage,
:t'
= Visinwit+
Vzsinwzt,Where, 1&2 representsareas and time in sees.. Generator speed

versus load"characteristics is a function ofthe type of the gov.emorused on the prime movertype 0 - for a speed droop system and-type I - for constant speed system.
Vload
Parallel operation of generator with infinite bus
]... 1.O(SO.Olh)
to
~
Constant System
- - - - Frequemy(inJinite bus)
1
8.98
~'-.
----t----~
I
~
J1 M.lor :::J c::::> Gene~r
~ Operation
:.
Operaifn
"1:1
.1.0
0.:5
Load, P (per unit)
Page 25
Department of EEE, SJBlT
IOEE82
The generator characteristic is such that it is loaded to 50% of its capacity when
paralleled ro the bus.
-
Therefore, Unit speed regulation
= R = ~f(pu)/~PCpu)
If it is desired to increase the load on the generator, the prime mover torque is iacreased, which
results in a shift of the speed-droop curve as shown below. The real power flow is given by, P
VIV2 sinCe! - e2) / X, where X = synchronous reactance
l'
J.
t
I
I
!
J! Motor :.:::J
r.::::> Gene~r
== Operation
I
Parallel-operation
Operaifn
0.5
Load, P (per unit)
1.0
of two identical units
Load
Load, P (per unit)
--- _-.
Department of ERE, SJBIT

Page 26
:::
lOEE82
2. Two generators paralleled have different govemor-speed-droop characteristics. Because they

are in parallel, power exchange between them forces them to synchronize at a common
frequency. Since the two units are of equal capacity having equal regulation are initially
opcrating at 1.0 base speed as shown above:
Ifunit is operated at point A] satisfies 25% of the total load and unit 2 at point A2
supplies 75%. If the total load is increased to 150%, the frequency decreases to fl.
Since the droop curves are linear, unit I will increase its load to 50% of rating and unit 2 to be
overloaded.
Parallel operation of two units with different capacity and regulation
The case when two units of different frequency and regulation characteristics are operated in
parallel is as shown below. The regulation characteristics are
Rl = ~f(pu) / ~PI (pu), R2 = ~ (pu) / ~P2 (pu)
R 2, Pl. rui..tt
Rl PZrate
Initial Loads .~PI and P2, change in load
~L = ~P I + ~P2 =
Equivalent System Regulation = ~f / ~L .=
j_.
Regulation, R I
[nitial
.operating
-freque ncy
.
.
:_J
A~
I
HI
-----j-- ---
..
Final
operating
--i
API
hequency
f--
Regulation. R2
/
~ ..._[
';:;
--r-------~
;...,
E
.,
- I'-
---+----I
I
92
I
I
1'"
--~ ,
PI rare
I
APl
P2p
Unit I output tMW)
Unit 2 output (MW)
---_-.-----
_:..,-
Department "foISt'll':, SJBIT
Page 27
lOEE82
1.9 Area Lumped Dynamic Model
The model discussed so far is one macroscopic behavior because there is no effort 'made to
indicate instantaneous power flow within the system due to a tie line disturbance, magnitudes of
the internal line flows, the iiiiiehistory of generator phase angles and so on. The power system
macro model may be described by means of a block diagram as shown in the block diagram.
J
Turbine ,
+R~Govemor
--+-;0""'\':.1" -
Gen~ra~o~
Rt.:' I
"
"" \~f
-
'
Area Respons.<
Fff ;~\:.:.1
I
I
,....._
",
"1
I
1i
... -----,.,
I
I
'"
ATl, Tie Lines
{"
L._-'
.
4- ...--J
{,
Other Generating Units
~--
I
I
I
I
I
L
--.,....
R;f. M
......... ,_--,
Page 28
::
lOEE82
HA = Effective Inertia of rotating machinery loads B2 = Load

frequency characteristics, MW/O.1Hz Pirate= Rated power output of
Gen'i'
~Pi = Power Increment for gen 'I'
l/R,
= Droop
characteristic of gen 'i', HzlMW
Analysis - Isolated Power Area without Tie Lines
Steady State value of Frequency deviation Af for a load change L\L= A/S
Hence,
Combining droop characteristics ofM gen,
_ ....
--Department of EEE, SJBIT
--
~_,-
_.,.._,.
r
s.?age 29
10EE82
UNIT-2 & 3
AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR:
Basic generator control loops, Cross
coupling between control loops, Exciter types, Exciter modeling, Generator modeling,
Static performance of AVR loop.
-_
AUTOMATIC LOAD_FREQUENCY CONTROL:

Automatic Load frequency control of single area systems, Speed governing system,
Hydraulic valve
actuator, Turbine generator response, Static performance of speed
governor, Closing of ALFC loop, Concept of control area, Static response of primary
ALFC loop, Integral control, ALFC of multi-control area systems (POOL operation),The
Two-Area system, Modeling the Tie-Line, Block Diagram representation of Two-Area
system, Static response of Two-Area system and Tie-Line Bias control.
12 Hours
2.1 Introduction
The main objective of power" system operation and control is to maintain continuous
.
supply of power with an acceptable quality, tooall the consumers in the system. The
system will be in equilibrium ..when there is a balance between the power demand and the
power generated. As the power in AC form has real and reactive components: the real
power balance; as well as the reactive ~ow~rbalance is to be achieved.
There are two basic control mechanisms
QSg
to achieve reactive power balance
(acceptable voltage profile) and real power balance (acceptable frequency values). The
former is called the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) and the latter is called the
automatic load frequency control (ALFC) or automatic generation control (AGC).
2.2 Generator Voltage Control System
The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux) of the
generator. The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control the voltage.
Therefore, the voltage control system is also called as excitation control System or
automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
_ ...Department ofEEE, SJBIT
-- --
-.--
- ~_,- Page 30
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For the alternators, the excitation is provided ?y a device (another machine or a static
device) called exciter. For a large alternator the exciter may be required to supply a field
current of as large as 6500A"at 500V and hence the exciter is a fairly large machine.
Depending on the way the de supply is given
to the field winding of the alternator (which
is on the rotor), the exciters are classified as: i) DC Exciters; ii) AC Exciters; and iii)
Static Exciters. Accordingly, several standard block diagrams are developed by the IEEE
working group to represent the excitation system. A schematic of an excitation control
system is shown in Fig2.1.
EXciter
A schematic of excitation. (voltage)' control system
Figl.l : A schematic of Excitation (Voltage) Control System.

A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system_is shown in Fig2.2.
The generator terminal voltage v, is compared with a voltage reference Vrefto obtain a
voltage error signal .V. This signal is applied to the voltage regulator shown as a block
with transfer function KA/(l+TAS).The output of the regulator is then applied to exciter
shown with a block of transfer function Ke/(l+Tes). The output of the exciter Efdis then
applied to the field winding which adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator
field can be.represented by a block with a transfer f~nction KF/(l+sTF).The total tr~nsfer
The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the dynamic
response of the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the output is a
stabilizing feedback signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.
Page 31
lOEE82
Ampllfie
Exciter
Generatorfield
AV
_'Asimplified block diagram of voltage (excitation) control system

.Fig2.2: A simplified block diagram of Voltage (l!xcitatifm) Control System..
Performance of
AVR
Loop
The purpose of the A VR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage" with in
acceptable values. A static accuracy limit in percentage is specified for the AVR, so that
the terminal voltage is-maintained within jhat value. For example, if the accuracy limit is
4%, then the terminal voltage must De maintained with in-4% of the base voltage.
The performance of the AVR loop is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal
voltage of the generator within prescribed static accuracy limit with an acceptable speed
of response. Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by A, in percentage
with
reference to the n?minal value. The error voltage is to be less than (Ac/lOO)~IVlref.
From the block diagram, for a steadystate error voltage ~ e;
Example1: Find-the open loop gain of an AVR loop if the static accuracy required is
3%.
Solution:
"Given
s:
3%. K >
{JOO
lj= K >
{JOO
I}
32.33. Thus,
if the
Ac
open loop gain of the AVR loop is greater than 32.33, then the terminal voltage will be
within 3% of the base voltage.
Page 32
".
lOEE82
2.3 Automatic Load Frequency Control

The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in
the system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii)
control the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among'the participating generating
units. The control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ~Ptie (measured from the tieline flows), and the frequency deviation ~f (obtained by measuring the angle deviation
~8). These error signals ~f and
~Ptie
are amplified, mixed and transformed to a real
power signal, which then controls the valve position. Depending on the valve position,
the turbine (prime mover) changes its output power to establish the real power balance.
The complete control schematic is shown in Fig2.3
'.
V"""./pt..
Turb'....
S_m
Wat.
Fig2.3: The Schematic representation of ALFC system

For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig2 are required. The generator
.
.'
and the electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic amplifier
represent the speed governing system. Using the swing equatio_~.'
,the generator can be
AP.,(sl
Aw(s)
Ll.P.ls)
Fig2.4. The block diagram representation oj the Generator

The load on the system is composite consisting of a frequency independent component
and a frequency dependent component. The load can be written as ~ P, = ~ Po + f1 Pr
where, f1 P, is the change in the load; f1 Po is the frequency independent load compon_:nt;
~ Pr is the frequency dependent load component. f1 Pr = f1 to where,D is called frequency
---
_ <S:..,
Page 33
lOEE82
-characteristic of the load (also called as damping constant) expressed in percent change in
load for 1% change in frequency. IfD=1.5%, then a 1% change in frequency causes 1.5%
change in load. The combined generator and the load (constituting the power system) can
then be represented as shown in Fig2.5
AP..{.)
Fig2.5. The block diagram representation of the Generator and load
The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig2.6
APy(sl
Fig2.6. The turbin-e model.

Gt(s) is the TF of the turbine; L'l Pv(s) is the change in valve output (due to
action). L'l Pm(S)is the change in the turbine output
The governor can similarly modeled as shown in Fig2.7. The output of the
governor is by
where L'l Pref is the reference set power, and L'l ro/R is the power given R
QYgovernor speed characteristic. The hydraulic amplifier transforms this signal L'l Pg into
valve/gate position corresponding to a power L'l Pv, Thus L'l Pv(s) = (KgI(1+sTg) L'l Pg(s).
"P.ls)
dP,{s)
dP,(sl
Fig2.7: The block diagram representation of the Governor
_ ..- _-..
Page 34
--
-,.._,..-
lOEE82
All the individual blocks can now be connected to represent the complete ALFC loop as
shown in Fig2.8
Governor
APo(s)
Turbine
Powersystem
At.J{s)
AP.(s)
Speed droop
Fig2.8: The block diagram representation of the AJ.FC
2.4 Steady State Performance ofthe ALFC Loop

In the steady state, the ALFC is in 'open' state, and the output is obtained by substituting
s---tO.inthe TF.
..
Wits S~O, Gg(s) and Gt(s) become unity, then, (note th~tL1 Pm = L1PT ~ L1PG = L1P, = A
PD ; That is turbine output = generator/electrical output = load demand)
L1Pm = L1Prcf - (UR) L1(!) or
Pm = L1Pref - (l/R) L1f
When the generator is connected to infinite bus (f= 0, and A V = 0), then L1Pm =
L1Pref .
If the network is finite, for a fixed speed changer setting (L1Pref = 0), then
L1Pm =-(lIR)L1for
L1f=-RL1Pm.
If the frequency dependent load is present, then

L1Pm
f
L1Pref'- (IIR +D) L1

or
Pm
L1 =
DOli
Ifthere are more than one generator present in the system, then
L1Pm cq = L1Prefeq - (D + IlReq) L1f
where,
L1Pm.cq = L1Pml + L1Pm2 + L1Pm.3 +....
L1Pref. eq = VPrefl + L1Pref2 + VPref3 +.....
I/Req
~ (lIRI + IIR2 + IIR2 +....)
The quantity ~ = (D + lIRcq) is called the area frequency (bias) characteristic (response)
or simply the stiffness of the system,
Page 35
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2.5 Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
The ALFC loop shown in Fig2.8, is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the
primary goal of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output f.. Pm to match the
change in load dem~
Po. All the participating generating units contribute to the
change in generation. But a change in load results in a steady state frequency deviation
f.. f. The restoration of the frequency to the nominal value requires an additional control
loop called the supplementary loop. This objective is met by using integral controller
which makes the fr~quency deviation zero. The ALFC with the ~upplementary loop is
generally called the AGe. The block diagram of an AGe is shown in Fig2.9. The main
objectives of AGe are i) to regulate the frt:q~ency (usi~g both primary and
supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows, A. secondary
objective of the, AGe is to distribute the required change in generation afl?ong the
connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).
Governor
AP....(s)
Turbine
, !\P...{s}
'@j)_
4P~'
;-"",.m '''I'!
--:+
"s;;.,.~~._.._;
AP,,(sl
tlP,ls)
Speeddroop
Primary loop
Supple me nlary loop
Fig2.9:The block diagram representation of the AGe
Page 36
lOEE82
2.6 AGe in a Single Area System

In a single area system, there is no tie-line schedule to be maintained. Thus the function
of the AGC is only to bring the frequency to the nominal value. This will be achieved
- ---Cusing
the supplementary loop (as shown in""Fig:T.9jwhich uses the integral controller to
change the reference power setting so as to change the speed set point. The integral
controller gain KJ needs to be adjusted for satisfactory response (in terms of overshoot,
settling time) of the system. Although each generator will be having a separate speed
governor, all the generators in the control area are replaced by a single equivalent
generator, and the ALFC for the area corresponds to this equivalent generator.
2.7 AGC in a Multi Area System

In an interconnected (multi area) system, there will be one ALFC loop for each control
area (located at the ECC of that area). They are combined as shown in Fig2.10 for the
interconnected system operation. For a total change in load of LlPD, the steady state
...P-:,-(~)
Fig.2.10.
AGC for a.multi-area operation
lOEE82
2.8 Expression for tie-line flow in a two-area interconnected system
Consider a change in load /1 Pm in areal. The steady state frequency deviation /1 fis the same for
both the ctfeas. That is /1 f= /16 = /1 f2. Thus,-forareal,
--
we have
where, 131and 132are the composite frequency response characteristic of Areal and Area 2 respectively.
An increase of load in areal by /1 PDl results in a frequency reduction in both areas and a tie-line flow
of /1 P12. A positive /1 P12 is indicative of flow from Areal to Area 2 while a negative /1 P12 means flow
from Area 2 to Areal. Similarly, for a change in Area Frequency
bias tie line control
The tie line deviation reflects the contribution of regulation characteristic of one area to another. The
.basic objective of supplementary control is to restore balance between each area load generation.
This objective is met when the control action maintains
Frequency at the scheduled value
Net interchange power (tie line flow) with neighboring areas at the scheduled values
The supplementary co~trof shouldideally correct only for changes in that area. In other words, if
here is a change in Areal load, there should be supplementary control only.in Areal and not in
Area 2. For this purpose the area control error (ACE) is used (Fig2.9). The ACE of the two areas
are given by
For area 1:
For area 2:
.:
2.9 Economic
Allocation
of Generation
An important secondary function of the AGC is to allocate generation so that each generating unit is
loaded economically. That is, each generating unit is to generate that amount to meet the present demand
in such a way that the operating cost is the minimum. This function is called Economic Load
Dispatch (ELD).
---Department of EEE, SJBIT
_-.
--
.,.,_-
.,.__._
Page 38
lOEE82
Systems with more that two areas
The method described for the frequency bias control for two area system is applicable to multi-area
system also.
Examples:
Ex 1. A 500 MVA, 50 Hz, generating unit has a regulation constant R of 0.05 p.u. on its own rating.
If the frequency of the system increases by 0.01 Hz in the steady state, what is the decrease in the
turbine output? Assume fixed reference power setting.
Solution:
In p.u. /1 f~-O.01/50
=0.0002 p.u.
With /1 prer= 0, /1 pm.= -11R(/1 t) = - 0.004 p.u. Hence, /1 Pm ='. 0.004 Sbase= - 2 MW.
-
Ex. 2. An interconnected 60 Hz power system consists of one area with three generating units rated
500, 750, and 1000 MVA respectively. The-regulation constant of each unit is R= 0.05 per unit on its
own rating. Each unit is initially operating at one half of its rating, when the system load suddenly
increases by 200MW. Determine (i) the area frequency response characteristic on a 1000 MV A system
base, (ii) the steady state frequency
deviation:ofthe
.
area, .and
- (iii] the increase in -turbine power output.
Regulation constants on common system- base are (Rpunew

R2 = 0.0667; and R3 = 0.05.
= R pu old( Sbasc new/Sbase
old):R 1 ~ 0.1;
Hence ~ = (IIRI + IIR2 + l/R3) = 45 per unit:
Neglecting losses and frequency dependence of the load, the steady state frequency deviation is
/1 f= (-l/~) /1 pm = -4.444 xlO3 per unit = (-4.444 xlO -3 )60 = - 0.2667 Hz.
/1 pml = (-I/RI)( /1 t) = 0.04444 per unit = 44.44 MW
/1.pm2= (-I/R2)( /1 t) = 0.06666 per unit
66.66. MW
/1 pm3= (-l/R3)( /1 t) = 0.08888 per unit = 88.88 MW
Page 39
10EE82
UNIT -4
CONTROL OF VOL TAGE AND REACTIVE POWER: Introduction, Generation And

Absorption Of Reactive Power, Relation Between Voltage, Power And Reactive Power At A Node,
Single Machine Infinite Bus Systems, Methods Of Voltage Control, Sub Synchronous Resonance,
Voltage Stability, Voltage Collapse,
6 HOURS -
Control of Voltage and Reactive Power
Reactive power _isan odd topic inAC (Alternating Current) power systems, and it's usually explained
with vector mathematics or phase-shift sine wave graphs, However, a non-math verbal explanation
is possible, .:
Note that Reactive power onlybecomes important when an "electrical load"or a home 'appliance
contains coils or capacitors, If,the electrical load behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a
heater
or incandescent
bulbfor example.)
then. the device
consumes "real
power" only. Reactive power .
.
.
.
~.
.
-
and "power factor" can be ignored,,and it can be analysed using an AC version of Ohm's law.
Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is connected to an AC power supply,the
coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next
quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power supply.
Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they create a significant electric current.
This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical energy, and where the
electrical energy flows continuously in one direction; moving from source to load.
In other words, if your electrical appliance contains inductance or capacitance, then electrical energy
will periodically return to the power plant, and it will flow back and forth across the power lines. This
leads to an extra current in the power lines, a current which heats the power lines, but which isn't
used to provide energy to the appliance. The coil or capacitor causes electrical energy to begin"
sloshing" back and forth between the appliance and the distant AC generator. Electric companies
must instaljheavier wires to tolerate the excess current, and they will charge extra for this "unused"
energy.
--- _-.
Department of EElf_,SJBIT
Page 40
lOEE82
This undesired "energy sloshing" effect can be eliminated. If an electrical load contains both a
coil and capacitor, and if their resonant frequency is adjusted to exactly 60Hz, then the coil and
capacitor like magic will begin to behave like a pure resistor. The "energy sloshing" still occurs, but now it's all happening between the coil and capacitor, and ncrtrrme AC power lines. So, if your appliance
contains a large coil induction motor, you can make the motor behave as a pure resistor, and
reduce the current in the power lines by connecting the right value of capacitance across the motor coil.
Why is reactive power so confusing? Well, the math is daunting if not entirely obscure.
And the concept of "imaginary power" puts many people off. But this is not the only problem.
Unfortunately most of us are taught in grade school that an electric ~urrent is a flow of energy,
and that energy flows back and forth in AC power lines. This is completely wrong. In fact the'
energy flows constantly forward, going from source to load. It's only the chargesof the
metal wires which flow hack and forth.
Imagine that we connect a battery to a light bulb. Electric charges already present inside the wires
will begin to flow in the circle, and then electrical energy moves almost instantly to the light bulb.
The charge flow is circular like a belt, but the energy flow is one-way. Now imagine.that we
suddenly reverse the connections to the battery. The voltage and current will reverse..: but the
energy still flows in the same direction as before. It still goes from battery to bulb. If we keep
reversing the battery connections over and over, we'd have an AC system. So, in an AC system,
.only the voltage and current are "alternating," while the electrical energy flows one-way, going
from source to load. Where AC resistive loads are concerned, electrical energy does not "alternate."
To=understand energy flow in AC systems, it's critically importarit that we understand the difference
between charge flow (current, amperes) and energy flow (power, watts.)
What is imaginary power? Simple: it's the unused power .w~ich flows backwards and forwar~s
in the power lines, going back and forth between the load's coil or capacitor and the distant
AC generator. If your appliance was a pure capacitor or inductor, then it would consume no
electrical energy at all, but instead all the flowing energy would take the form of "sloshing energy,"
and we'd call it "imaginary power." Of course it's not actually imaginary. Instead it's reflected by the
load.
__ -
_.
.,._-
_ <I=_
Department of 1!t!1~ SdBIT
Page 41
lOEE82
Izi/!
I'i
.1
\,
(1
" . (1
\.1
Imaginary
What is real. power? Even more simple: it's the energy flow which goes continuously
from
.
the AC generator and into the appliance, witheutany of it returning back to the distant generator;
Finally, what is "reactive" power? It's just the combination of the above two ideas: it is the continuousforward-moving or "real" energy flow, combined with the sloshing or "imaginary" energy flow.
Power in A.c. Networks Active Power
- Reactive Power Apparent Power
'-'_
Power Factor (p.f.) Power Factor Correction

;
Pa~42
Instantaneous power,p(t)
lOEE82
= v(t)i(t) Power,p(t)
value
positive - power transmit/dissipate by load negative - power return from the

load
Since pet) is power transmits by load, then it is tbe average power, P at load----~Sometimes P is also known as active power, real power
-~
or true power measured in unit of Watts.
iet) .
pet)
+
vet)
Energy
stored
Energy
released
Energy
stored
Energy
reJeased
1m
t.
ACTIVE POWER
-1m
Z
=R
(purely resistive) .
/)(/)
VIIIIJIl_
_ VII/IIIl
2
P
= VI = I R = V iR (Watt)
_",-
...... - -
~_-
- c.....
lOEE82
REACTIVE POWER
Z = jXL
(inductive)
Instantaneous power pet)
v(t)i(t)
= VI sin Ztot
Average power is zero

The product of VI is called reactive power
(QL) with unit Volt-Amp
Reactive (VAR)
Reactive power (inductive)
p(t)
VII/fill
_-
.; Vn,f",
2.
Zc = - jX
(capacitive)
--- _-..,
<5: ....__

Page 44
Reactive power (capacitive)

Note:
lOEE82
Qc = VI = I Xc = V /Xc
(VAR)
To distinguish between inductive reactive power(QL) and capacitive reactive power (Qc), we use two
different signs (+ or -) depending on our reference (i or v), for example jQL and - jQc or otherwise.
Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" or a home appliance
contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as a resistor, (such as a heater or
incandescent bulb for example,) then the device consumes "real power" only. Reactive power and
"power factor" can be igrror.ed,
Reactive p~)\yeris simply this: when a coil <?rcapacitor is connected to an AC power supply, the coil
or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then during the next
quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the distant AC power
supply. Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy. yet they create a significant electric
current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely consumes electrical energy, and where
the electrical energy flows continuously in one direction; moving from source to load.
Page 45
lOEE82
ACTIVEIREACTlVE POWER - Example

j: = 100 V/25 .Q = 4 A, P = VI = (100 V)(4 A) = 400 W,
= 0 VAR
I = 100 V/20.Q == 5 A; P = 0, QL = VI = (100 V)(5 A) =
500 VAR (inductive)
I = 100 V/40 .Q = 2.5 A, P = 0, Qc = VI = (100 V)(2.5) =
VAR (capacitive) = - 250 VAR
Note: use the magnitude of! and V
Determine the total PT and QT forthe circuit. Sketch the series equivalent circuit.

Page 46
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_.
--
-",,- -- --
.....
_,_ - ...
Department of EEE,SJBIT----
Page 47
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APPARENT POWER
For load consisting of series resistance and reactance, Z
= R + j X = Z I ~e, the power produced is
called Apparent Power or Complex Power), S or Ps with unit Volt-Amp (VA)
..
Izi fJ!_
S = V *1
s=P
+ jQ
s=P
o
o
negative, capacitive load
- jQ
positive, inductive load
VI (VA)
p ~ VI cos 6 = I R
. =S
cos
Q = VI sin
- sin
s = -/(P
= VR IR (W)
e (W)
e = 1 X = Vx IX (VAR) = S
._ .
+ Q ) =V
Power Triangle
--
"'"$0._-
_<l: ....
__
Dep~rnnent of EEE, SJBIT

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POWER TRIANGLE - Example
-.
VAR
Note that Reactive power only becomes important when an "electrical load" <2r. _a home
appliance contains coils or capacitors. If the electrical load behaves purely as a resistor, (such
as a heater or incandescent bulb for example,) then the device consumes "real power" only.
Reactive power and "power factor" can be ignored,
Reactive power is simply this: when a coil or capacitor is con?ected to an AC power supply,
the coil or capacitor stores electrical energy during one-fourth of an AC cycle. But then
..
during the next quarter-cycle, the coil or capacitor dumps all the stored energy back into the
distant AC power supply. Ideal coils and capacitors consume no electrical energy, yet they
create a significant electric current. This is very different from a resistor which genuinely
consumes electrical energy, and where the electrical energy flows continuously in one
direction; moving from source to load.
_---
,....",--
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_c
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POWER FACTOR
Power factor, p.f. :;;.cose = PIS
= RIZ
p.f. depends on the load type:
Purely resistive load, R ,p.f. = 1
Inductive load, RL, p.f. <1 (lagging) and
Capacitive load, RC, p.f. < I (leading)
..
Most ..of the loads are inductive (lagging p.f.) and must be corrected until p.f.
o approximately become unity (p.f
I) using capacitor ..
1,I::!!.
V.&_
Izl LQ_
s (Z)
Q (X)
P (R)
POWER FACTOR -Correction
v
Qc
..
Q-L
_ ..- _-..
_c

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POWER FACTOR - Example
--
Find the complex power for the circuit. Correct the circuit power' factor to p.f. = 1 using
parallel reactance.
.....
VS.
Reactive Power is a Byproduct of Alternating Current (AC) ~ystems

Transformers, transmission lines,and motors require reactive power
. Transformers and transmission Tinesintroduce inductance as well as resistance (Both
oppose the flow of current)
Must raise the voltage higher to push the power through the inductance of the _lines
(Unless capacitance is introduced to offset inductance)
The farther the transmission of power, the higher the voltage needs to be raised
Electric motors need reactive power to produce magnetic fields for their operation
Generation and Absorption of Reactive Power Synchronous Generators - Synchronous
machines can be made to generate or absorb reactive -power depending upon the
~xcitation (a form of ?enerator control) applied. The,,ability-to supply reactive power is
determined by the short circuit ratio,
Synchronous Compensators - Certain smaller generators, once run up to speed and

synchronized to the system, can be declutched from their turbine and provide reactive
power without producing real power.
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51
Capacitive and Inductive
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Compensators
- These are devices that can be connected to
the system to adjust voltage levels. A capacitive compensator produces an electric field
thereby generating reactive power An inductive compensator produces a magnetic field
to absorb reactive power. Compensation
devices are available as either capacitive Or
inductive alone or as a hybrid to provide both generation _and absorption of reactive

power.
Overhead Lilnes., Underground
Cablles and Transformers
..
Overhead lines and underground cables, when operating at the normal system voltage,
both produce strong electric fields and so generate reactive power.
When current flows through a line or cable it produces a magnetic fieldwhich
absorbs
reactive power.
A lightly loaded overhead line is a net generator of reactive power while a heavily
loaded line is a net absorber
of reactive power. In'the case of cables designed for use at
2-75 or 400kv the reactive power generated by the electric field is always'greater than the.
reactive power absorbedby
the magnetic field and 'so cables are always het generators of
reactive power.
Transformers always absorb reactive power.
Relation between voltage, Power and Reactive Power at a node
The phase voltage Vat a node is a function of P and
Q at that node.
i. e V = f(P,Q)
- The voltage is also independent of adjacent nodes and assume that these
are infinite busses.
..
the total differential of V,

dV
= (av!
fJp) . dp
+ (ov! oQ) . dQ
and using the relation (Op! av) . (ov! op)
(oQ! av) . (av! oQ)

dv
= dp
!(fJp! ov)
=]
and
+ dQ ! (oQ! ov-)~--------( 1)
From the above equation it is seen that the change in voltage at a node
Department of EKE, SJBIT
52
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is defined by two quantities,
av) and (8Q/ av)

Normally (8Q/ av )
(Op/
is the quantity of greater interest and can be experimentally
determined using Network Analyser by injecting known quantity ofVARs at1he node in
question and measuring the difference in voltage produced .
...
Methods of voltage control

By Reactive Power Injection
By Tap Changing Transformers
Combined use of Tap Changing Transformers and Reactive Power Injection
Booster Transformers.
Reactive Power Injection

This is the .most fundamental method and is used only in places where the transformer
alone is not sufficient to control the voltage. since many yeats we use capacitors to
improve the power factors of industrial loads. The injection of reactive power required
for the power factor improvement is determined like this. A load of P 1 kw at a lagging
power -factor of cos~ 1 has a KVA of P I I cos 0 I, If this power factor is improved to
cos 0 2, the new KVA is P I leos 0 2.
The reactive powerrequired froin the capacitors is (p. I tan 0 I ~ P I tan 0 2 ) KVAr
Now the question is why the power factor is to be improved. What if the power is
transmitted at non unity 'power factor. We all know very well that the voltage drop
depends on ~eactive power (Q) while the load angle (or) power transmission angle (0)
depends on real power (P) At non unity power factors if the power is transmitted then it
results In higher line currents which increases the I
R losses and hence reduces the
thermal capability, one of the ideal place for the injection of reactive power is at the
loads itself.
Generally reactive power injections are of the following types.

Static shunt capacitors
Static series capacitors

Department of Elm, S-.fBI'r53
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-Synchronous compensators
Shunt capacitors and Reactors:
shunt capacitors are used for lagging power factor circuits whereas shunt reactors are
--
- useafur leading power factors that are created by lightly loaded cables. In both the cases
the effect is to supply the required amount of reactive power to maintain the voltage.
Capacitors are connected either directly to the bus bar or to
the tertiary winding of the main transformer and are distributed along the line to
minimise the losses and the voltage drops. Now when the voltage drops, the vars
produced by shunt capacitor or reactor falls, so when required most, the effectiveness of
these capacitors or the reactors also falls. On the other hand, on light loads when the
voltage is high, the capacitor output is large and the voltage tends to rise to excessive
level, so some of the capacitors or reactors are to be switched out by over voltage relays.
For fast control of voltages in power systems, switched. capacitors in parallel with
semiconductor controlled reactors
_ are generally used to provide var compensation ..
Series capacitors:
Xl
=wi
Xc=_l_
- we
Vs (with capoci1-or)
!
/w
(b)
(a) Line with series capa~itor, C load. (b) Phasor diagram for 'rxed VA
-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Departmenfoi EEE;"SJBIT
54
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lOEE82
. Here the capacitors are connected in series with the line. The main aim is to reduce the
.inductive reactance between supply point and the load. The major disadvantage of the
method is, whenever a short circuit current flows through the capacitor, protective
devices like spark gaps and non linear resistors are to be incorporated. Phasor diagram
for a line with series capacitor is shown in the
figure (b).
Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.

If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.
- If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective, also to some
. extent the voltage fluctuations can be evened.
If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and stability is
improved.
With series capacitors the reduction in line current is small, hence if the thermal
.considerations limits the current,.little advantage is from this, so shunt compensat~onis
.to be used.. -Synchronous compensators.
A synchronous compensator is a synchronous motor running without a mechanical load

and depending on-the excitation level, it can either absorb or generate reactive .power.
when used with a voltage regulator the compensator can
automatically run overexcited at times of high loads and under excited at light loads. A
typical connection of a compensator is shown in the figure along with the associated
voltage - var output characteristics.
55
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..
Synchronous
compensotor
Fig: Typical Installation with synchronous compensator connectedto tertiary (delta)

winding of main transformer
1.07
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
~ ---,--------1 I
L05
~ro"o,
I
I
,
I
I
I
I
!
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:
-20
---Absorb
o.
Q ""VA ..
I
I
I
I
Genel"Ote
__
Fig: Voltage-reactive power output of a typical 40MVAr synchronous compensator
A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for all load conditions.

S6
Being a rotating machine,
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its stored energy is useful for riding through transient
disturbances, including voltage drops.
Sub SyncllrOlllJU! Resonance

Series capacitors are installed in series with long lines for providing compensation of
reactive power and giving higher power transfer ability. Series compensated lines have
a tendency to produce series resonance at frequencies lower than power frequencies.
This is called Sub Synchronous
Resonance
(SSR) The sub synchronous resonance
currents produce mechanical resonance in Turbo generator shafts, which causes the
following in the gen~rator shaft(i)Induction generator effect
(ii) torsional torques and (iii) transient torques.
These problems
Therefore
have resulted
the sub synchronous
in damage to rotor shafts of turbine

resonance
is analysed
generators.
in the design
of series.
compensated lines. Now let lis derive a relationship between the normal frequency and.
the sub synchronous resonance frequency.
Let fn be the normal frequency (synchronous) let fr be the sub synchronous frequency
of series compensated
line. 2_ fn L be the series inductive reactance of EHV line at
normal frequency. 1/2_ fn C be the series capacitive reactance of series compensation

at normal frequency,
K"",Xc/X
L be the degree of compensation.
X
= (XL - Xc) = XL(l - K) is the equivalent reactance of the compen_sated line.
Let the S~R .occur at a frequency fr. Then

(OR) (frl fn)2= Xc/XL=Kor
:Q=: (1/2_ L ) * (11 2_::_

C)
fr= fn*sqrt(K)
Thus SSR occurs at a frequency fr which is the product of normal frequency and the
root of the degree of compensation
K. The condition of SSR can occur during the
faults on the power system, during switching operations and changing system
configurations. Solution to SSR problems

Department of EEE,..SJBIT
57
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1. Use of filters: For eliminating/damping the harmonics. The various filters include:
static blocking filters, bypass damping filters.dynamic filters.

2. Bypassing the series capacitor bank under resonance condition
3. Tripping of generator units under conditions of SSR
Reactive Power and Voltage Collapse
Voltage collapse is a system instability and it involves many power system
components and their variables at once. Indeed, voltage collapse involves an entire
power system although it usually has a relatively larger involvement in one particular
..
section of the power system. Voltage -collapse occurs in power systems which are
usually Heavily loaded, faulted and/or have reactive power shortages. Voltage
collapses can occur in a transient time sca}e or in a long term time scale. Voltage
collapse in a long term time scale can include effects from the transient time scale; for
example, a slow voltage collapse taking several minutes-may end in a fast voltage
. collapse in the transienttime scale..
Changes in power system contributing !? voltage collapse
There are several power system disturbances which contribute to-the voltage collapse.
i. increase in inductive loading
ii. Reactive power limits attained by reactive power compensators and generators.
iii. On Load Tap Changing operation
iv. Load recovery dynamics.
v. Generator outage
- vi:-Line tripping__
most of these factors have significant effects on reactive power production,

transmission and consumption. Switching of shunt capacitors, blocking of OLTC
operation, generation rescheduling, bus voltage control, strategic load shedding and
allowing temporary reactive power over loading of generators may be used as some of
the effective countermeasures against voltage collapse.

Voltage Stability
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The voltage stability may be defined as the ability of a power system to maintain
steady acceptable voltage at all busses in the system at normal operating conditions
and after being subjected to disturbances/ perturbations. OR
\loltage stability is the ability of a -system to maintain voltage so that when load
admittance is increased, load power will increase, and so that both power and voltage
are controllable. Power system is "Voltage Stable "if voltages at respective busses
after a disturbance are close to the voltages at normal operating conditions. So voltage
instability is that appears when the attempt of load dynamics to restore power
consumption is just beyond the capability of the combined transmission and generator
system. Though voltage instability may be a local problem, its consequences may have
a widespread effect. Voltage collapse is the catastrophicresult of a sequence of events
leading to a sudden low-voltage profile in a major part of the system, i.e. in a
significant part of the system. Voltage Stability can also be called Load Stability, A
Power system lacks the capability to transfer an infinite amount of electrical power to
the loads. The .main factor causing .voltage instability is the inability ef the power
system to meet the demands for reactive power in the heavily stressed system keeping
desired voltages. Other factors contributing to voltage instability are the generator
reactive power limits. Transfer of reactive power is difficult due. to extremely high
reactive power losses, which is why the reactive power required
for voltage control is generated and consumed at the control area, A classification of
power system stability is shown in the table below. The driving forces for instability
are named generator- driven 'liud load-driven. It is to be noted that these terms do
not exclude the effect of other components to the mechanism. The time scale is .
divided into short and long-term time scale.
Now let us analyse voltage stability using Q- V curves. Consider a simple system as
shown below and its P-V curves.
Department of EEE, SJ BIT 59
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p. Q = P to fllJl
"
oFig: Normalised P-V curves Of

or fixed (infinite) source Now map the normalised p,V
curves onto V-Q curves. for constant value ofP, note the values ofQ and V and then re
plot to-get Q-V curves as shown below. from P-V curves it is observed that the critical
voltage is v~ry high for high loadings. V is abovoel.Op.u foroP
l.Op.u The right side
represents normal conditions where applying a capacitor bank raises voltage.
-- _...
....,.. _as _ _
Department of EEE, SJfilT

60
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--~~----------------------------------- ----- -------- ---------------------Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)
--- ---
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Fig: _Normalised Q'-V curves for fixed (infinite) source.

.
'!'
Q(P.UO)j
1.0
_-...
D5f
j
I
\Ilp.u.)
0.5
t
Q
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61
Curves
Page
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Figure shows the Q- V diagram of a bus in a particular power system at four different
loads: PI, P2, P3, P4 . the Q axis shows the amount of additional reactive power that
must be injected into the bus to operate at a given voltage. The operating point is the
intersection of the power curve with the voltage axis, where no reactive powerls
required to be injected or absorbed. If the slope of the curve at the intersection point is
positive, the system is stable, because any additional reactive power will raise the
voltage and vice-versa. Hence for P I load, there is a reserve of reactive power that
can be used to maintain stability even if the load increases. For load P 2 the system is
marginally stable. For higher load P3 and P4 the system is not stable (Since a certain
amount of reactive power must be injected into the bus to cause an intersection with
the voltage axis.) Thus the measure of Q reserve gives an indication of the margin
between stability and. instability. The slope of the Q-V curve represents the stiffness
of the test bus. when nearby generators reach their Var limits, the slope of the Q-V
curve becomes less steep and the bottom of the curve is approached. V-Q curves are
. presently the workhorse method of voltage stability analysis at rnany utilities. Since
'the method artificially stresses a single bus, conclusions should be confirmed by more
realistic methods.
Operatinq
point
'<,
(n)
62
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..
Fig; Reactive .Power Margins
..
:
Department of EEl:, SJBIT
Page
63
and Control
(PSOC)
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PART-B
UNIT-5
OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT COMMITMENT:

-
Optimal operation of
Introduction,
generators on a bus bar, Statement of the Unit Commitment
problem, need and importance of unit commitment, Constraint in Unit Commitment,

Unit Commitment solution methods-Priority lists method,
Forward Dynamic
Programming methode excluding problem), Spinningreserve.
6 Hours
POWER SYSTEM OPTIMIZATION

(x) Introduction
(xi) Problem of economic.load scheduling
(xii)Performance curves
(xiii)
Constraints in economic operation of power systems
(xiv)
Spinning reserve
(xv) Solution to economic load dispatch

Solution to~ELDwithout. inequality constraints
Solution to ELD with capasity constraints
Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- PENALTY FACTOR METHOD
Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- LOSS COEFFICIENTS

METHOD (Transmission loss as a function of plant generation- B Coefficients)
(xvi)
Examples
INTRODUCTION
Electric Power Systems (EPS): EconomicAspects: _
In EPS, the first step is to properly assess the load requirement of a given area where
electrical power is to be supplied. This power is to be supplied using the available units
such as thermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, etc. Many factors are required to be considered
while choosing a type of generation such as: kind offuel available, fuel cost, availability
of suitable sites for major station, nature of load to be supplied, etc.

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Variable load: The load is not constant due to the varying demands at the different times
of the day. The EPS is expected to supply reliable and quality power. It should ensure the
continuity of power supply at all times.
--
{Qn.: write a note on the choice of the number and size of the generating units at a
power station from economic operationpoint of view}
Single unit Vs. multiple units: the use of a single unit to supply the complete load demand
is not practical since, it would not be a reliable one. Alternately,
a large number of
smaller units can be used to fit the load curve as closely as possible. Again, with a large
number of units, the operation and maintenance costs will increase. Further, the capital
cost of large number of units of smaller size is more as compared to a small number of
units oflarger size. Thus, there has to be compromise in the selection of size and number
of generating units within a pow!?rplant or a station.
Electric Power Systems (EPS): Operational Aspects:
Electric energy is generated at large power stations that are far away from the load
centers. Large and long transmission lines (grid lines) wheel the generated power to the
substations at load centers. Many electrical equipment are used for proper transmission
and distribution of the generated power. The grid lines are such that:
GRID: The transmission system of a given area.
Regional GRID: Different grids are interconnected through transmission lines.
National GRID: Interconnection of several regional grids through tie lines.
Each grid operates independently,
although power can be exchanged between various
grids.

65
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Economic loading of generators and interconnected stations:
Optimum economicefficIency is achieved when all the generators whIch~nning
in
parallel are loaded in such a way that the fuel cost of their power generation is the
minimum. The units then share the load to minimize the overall cost of generation. This
economical approach of catering to the load requirement is called as 'economic
dispatch '. The main factor in economic operation of power systems is the cost of
generating the realpower. In any EPS, the cost has two components as under:
TheFixed Costs: Capital investment, interest charged on the money borrowed, tax
paid, labour, salary, etc. which are independent of the load variations.
~ The Variable Costs: which are dependant on the load on the generating units, the
losses, dailyload requirements, purchase or sale ofpower, etc;
The current discussion on economic operation of power systems is concerned about

-minimizing
the variable costs only.
Further, the 'factors affecting the operating cost of the generating units are: generator .
efficiency, transmission losses, fuel cost, etc. Of these, the fuel cost is the most important
factor.
Since a giv_enpower system is a mix of various types of.generating units, such as hydel,
thermal, nuclear, hydro-thermal, wind, etc., each type of unit contributesits share for the -:'
total operating cost. Since fuel cost is a predominating factor in thermal (coal fired)
plants, economic load dispatch (ELD) is considered usually for a given set of thermal
plants in the foregoing discussion.
PROBLEM OF ECONOMIC LOAD SCHEDULING:
Department
66
orEKE,-SJ srr"
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There are two 'pr~blem areas of operation strategy to obtain the economic operation of
power systems. They are: problem of economic scheduling and the problem of optimal
Power flow.
The problem of economic scheduling: This is again divided into two categories:
The unit commitment problem (Uep): Here, the objective is to determine the
various generators to be in operation among the available ones in the system,
satisfying the constraints, so that the total operating cost is the minimum. This
problem is solved for specified time duration,usually a day in advance, based on
the forecasted load for that time duration.
The economic load dispatch (ELD): Here, the objective is to determine the
generation (MW power output) of each presently operating (committed or put on)
units to meet the specified. load demand (including the losses), such hat the total
. fuel cost s minimized.
* Theproblem of optimal powerflow:
Here, it deals with delivering the real power to the
load points with minimum loss. For this, the power flow in each line is to be optimized
to minimize the system losses.
{Qn.:compare ELD and UCP and hence bring out their importance and objectives.}
.PERFORMANCE CURVES:
The Performance Curves useful for economic load dispatch studies include many
different types of input-output curves as under:
1. Input Output Curve: A plot of fuel input in BtulHr. as a function of the MW

output of_theunit.
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2. Heat Rate Curve: A plot of heat rate in BtulkWH, as a function of the MW_output
of the unit. Thus, it is the slope of the 1-0 curve at any point. The reciprocal of
heat rate is termed as the 'Fuel Efficiency'.
3. Incremental Fuel Rate Curve: A plot of incremental fuel rate (IFC) in_Btu/kWH as
a function of the MW output of the unit, where,
IFC=
input/
output
= Incremental change in fuel

(I)
input! Incremental change in power output
4. Incremental Fuel Cost Curve: A plot of incremental fuel cost (IFC)
III
Rs.IkWH as a function of the MW output of the unit, where,

IFC in Rs./kWH
= (Incremental
fuel-tate
in Btu/kWH) (Fuel cost in Rs.lBtu)
(2)
The fFC is a measure of how costlier it will be to produce an increment of power output
by jhat unit.
The Cost Curve can be approximated by:
*
*
Quadratic Curve by the function: C(Pi) = ai+biPi+ciP?

Linear curve by the function: d(Ci)/dPi
=b.+Zc.P.
Rs'/Hr.
Rs'/MWHr.
(3)
(4)
Generally, the quadratic curve is used widely to represent the cost curve, with the IC
curve given by the linear curve as above.
CONSTRAINTS IN ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:
Various constraints are imposed on the problem of economic operation of power systems
as listed below:
1. Primary constraints (equality constraints):
Power balance equations:

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~_~4~_

68
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Pi - PDi - PI =0; Q: - QDi - QI =0;

where,
i=buses of the system
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(5)
PI= LIIVNjYijll cos (oij-9ij);
QI= LIIVNjYijll sin (Oij-9ij);
1,2, .... n, are the power flow
m-ttm neighboring system.
(6)
The above constraints arise due to the need for the system to balance the generation and.
load demand of the system.
..
- Department of EEE, SJBIT

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2. Secondary constraints (inequality constraints):
These arise due to physical and operational
limitations
of the units and
components.
Q 1.min_< Q.I _< Q.max

I
i == 1.,2,.... n, the number of generating units in the system.
(7)
3. Spare Capacity Constraints:
These
are .used
sudden
or . fast
to account. for the
errors
load
prediction,
any
change in load demand, inadvertent loss of scheduled generation, etc. Here, the .
. :,total generation available at any time...should be in excess of the ,total anticipated
load demand and any system loss by an amount not less than a specified
minimum spare
capacity, Psr (called the Spinning Reserve) given by:
PIG (Generation) 2: L PI (Losses) + Psp + POj (Load)
(8)
4. Thermal Constraints:
For transmission lines of the given system:

- Simin
:s SIi( :s Simaxi == i,2, ... .nb, the number
of branches,
where, Sbi is the branch transfer MYA.
(9)
5. Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints:
Bus voltage
bus voltage,
and Bus angle Constraints
are needed
to_ maintain
Department-of EEE, SJBlT

70
a flat
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profile and to limit the overloading respectively.

- Vimin:::;Vi :::;Vimax
_l:..min< 1:.. < I:..max
1Il)
_ 01)
_ 01)
i = 1,2,.... n
i = 1,2,.... n;j
= 1,2,.... m
(10)
where, n is the number of nodes and m is the number of nodes neighboring each
node with interconnecting branches.
6. Other Constraints:
In case of transformer taps, during optimization,
it is required to satisfy the
constraint:
(11)
where Ti is the percentage tap setting of the tap changing transformer used.
In case of phase shifting transformers, it is required to satisfy the constraint:
PSimin :::;PSi :::;PSimax
(12)
where PSi is the phase shift obtained from the phase shifting transformer used.
SPINNING RESERVE
Spinning reserve (SR) is the term used to describe the total amount of generation
available from all the synchronized
(spinning) units__.9_~the system minus the
present load plus the losses being supplied. i.e.,
Sp.Res., Psp = {Total generation, L.PIG} - {LPDj(load) + L PI (losses)}

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The SR must be made available in the system so that the loss of one or more
units does not cause a large drop in system frequency. SR must be allocated to
different units based on typical Council rules. One such rule is as follows:
'SR must be capable of making up for the
loss of the most heavily loaded unit in the
system'
Reserves mus_tbe spread around the system to avoid the problem of 'bottling of
reserves' and to allow for the various parts of the system to run as 'islands',
whenever they become electrically disconnected.
{Qn.i Write a brief note on the following: Spinning Reserve, constraints in

economic operation, performance curves}
SOLUTION TO ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
{Qn.: Dirive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission rlosses neglected, MW limits considered/ not considered}'
The solution to economic load dispatch problem is obtained as per the equal
incremental cost criterion-(ElC), which states that:
'All the units must operate at the same incremental fuel cost for economic
operation'
This EIC criterion can be derived as per LaGrangian multiplier method for
different cases as under.
CASE (i) Solution to ELD without inequality constraints:

72
_.....
.....
2,__
Page
lOEE82
Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load Po MW. Let the unit
MW limits and the transmission losses are negligible. Suppose the fuel cost of
unit 'i' is given by:
so that
IC
= d(C)/dPi = br+2CiPi
Hence, the total cost, CT
Rs'/MWHr. (14)
= L CePi)
i= 1,2, ... N
The ELD problem can thus be stated mathematically
. Minimize
Such that
CT
L Pi
=L
C(Pi)
= Po
as follows:
i = 1,2, ... N
(15)
where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs./Hr., PD is the total demand in
MW and Pi is the MW power output of unit i. The above. optimization problem
can be solved by La Granje 's method as follows.
~ The LaGranje function L is given by:
CT + A (PD - ~Pi)
( 16)
The minimum cost value is obtained when:

aLiaPi "" 0;
and
aLlaA = 0
(17)
aCT/8Pi - A= 0 and PD - ~ Pi = 0 (which is same as the constraint given)
..
Page
Department of EEE, SJBIT_
73
:::
IOEE82
Further, since the cost of a given unit depends only on its own power output, we
have,
i= 1,2,... N
(18)
Thus,
dC/dPi -A=O
i= 1,2, ... N
dCddPI = dC2/dP2 =
= dC/dPj =
or
= dCN/dPN
(19)
A, a common value of the incremental fuel cost of generator I, in
Rs.IMWHr.
-
.. The equation above is stated in words as under:
'For the optimum generation (power output) of the generating units, all
the units ;nust operate at equal incremental cost (EIC)'
.Expression for System Lambda; A:
Consider equation (14);

Simplifying, we get,
Pi '" [A-bj]/2Cj MW
Hi
I Solving,
- CASE
we get,
ai) Solution
Rs'/MWH
r [A-bj]/2Cj
= PD
'"
{PD I E [b/2cd}/ {E [1/2cd}
r. so
that
(20) I
to ELD with capacity constraints:
Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load PD MW. Let the unit
MW limits be considerable
and the transmission losses be negligible.
Suppose
the fuel cost

- of unit 'i' is given by:
so that the total cost,
-Department
74
of EEE, SJBIT
Page
_.- _-
..
lOEE82
i= 1,2,... N
The ELD problem can now be stated mathematically as follows:
= L C(Pi) i ~
Minimize
CT
Such that
L Pi = PD and
... N
rna
Pimins Pi
s PiX
(21)
where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs.lHr., Po is the total demand in
MW, Pi is the MW power output of unit i, Pimin is the minimum MW power
output and pjmaxis the maximum power output by the unit i.
The necessary conditions for the solution of the. above optimization problem can
be obtained as follows:
Ai
-dC/dPi
=A
Ai
dC/dPi
Rs./MWHr. for
< Ai A Rs'/MWHr.
= dC;/dPi::::
A Rs'/MWHr.
pi'nin ::::-Pi < Pimax
for
Pi =Pilllax
for
Pi
==
pjl11in
(22) -
..
_-. -
~--
Dtp-artmeilt..of EEE, SJBIT

J8
Page
lOEE82
From the above equations, if the outputs of the unit, according to optimality
rule, is:
* Less than its minimum value, then it is set to Pimin,
the corresponding IC will
be greater than the system A,
* More than its maximum
value, then it is set to
Pimax,
the corresponding IC
will be less than.the system A,
* With in its maximum
and minimum values, then the corresponding IC will
be equal to the system A.
In other words, the sequential procedural steps are as follows:
, 1. First, find the power output according to the optimality
rule (EIC
Criterion)
2. If the power output of any unit is less than its minimum value, then set
the value to be equal to its
prin,
3. Similarly, if the power output of any unit is more than its maximum
value, then set the value to be equal to its Pt?",
4. Adjust the demand for the remaining units after accounting fOI~ the
settings. made for the above units (those units- which have 'violated the
limits)
5. Finally, apply the EIC criterion, for the remaining units. Here, the
system lambda is determined by only those units whose power output
values are with in the specified MW limits.

Page 76
lOEE82
CASE (iii) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses consideredPENALTY_FACTOR METHOD _
I -
{Qn.: Derive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission losses considered. Usepenalty factor method}
Consider a system with N generating units supplying a load PD MW. Let the
transmission losses be.considerable. Suppose the fuel cost of unit 'i' is given
by:
so that the total cost,
i= 1,2, ... N
- Let PL be the total transmission losses in the system. The ELD problem can
now be stated mathematically as follows:
Minimize
CT
= r Ci(Pi) i = 1,2, ... N
Such that
L Pi
= PD
+ PL (23)
where, -CTis the total fuel cost of the system in Rs.lHr., PD is the total demand
..
in MW, Pi is the MW power output-of unit i,
I\ is
the transmission
losses in
the system. This above optimization problem can be solved by Lo Granje's
method as follows.
The LaGranje function L is given by:
= Cr
_ A (rpi _PD - PL)
(24)

__ -
_ ..
--"'=--
__
c""
Page 77
auaPi =0;
lOEE82
aua'A=o
and
(25)
8Cr/8Pi -A(l-8PrJ8Pi)=0and 1:Pi-Po-PL=0 (which is same as the constraint given)

Further, since the cost of a given unit depends only on its own power output, we
have,
aC;/OPi = dC/dPi
i= 1,2,... N
dC/dPi - 'A (1- dPudPi) = 0
i = 1,2, ... N
Thus,
dC/dPi =
Ie
or
= A(1- dPUtlPi)
Sothat we have for optimal operation,

A=
Ie
1(1- dPudPi) =
rc, (1- dPUdPiyl
rc,
:= Pni
Where, Pni is the penalty factor of unit i = (1- dPudPiyl

dPudPf is the Incremental Transmission
:= (I-ITLiyl ; ITLi =
Loss of unit i, and 'A is in Rs.IMWHr.
(26)
The equation above is stated in words as. under:
'For the optimumgeneration (power output) of the generating units, when the.
transmission losses are considered, all the units must operate such that the
product of the incrementalfuel cost and their penalty factor must be the same
for all units'
Note: in equation (26), if losses are negligible as in case (i) above,

then, IT~i = dPudPi_= 0, Pni=l:O so that 'A =
Ie
i = 1,2,... N, as
before.
CASE Ov) Solution to ELD with Transmission
losses considered-
LOSS_ COEFFICIENTS METHOD

{Qn.:
Derive
systems
the
EIC
with transmission
criterion
losses
for
economic
considered.
operation
of
power
Use B- Coefficients method
OR
_ ...- _-..
- "*'-_ -

Page 78
IOEE82
Derive an expression for the -transmission loss as a function of

the plant
generations.}
Consider a system with two generating units supplying currents II and h

respectively to the load current IL~Let
Ikl
and IJa be the respective currents
flowing through a general transmission branch element k of resistance Ri, with

current Ik as shown in figure 1 below.
load Current
Figure 1. Branch currents in a 2 unit system
(27)
Where, Nkl and Nk2 (assumed to be real values) are the current distribution
.' factors of units l-and 2 respectively.
It is assumed that the currents
Ikl
and h, as well as Ik2 and It have the same phase
angle or they have a zero phase shift. Thus, they can be added as real numbers as
under.
Page 79
lOEE82
II = 31i3 crt = 3113COS

crt+ j3It3sin crt
Let
Iz = 3123 cr2 = 3h3COSoz+ j31z3sin cr2
(28)
Where crt and cr2are the phase angles of currents. Consider now, the magnitude
of current h, in branch k, given by
Ik = {Nkt3I13COS
crt+j Nkt3It3sin crt} + {Nk23b3cos oz+ j Nk23h3sin cr2}
=
{Nkt3113COS
crt+ Nk23h3COScr2}+ j{Nkl3Il3sin crt+ Nk23bsin cr2}
Thus,
3Ik32 = Nkl3Ii32 + Nk23b2 + 2 NktNk23It33h3 cos( or-ca)
'. (29)
However, we have,
PI
= ~3Vlltcoset;
P2 ,:".~3V2hcoSe2; PL
= L33Ik/Rk
(30)
where, PI and P2 are 'th~ MW _power outpU! values by the units 1 and 2
respective4y,.v1
and V2 are t~e respective
line voltages and 91, 92 are the
respective: power factor angles and PL is the transmission
loss in the system.
From equations (29) and (30),
_ ..- _-..
Department ofl=EE, SJBIT

Page 80
lOEE82
after simplification, an expression for the transmission loss as a function of plant

generation can be obtained as:
PL
LNkI2RkPI2/(VI2cos291)+ LNkiRkPlI(vicoS2t)2)"I"""'2 LNklNk2RkPIP2 COS(crl-cr2)1

(VIV2cos91cos92)
= BllPl2 + B22Pi + 2 B12PIP2
..
(31)
Where, the B coefficients are called as the loss coefficients. Thus, in general, for
a system of n units we have,
J
. Bij
=L
{cos(cri-crj)I(ViVjcos9icos9j) NkiNkjRk
(32)
Note:
.L The B coefficients are represented in units of reciprocal MW, (MW-i)
. 2. For a three unit system, equation (32) takes the form:

PL
= BIIPI2
=
+ B22Pi + B33P)2 + 2 B12PIP2+2 BI3PIP3+ 2 B23P2P3
pTBP
(33)
Where, P = [PI Pi P3],the vector of !I11it power output values and
8 = [811 B12 813; 821
B22 B23; 831 832
833]
the loss coefficient matrix for the 3 unit system.
3. The B coefficient matrix is a square, symmetric matrix of order.n, n

being the number of generating units present in the system.
4. The following are the assumptions made during the above analysis:
All
load
currents maintain
a constant
ratio to load current
(Nu=constaru).
The voltage at any bus remains constant.
The power factor of each bus source is constant (fb_=collstant).
::
lOEE82
The voltage phase angle at load buses is constant (cu=constant},
5. The Incremental Transmission loss, ITLi of a given unit can be

expressed in terms of its MW power output values as under:
Consider,
PL = r
PjBjkPk
j k
=~
PjBjkPk
+ ~ PjBjiPi
J k#
=~
PjBjkPk
J k#
=~
+ ~ PjBjiPi + BiiPi 2
. ji=i
PjBjkPk
.j;ti ki=i
ki=i
+~
PiBikPk +
PjBjiPj
+ BjjP?
ji=i
(34)
Thus,
ITL = dPddPi
= 0+
L BikPk+ L PjBji + 2 BjiPr
. kj:i
j#
~ 2 ~ PkBik
k
(35)
lage 82
::
lOEE82
Examples on Economic operation of power systems
Part A: Transmission losses negligible

Example-I:
The 1-0 characteristics of two steam plants can be expressed analytically as
under (with PI and P2 in MW):
FI
=(2.3PI+0.0062
PI2 +
25)106
kCalslHr. F2 =(1.5PI+0.OI pi + 35)106

kCalslHr.
The calorific value of coal at plant#I and plant#2 are respectively equal to 4000
kCals/kg. and 5000 kCals/kg. The corresponding cost of coal is Rs.55/- and
Rs.65/-per Ton. Find the following: (i)Incremental Fuel Rate. in kCals/MWHr
(iijlncrernental Fuel Cost in Rs./MWHr and (iii)Increment~I.Produetion Cost in
Rs./MWHr if the cost of other items can be taken .as 10% of the incremental fuel
cost/plant.
Solution:
(i)Incremental Fuel Rate in kCals/MWHr
IFR]=dFddP, = (2.3+0.0124P])106 kCals/MWHr
IFR2=dF2/dP2= (1.5+0.02P2)106 kCals/MWHr
(iillncremental Fuel Cost in Rs'!MWHr --
IC]= [dFddPI in kCalslMWHr] [cost of coal
In
Rs.!ton] [calorific value"
(2.3+0.0I24P])I06 (55) (114000)(10-3)

= 31.625 + 0.1705 P, Rs.!MWHr.
IC2= [dF2/dP2 in kCalslMWHr] [cost of coal in Rs.!ton] [calorific value:'
(1.5+0.02P2)106 (65) (1/5000) (10-3)
= 19.9 + 0.26 P2 Rs./MWHr.
_~-
_ ...
--
.,._-
_.oS._,.
Jiagc 83
lOEE82
(iii)Incremental Production Cost in Rs.IMWHr if the cost of other items can be

taken as 10% of the incremental fuel cost/plant.
Effective value-of IC are given
by: ICIeff= 1.1 (ICI)
= 1.1 (31.625 + 0.1705 PI) Rs.lMWHr.
34.7878 + 0.1875 P2 Rs.l1:1WHr.

IC2eff~1.1 (IC2)
= 1.1 (19.9.+ 0.26 P2)Rs.IMWHr.
= 21.45 + 0.286 P2 .Rs.IMWHr.

Example-2:
The incremental costs of a two unit system are given by: IC I = (0.008 PGI+ 8.0);
IC2= (0.0096 PG2+ 6.4) Find the incremental cost and the distribution of loads
between the two units for optimal operation for a total load of 1000 MW. What.
is this value if the same total load is equally shared among the two units?
Solution:
For the total load values of PT= lQOOMW, if the load is shared equally among.
the two units then:
PGl = 500 MW; PGi = 500 MW with
/1.1 = 12 Rs.IMWHr and 'A2= 11.2 Rs'/MWHr. (unequal lambda values)
Now, for optimal operation, we have as per EIC principle, the IC's to be equal.
I.e.,
ICI=IC2;
PT = PI+P2 = 1000
are the equations to be solved for the output power values. Thus,
ICI =0.008 PGI + 8.0= IC2= 0.0096 PG2+ 6.4
= 0.0096 (1000 - Peil) + 6.4

---
_-.
--
-,._-
_ c",,__
Page 84
Solving, we get,
Further,
lOEE82
PGI = 454.54 MW; POl = 545.45 MW
calculated using
Asystem IS
equations as:
anyone
Asystem
of the IC
= Ai = 1..2= 11.64
Rs.lMWHr.
Thus, with
Asystem
= AI = 1..2= 11.64 Rs.IMWHr, the total load is optimally shared
between the two units and the operating cost would be at its minimum.
Example-3:
The
fuel
costs
in Rs.lHr.
CI=(0.IPI2+40P,+100);
the incremental cost
for .a plant
of
C2=(O.l25Pi+30P2+80);
three
units
are given
by:
C3=(0.15P32+20P3+150); Find
and the distribution of loads between the three units for
optimal operation for a total load of 400 MW, given that the max. and min.
capacity limits for each of the units as 150 MW and 20 MW respectively.
Solution:
Consider
the :incremental
cost curves given by: _.IC;= dC/dPi
Rs'/MWHr IC,=dC,/dP, = (0.20P,+40) Rs'/MWHr
For the .fotal load valu~s of PT = 400 MW, .for optimal operation, as per EIC .
.,
principle, the IC's are equal. i.e., IC,=IC2=IC3; and PT = P]+P2+P3 = 400 MW.
Also, the system lambda is given by:
Substituting
{Po+L(b/2ci)}1 {L(l/2ci)}
the
values,
we
i= 1_,2,3
get
after
simplification, A= 63.78 Rs.!MWHr.
Page 85
10EE82
Using this value of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3
units are obtained from their Ie curves as:
(All the MW output values are found to be within their capacity limits specified)
Thus, with
Asystem
= AI = A2 = A3 =63.78 Rs.IMWHr, the total load is optimally
..
shared between the three units and the operating cost would be at its minimum.
Example-d:
The incremental costs of a two unit system are given
by: lei =0.Q08 PGl + 8.0 ; Ie2=0.0096 PG2+ 6.4
Find the incremental cost and the distribution of loads between the two units for
optimal operation for a total load of"900 MW. Also determine the annual saving
as compared to equal sharing of the same total load.
in cost in optimaloperation
Solution:
For a total load of PT = 900 MW, if the load is shared equally among the two
units then: PGI = PG2= 4S0 MW.
Now, for optimal-operation,
we have as per EIC principle, the IC's to be equal.
i.e., ICI=IC2; PT = PI+P2 = 900 are the equations to be solved for the output
power values.
Thus, ICI
- Solving,
we
=0.008. PGI
+ 8.0 = IC2 = 0.0096 (900 - PGI) + 6.4
get,
PGI = 400 MW; paz = SOO MW.

The increase in cost of operation
(A_= 11.2 Rs.IMWHr.)

by Unit 1 if it supplies 4S0 MW (equal
sharing) instead of 400 MW (optimal sharing) is given by:

CI= f lCI dPGI =J (0.008PGI+8) dPGI = 1(0.004PGI2+8PG1)1400450
= Rs.S70/hr.
Similarly, the decrease
in cost of operation by Unit 2 if it supplies
4S0
MW (equal sharing) instead of SOO MW (optimal sharing) is given by:
Department of EEE, SJ BI_T
Page 86
C2= f IC2 dPG2 =
lOEE82
(0.0096PG2+6.4) dPG2 = 1(0.0096PG22+6.4PG2)1500450

= Rs. _
548/hr.
Thus, the net saving in cost in optimal operation is given by:
Rs. 570 - 548 = Rs. 22/- per hour or it is equivalent to an annual saving in cost
of (assuming continuous operation): Rs.(22)(24)(365) = Rs. 1,92, 720/- PA.
Example-S:
The fuel costs of a two generator system are given by:
C, =ni + I3,P,+ y,p,2;
C2 =U2 + 132P2+Y2pi
Where, 13,=40, 132=30, y,=O.l, Y2=0.125, and
U',U2 are constants.
How will
the load of 150 MW be shared optimally between the two units? Also determine
the saving in cost in Rs.lHr. in optimal operation as compared to equal sharing of
the same total load.
Solution: .
Consider
the incremental
IC,=dC,/dPI
Rs.lMWHr
cost curves given by:

131+ YIPI
IC2=dC2/dP2
40+0.2P(
132+
Y2P2 =
30+0.25P2 Rs'/MWHr
For a totaf'Ioad of PT = 150 MW, if the load is shared equally among the two
units then: PGI = PG2= 75 MW .
. Now, for optimal operation, we have as per- EIC principle, the IC's to be equal.
i.e., ICI=IC2; PT = PI+P2 = L50 are the equations to be solved for the output
...
power values.
Thus,
lei
Solving,
we
=40+0.2PI
30+0.25P2
30+0.25
(l50-PI)
get,
PI = 61.11 MW; Pz = 88.89 MW (A= 52.222 Rs'/MWHr.)

The increase in cost of operation by Unit 1 if it supplies 75 MW (equa.u_haring)
inateag_.Qf6) jJ M.W_(J;lp-ti!naI_sharing)is given by:
Department of EEE, SJIUf'
Page 87
lOEE82
Similarly, the decrease in cost of operation by Unit 2 ifit supplies 75 MW (equal

sharing) instead of 88.89 MW (opti~al7lillring)
is given by:
C2= f IC2 dPG2 = f (30+0.25P2) dPG2 = J(30P2+0.125Pi)188.8975 = Rs. - 707/hr.
Thus, the net saving in cost in optimal operation is given
by: Rs. 737.344 -707 = Rs. 30.344/- per hour
(or it is equivalent
to an annual
operation): Rs.(30.3)(24)(365)
saving in cost of (assuming
continuous
= Rs. 2,62,8001- PA)
Example-6:
The fuel cost function
III
Rs'/Hr.
for three thermal plants
IS
given by the
..
following
(with P's in MW):.
F]
= 350
+ 7.20 P, + 0.0040 P]2
F2 = 500 + 7.30 P2
+ 0.0025 P:2
F3 = 600 + 6.74 P3 + 0.0030 P32
Find the optimal schedule for a total load of 450 MW. Also compute the costs of
operation for this schedule. Compare the same when the three generators share
the same total load equally among them.
Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs'/MWHr for the 3 units as under:
IC]=dFddP]
= 7.2+0.008P] Rs'/MWHr
IC2=dF2!dP2= 7.3 + 0.005P2 Rs'/MWHr

6.74
IC3=dF3!dP30.006P3
and
+
Rs./Mw,ur
-,._- - -_ -
Department of EEE, SJ BIT

Page 88 _
:::
For optimal
operation,
lOEE82
we have as per EIC, the common
lambda of the
system given
by:
/..= {PD+:E(b/2ci)}/ {:E(l/2Ci)} i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification, A. = Rs. 8/ MWHr.
units are obtained from their IC curves as:
The operating costs for this schedule are Jound by using the cost
curves as: FT(Optimai operation) = FI+F2+F3 = 1110+1571+2147.7
= 4828 Rs'/Hr.
- - Similarly, the operating costs for the equal sharing of total load are also found by
. using the cost curv.es as: (with PI= P2= P3=150 MW.
Ff(Equal sharing) = Fl+F2tF3 = 1520+l62l.25+1078.5
= 4849.5 Rs'!Hr.
Thus, saving in cost in optimal operation is: 4849.5 - 4828 = RS.21. 75/- per
hour.
Example-7:
Given that ICI=(40+0.2PI)
; IC2 =(30+0.25P2) Calculate and tabulate the load
shared by each unit for optimal operation if the total load varies from 50 to
250MW, in steps of 50MW, given that max.MW is 125 and min. MW is 20 for
both the units ..
Solution:
Stage 1: Consider the IC's at Pmin:

ICIIPI=Plmin= 20MW= 40+0.2(20) = 44 Rs'/MWHr
IC2IP2=P2min
= 20MW= 30+0.25(20) = 35 Rs'/MWHr
Thus, IC2 < ICI; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system
lambda is equal to 44 Rs'/MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
--Department of EKE, SJBlT
--
....-
- & ....
_
Page 8;'Ao90--
P21A.2=44
= (44 - 30)/0.25 = 56 MW
Thus, until P~76
lOEE82
so that then PTotal= 20 + 56 = 76 MW.
MW, EIC will not be feasible, Unit 1 will work at its
minimum load 20 MW and all the additional load is shared by unit 2 alone till
A=44 Rs'/MWHr.
Stage 2:
Consider the IC's
at
Pmax: since the Unit 2 is expected
to
reach its max. limit earlier, find:

IC2IP2=P2max
= 125MW=
30+0.25(125)
= 61.25
Rs'/MWHr PdAI=61.25= (61.25 - 40)/0.2 = 106.25

MW so that then
PTotal= 106.25+ 125= 231.25 MW
Thus, after P-r=431.25MW, EIC ceases to hold good; Unit 2 will work at its
maximum load sharing of 125 MW only and all the. additional load variations are
shared by unit 1 alone untill PI also reaches 125 MW.
Stage 3:
In summary,
EIC holds
good
only for PT and Asystemvalues
which satisfy the
limits:
76:::;PT < 231.25 MW
Sl.
No.
1.
PT
50
PI
20
and
i'syste
P2
30
(fixed)
2.
76
20
3.
100
33.33
4.
5.
150
200
6.
7.
44 < Asystem< 61.25 Rs'/MWHr
m
44
. (fixed)
Remarks
Unit 2 only shares
the additional load
Unit J and Unit Z

share
the
total
load as per
66.67 46.67
56
44
EIC
61.11 88.99 52.22 Criterion. The system

88.88 111.11 57.78 tworks with a common
system lambda
231.25 106.25
125 61.25
250
125
125 61.25
(fixed
(fixed)
)
Unit 1 only shares

the additional load
_.- _-..
- ~_.-

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Example-8:
Given thatFI =110 + 30PI+ 0.09P12

F2 =135 + 12P2+O.lP2
12 s PI ~ 125 MW
25 ~P2
s 125
MW
For the total load values of PT = 100, 150 and 200 MW, the equations to be
solved for the output power values are: ICI=IC2; PT = PI+P2 and "-systemis
calculated using anyone of the IC equations. The values so obtained for the said
range of load values are tabulated as under.
Calculate and tabulate the load shared by each unit for optimal sharing of the
total load in the range 50-250 MW in steps of 100M\V. Also find Systemin each
case .:
Solution:
. Consider the incremental. cost curves given by:
ICI=dCddPI
=;
30+0.18 PI Rs'/MWHr
Stage 1.' Consider the IC's at Pmin:
ICllpl;'Plmin
12MW
32.l6
Rs./MWHr IC2lp2=P2min
=.25MW = 17
Rs'/MWHr
Thus, IC2 < ICI; i.e., the ElC holds good only from the stage where, the system
lambda is equal to 32.16 Rs./MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
P21),2=32.16
= 100.8 MW
so that then PTolal= 112.8 MW
Thus, until PT=112.8 MW, EIC will not be feasible, Unit 1 will work at its
Page 91
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minimum load, 12 MW and the additional load is shared by unit 2 alone till
A=32.16 Rs.IMWHr.
Stage 2: Consider the IC's at Pmax:since the Unit 2 is expected to reach its max.
limit earlier, find:
IC2IP2=P2max = 125MW = 37 Rs.lMWHr
PdAl~37
= 38.88 MW so that then
PTotal= 163.88 MW
Thus, after PT= 1~3.88 MW, EIC ceases to hold good; Unit 2 will work at its
maximum load sharing of 125 MW only and all the additional load variations are
shat:~~ by unit 1 alone untill PI also reaches 125 MW.
Stage 3: In summary, EIC holds-good only for PT and Asystem

values which satisfy
the limits: 112.8::; PT::; 163.88 ~W and 32.16::; Asystem::;
37 Rs.IMWHr
For the total load value of PT = 150 MW; 'where the EIC holds good, the
equations to be solved for
the output power.values are: ICI=IC2; P'I' == PI+P2 and
As)'&tem
is calculated using any ?ne of the IC equations. 'The values so' obtained for
the said range of load values are tabulated as under ..
additional load
1 and Unit 2 share
additional load
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Example-9:
A system is fed by two steam plants with IC functions as under:
ICI= 28+0.16PI Rs:lMWHr;
ICz= 20+0.25Pz Rs./MWHr
The maximum and minimum loads on the units are 100 MW and 10 MW
~
respectively. Determine the minimum cost of generation for supplying a load as
follows based on the EIC criterion:
2 Midnight Oam
2 noon ~-6
!1:0ad
lQ.uration 6 am
-12 noon 2pm
pm
1L0adin
k>o
~o
100
IMW
~20
p-9
pm
~75
~pm-
12
Midn!g_ht
~o
. Solution:
Stalfe 1: Consider the IC's at Pmin:
ICJ!PI=Plmin
= JOMW = 29.6 Rs.lMWHr
IC21P2='P2mi~
= 10 MW = 22.5 Rs,/MWHr
Tlius, IC2 < ICI; i.e., the EIC holds good only from the stage where, the system'
lambda is equal to 29.6 Rs,/MWHr. Now find P2 corresponding to this Lambda:
'P21A2=296
= 38.4 MW so that then PTotal~ 48.4 MW
However
all the required loads to be' supplied
are above this total load of
48.4 MW!
Stage 2:
Consider the IC's at Pmax:
ICIIPI=Plmax
= IOOMW = 44 Rs,/MWHr
IC2IP2=P2max = 100MW = 45 Rs,/MWHr

P21AI=44
= 96 MW so that then PTotal= 196 MW
--- -...
--
---
-~_,.
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Again, it is observed that all the required loads to be supplied are below this total
load of 196 MW!
In summary, EIC holds good for all the load values specified. Now for the total
-_--- --- load value of Pr = PI+P2, where EICis shownto holds good, the equations to be
solved for the output power values are: ICI=IC2; PT = PI+P2 and
calculated using anyone of the
Asystem
is
Ie equations. The values so obtained for the said
range of load values are tabulated as under.
Example-l 0:
Assume that the fuel input in BtulHr. for unit 1 and unit 2 of a plant are'
given -by:
FI = {PI+ O. 024PI2+80} 106;
The maximum arid mimmum loads on the units are 100 MW and 10 MW
respectively. Determine the minimum cost of generation for supplying a load as
follows with the fuel cost at Rs.2 'per MBlu.
Solution:
Consider the incremental cost curves given

by: ICI=dCtldPJ
= 2+0.096 PI
Rs.lMWHr IC2=dG2/dP2 = 12+0.16

P2 Rs'/MWHr
Consider the IC's at Pmin:
ICJ!PI=Plmin=
IOMW
= 2.96 Rs'/MWHr
---
_- ..
--
Thus, IC2 >ICI; i.e., the EIC holds good only from
""'11;,._-
_<lO:-,
the stage
where, the system
__
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lambda is equal to 13.6 Rs.IMWHr. Now find PI corresponding to this Lambda:
PI!AI=I3.6= 120.833 MW (>PImax) (so that then PTotai= 130.833 MW)

Rs'/MWHr. However, this is not further feasible since the unit l-reaches its max.
value of 100 MW within this range!!! Hence, EIC ceases to exist for any given
Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs.IMWHr for the 3 units as under:
ICI=dHddPI = (1.1) (7.2+0.000284PI) Rs'/MWHr
IC2=dH2/dP2 = (1.0) (7.85 + 0.00388P2) Rs.IMWHr
IC3=dH3/dP3 = (1.0) (7.97 + 0.00964P3) Rs.IMWHr
and
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the .common

system given
lambda of the
by:
A.~ {PD+:E(b/2ci)}/ {:E(1/2Ci)}
i= 1,2,3
Substituting
the values,
we
get
after
. Si!llplific~tion, A = 9.14~ Rs.IMWHr.
Using this val.ue of common system lambda, the MW output values of all the 3
PI= 393.2 MW, P2= 334.6 MW
and
P3=122.2 MW.
(All the MW output values are within their capacity limits specified)
Example-12:
Three plants of total capacity 500 MW are scheduled for operation to supply a
total load of 310 MW. Find the optimal load schedule if the IC curves and
limitations are:
Solution:
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the
"-system
Asystem
given by:
= {PD+"L(bJ2c;)}/{"L(l/2c;)} i= 1,2,3
Substituting the values, we get after simplification,
_ .- -..
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_ .ol::
Power System Operation lind Control (PSOC)
Asystem
lOEE82
= 42 Rs.IMWHr.
Using this value of
Asystem,
the MW output values of all the 3 units are obtained
from their Ie curves as:
Pi= 100 MW, P2= 10 MW and P3= 200 MW.
Thus, P2<P2min (of 20 MW)
and Pl,P3 are within the limits.
In such cases, for optimal operation, we set P2=P2min = 20
.'
--Department of EEE, SJBIT
- .. --
.,._-
_c ....
__
Page 96
lOEE82
And hence the total load to be shared only between the unit 1 and unit
3 is: 310-10=290 MW;
- Solution:
Consider the IC curves in Rs.IMWHr for the 3 units as under:
IC,=dHddP,
= (0.9) (7.2+0.000284P,) Rs./MWHr
IC2=dH2/dP.2 = (1.0) (7.85 + 0.00388P2) Rs'/MWHr
and
For optimal operation, we have as per EIC, the common lambda of the system
given by:
A = {Po+t(bi/2ci)} I {l:( 112ci)}
Substituting
the
values;
we
i= 1,2,3
get
after
simplification, A = 8:284 Rs'/MWHr.
.:

P,= 704.6 MW, P2= 111.8-MW and P3= 32.6 MW.
Thus, ~1>.Plmax (of 60()
MW) ;
P3<P3min(of 50
MW) and P2 is within the limits.
In such cases, for optimal operation, we have:

PI=PI
max =
P3=P3 min
600 so that
= 50
so that
P2=Po-600-50 ~0-650=200,
11.1=8.016 Rs'/MWHr;
1..3=8.458Rs.!MWHr and thus so that 1..2=8.626Rs.IMWHr
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Thus between units 2 and 3, the optimaloperation
may be feasible since IC3<IC2.
For this, we solve the equations:
7.85+0.003 88P2=7.97+0.00964P3
The solution thus yields:
1..2=1..3=8.576Rs'/MWHr.;
P2= 187.13 M~;
P3 = 62.82 MW
with PI=Plmax = 600 MW (fixed).
Example-14 :
If the total .load ala certain hour of the day is 400 .Mwfor a 3 unit system, obtain
,
'.'
"
the optimuin_,generation schedule, if the IC curves of the 'three units are as under
(with iC's in Rs'/MWHr. and PG'S in M.~):."
PGI= -100 +50 (fCI)- 2 (fCI/

PG2= -150 +60 (lC2)- 2.5
(lC2l
PG3= -80 +40 (fC3)-
1.8 (fC3/
-Solution:
Consider the EIC condition:
Thus,
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400= [-100+50(lC)-2(IC)2]+ [-150+60(lC)-2.5(ICi]+
[-80+40(lC)-
1.8(ICi] i.e., 6.3(IC)2-150(lC)+730=0;
Solving we get two solutions: IC=6.82 and IC=16.989
-_
Rs.IMWHr., of which, the lower and economical value is considered

for further analysis: With IC= 6.82 Rs.IMWHr,
we have, PGl= 148 MW, PG2=142.9 MW and PG3=109.1 MW.
In EPS, the first step is to properly assess the load requirement of a given area
where electrical power is to be supplied. This power is to be supplied using the
. available units such as thermal, hydroelectric, nuclear, etc. Many factors are
required to be considered while choosing a type of generation such as: kind of
fuel available, fuel cost, availability of suitable sites for major station, nature of
load to. be supplied, etc.
Variable load: the
load is not constant due to the varying demands at the
different times of the day. The EPS is expected to supply reliable and quality
power. It should ensure the continuity of power supply at all times. {Qn.: write a
note on tIle choice of the number and size of the generating
units at a power
station from economic operation point ofview}
Single unit Vs. multiple units: the use of a single unit to supply the complete load
;:0.
demand is not practical since, it would not be a reliable one. A-ftemately,a large
number of srrialler units can be used to fit the load curve as closely as possible.
Again, with a large number of units, the operation and maintenance costs will
increase. Further, the capital cost of large number of units of smaller size is more
as compared to a small number of units of larger size. Thus, there has to be
compromise
in the selection of size and number of generating
units within a
power plant or a station.
Electric Power Systems (Fdesl:..OpJ?I:fl_tioYl.qJ_Aspecls:

Page 99
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Electric energy is generated at large power stations that are far away from the
load centers. Large and long transmission
lines (grid lines) wheel the generated
power to the substations at load centers. Many electrical equipment are used for
proper transmission and distribution of the generated power:-TIie grid lines are
such that:
GRID: The transmission system of a given area.2

Regional GRID: Different grids are interconnected through transmission lines .
National GRID: Interconnection of several regional grids through tie lines.
Each grid operates independently,
although power can be exchanged between
vanous
grids.
Economic loading of generators and interconnected stations:

Optimum economic efficiency is achieved when all the generators which are
running-in parallel are loaded in such a way that the fuel cost of their power
generation is the minimum; The units then share the load to minimize the overall
cost of generation. This economical approach of catering to the load requirement
is called as 'economic dispatch '. The main/actor
in economic operation of
power systems is the cost ofgenerating the real power. In any EPS, the cost has
. two components as under:
The Fixed Costs: Capital investment, interest charged on the money borrowed,
tax paid, labour, salary, etc. which are independent of the load variations .
The Variable Costs: which are dependant on the load on the generating units,
the losses, daily load requirements, purchase or sale of power, etc.
The current discussiorr on economic operation of power systems is concerned
about minimizing the variable costs only. Further, the factors affecting the
operating cost of the generating units are: generator efficiency, transmission
losses, fuel cost, etc. Of these, the fuel cost is the most important factor. Since a
given power system is a mix of various types of generating units, such as hydel,
thermal, nuclear, hydro-thermal, wind, etc., each type of unit contributes its share
for the total operating cost. Since fuel cost is a predominating.factor
_-
in thermal
_&_-
Department of EEE, SJBI1'"

100
Page
..
10EE82
(coal fired) plants, economic load dispatch (ELD) is considered usually for a
given set of thermal plants in the foregoing discussion.
PROBLEM OF ECONOMIC LOAD SCHEDULING:
There are two problem areas of operation strategy to obtain the economic
_operation of power systems. They are: problem of economic scheduling and the
problem of optimal power flow.
* Theproblem of economic scheduling: This is again divided into two categories:

'. The unit commitment problem (UCP): Here, the objective is to determine the
various generators to be in operation among the' available one~.in the system,
-satisfying the constraints, so that the total operating cost is the minimum. This
problem is solved for specified time duration, usually a day in advance, _based on
the forecasted load- for that time duration.
-.The .economic -load dispatch (ELD):. Here, the objective is to determine the
.
generation (MW 'power output) of each presently operating (committed or put

on) units to meet the specified load demand (including the losses), such hat the
total fuel cost s minimized
The problem of optimal power flow: Here, it deals with delivering the real
Rower
to the load points with minimum loss. For this, the power flow in each line is to
be optimized to minimize the system losses.
.{Qn.: .compare ELD and UCP and hence bring out their importance 'and
objectives.}
PERFORMANCE CURVES:
The Performance Curves useful for economic load dispatch studies include many
different types of input-output curves as under:

.lkpartment
101
of EEE, SJBIT
Page
---
_-
...
lOEE82
1. Input Output Curve: A plot of fuel input in Btu/Hr. as a function of the MW

output of the unit.
2. Heat Rate Curve: A plot of heat rate in Btu/kWH, as a function of the MW
output of the unit. Thus, it is the slope of !lie 1-0 curve at any point. The ~-~.-reciprocal of heat rate is termed as the 'Fuel Efficiency'.
3. Incremental Fuel Rate Curve: A plot of incremental fuel rate (lFC) in
BtU/kWH as a function of the MW output of the unit, where, IFC=
Ainput/ Aoutput = Incremental change in fuel input/ Incremental change in power
output
4. Incremental Fuel Cost Curve: A plot of incremental fuel cost (IFC)
III
Rs.lkWH as a function of the MW output of the unit, where,

IFC in Rs.lkWH = (Incremental fuel rate in Btu/kWH) (Fuel cost in Rs.lBtu)
The IFC is a measure of how costlier it will be t9 produce an increment of power
output by that unit.
The Cost Curve can be approximated by:
'* Quadratic Curve by the function: Ci(Pi} = ai+biPi+CiPi2 Rs./Hr.

* Linear curve by the function: d(Ci)/dPi =bi+2ciPi Rs'/MWHr.
Generally, the quadratic curve is used widely to represent the cost curve, with the
IC curve given by the linear curve as above.
CONSTRAINTS IN ECONOMIC OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

Various constraints are imposed on the problem of economic operation of power systems as listed below:
1. Primary constraints (equality constraints};

Power balance equations:
Pi - PDi - PI =0; Qi - QDi - QI =0; i=buses of the system
where, Pl= LLViVjYijcos (Sij-Bij);
Ql= LLViVjYij sin (Sij-Oij); j = 1,2,.... n, are the power flow to the neighboring
system.

102
Prflge
IOEE82
The above constraints arise due to the need for the system to balance the
generation
and load demand of the system.
2. Secondary constraints (inequality constraints):

These arise due to physical and operational limitations of the units and
components.
s Pimax
s Qi s Qimax
Pi min s; Pi
Qi min
i = 1,2,.... n, the number of generating units in the system.
3. Spare Capacity Constraints:

These are used to account for the errors in load prediction, any sudden or' fast
hange in load demand, inadvertent loss of scheduled generation, etc. Here, the
total generation available at any time 'shouldbe in excess of the total anticipated
load demand and .imy system loss by ari amol!,nt not less than a specified.
minimum spare capacity, PSP (called the Spinning Reserve) given by:
PIG (Generation) __ PI (Losses) + PSP + PDj (Load)
.SPINNING RESERVE
Spinning reserve (SR) is the term used to describe the total amount of generation
available from all the synchronized (spinning) units of the system minus the
present load plus the losses being supplied. i.e.,
Sp.Res., PSP = {Total generation, IPIG}-{ IPDj(load)+ IPl'(losses)}
The SR must be made available in the system so that the loss of one or more
units does not cause a large drop in system frequency. SR must be allocated to
different units based on typical Council rules. One such rule is as follows:
'SR must be capable of making up for the loss of the most heavily loaded unit in
the system' Reserves must be spread around the system to avoid the problem, of
Page
Department 01EEE, SJBlT. 103
lOEE82
'bottling of reserves' and to allow for the various parts of the system to run as
'islands', whenever they become electrically disconnected.
{Qn.: Write a brief note on the following: Spinning Reserve, constraints, in

economic operation, performance curves}
SOLUTION TO ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH
{Qn.: Derive the EIC criterion for economic operation of power systems with
transmission -Iosses neglected, MW limits considered! not considered} The
solution to economic load dispatch problem is obtained as per -the equal
incremental cost criterion (EIC), which states that: '1-11the units must operate at
the same incrementalfuel costfor economic operation' This EIC criterion can be
derived as per LaGrangian multiplier method for different cases as under.
CASE(i/So/ution to EL,Dwithout inequality constraints:

Consider a system with N generating units suppl~irg aload PD MW. Letthe unit
MW limits and the transmission losses are negligible. Suppose the fuel cost of
unit'i' is given by:
Cj(Pj) == (1j+ bjPj+ CjPj"' Rs'/Hr.
ICi == d(Cj)/dPi == bj+ Zc.P, Rs'/MWHr.
so thai
- - Hence, the total cost, CT == I Cj(Pj)

i== 1.2., .. N
The ELD problem can thus be stated mathematically as follows:
Minimize
CT == I C(Pi)
Such that , I P, = Po--
-i = 1,2,.. N
where, CT is the total fuel cost of the system in Rs'/Hr., PD is the total demand
inMW
and Pi is the MW power output of unit i. The above optimization problem can be
solved by LaGranje 's method as follows.
The LaGranje function L is given by:
Department of EKE, SJ81T
Page
]04
10EE82

BUBPj = 0;
and
BUB/.. = 0
"
Further, since the cost of a given unit depends only on its own power output, we have,
BC-r/BPj= BC/BPi = dC/dPj
i= 1,2,... N
(18)
Thus,
dC/dPj-A=O
i=1,2,. .. N
or
dC)/dP)= dC2/dP2=
= dC/dPi=
:::dCN/dPN
(19)
l. a common value of the incremental fuel cost of generator J, in RsJMWHr .
. The equation above is stated in words as under:

. 'For the optimum generation (power output) of the generating units, all the
units must operate at equal incremental cost (EIC),
_Expression
for System' Lambda,
Consider equation (14);

Simplifying. we get, -
ICi = d(Cj)/dPi = bi+2cjPj

MW
r, = p.-b;V2ci
IPj
Solving. we get,
A:
.A
= Pn=
RsJMWHi".
so that
I P.-bd/2c;
= {PD -+ 1: tb/2ed}1
{1: [1/2ed}
(20)
CASE (iv) Solution to ELD with Transmission losses considered- LOSS

COEFFICIENTS METHOD

105
--- _-..
<t;..,__
- Page
lOEE82
Load
Current
,.
Fig. 1. Branch currents in a 2 unit system
Ik
= Ikl
Ik2 = Nkl 11 + Nk212
Where, Nkl and Nk2 (assumed to be real values) are the current distribution
. factors
. of units 1 and 2 respectively.
It is assumed that the currents lk I and IL as' well as Tk2 and IL have the same
phase angle
or they have a zero phase shift. Thus, they can be added as real numbers as
under.
Let II
= 11Do
1 = 11coso 1+ jI I sine 1
12 = 12Dcr2 = J2cos cr2+ jl2sin cr2

Where o 1 and cr2 are the phase angles of currents.
Consider now, the magnitude of current Ik, in branch k, given by . _

{Nk I 11cos c 1+ j Nk II Isin c I} + {Nk2I2cos cr2+ j Nk2I2sin cr2}
Ik
{Nk II 1cos c 1+ Nk2I2coscr2} + j {Nk II 1sine 1+ Nk2I2sin cr2}
Thus,
Ik2 = Nkl 112 + Nk2122 + 2 NklNk211I2 costp l-oz)
However, we have,
PI
= 03VlIlcosql;
_- _'"'_
P2 = 03V212cosq2;
... .,.... - & ,_ -
Department of EKE, SJBIT

106
----
PL
= S3Ik2Rk
Page
10EE82
where,
p l and p2 are the mw power output values by the units I and 2 respectively,
v l and v2 are the respective line voltages and 81, 82 are the respective power
factor angles and PL is the transmission loss in the system. after simplification,
an expression for the transmission loss as a function of plant generation can be
obtained as;
PL = SNkl
2RkPI
SNkINk2RkPIP2
=BIIPI
2/(Vl
cosLl-_2)/
2cos2ql)
+ SNk2 2RkP2
2/(V2 2cos2q2) + 2
(VIV2cosqlcosq2)
2 + B22P2 2 + 2 Bl2PIP2
Where, the B coefficients are called as the loss coefficients. Thus, in general, for
a system of n units we have,
PL = S.S PiBijPj
Where,
Bij = S {cos(oi-oj)/ (Vi'Vjcosqicosqj) NkiNkjRk (32)
Note;
1.The B coefficients are represented in units of reciprocal MW, (MW-1)
2. For a three unit system, equation (32) takes the form:
PL = BIIP12
+ B22P2 2 + 833P32 + 2 B12PIP2+2
B13PIP3+
2 B23P2P3=
PTBP
Where, P = [P 1 P2 P3], the vector of unit power output values and
B = [B11 E12 B13; B21 B22 B23; B31 B32 B33]
the loss coefficient matrix for the 3 unit system.
3. The B coefficient matrix is a square, symmetric matrix of order n, n being the
number of generating units present in the system.
4. The following are the assumptions made during the above analysis:
All load currents maintain a constant ratio to load current (Nki=constant).
he voltage at any bus remains constant.
The..power factor of each bus source is constant ( qi=constant).
The voltage phase angle at load buses is constant (Oi=constant).
5. The Incremental Transmission loss, ITLi of a given unit can be expressed in

DepartmenUliEEE,
107
SJBIT
Page
_ ...- _-.
IOEE82
terms of its MW power output values as under:

Examples on Economic
operation of power systems
Part B: Transmission losses consideted

Example-I: _
The costs of two units at the busses connected through a transmission
line are
(with P, and P2 in MW): IC]=15+0.125 PI; IC2=20+0.05 P2
If 125 MW is transmitted from unit-l to the load at bus-2, atwhichthe

present, a line loss of 15:625 MW is incurred-Find
unit-2 is
the required generation for
each of the units and the power received by the load when the system lambda is
Rs.24.0 per MWHr. Use Penalty Factor method;
Solution:
With unit-Z not contributing to the line' loss, it is due to the' unit-I alone, and hence, .
dPLidPz ,; ITLz =0; where, PL=B]]P]z;

Thus,
PL= I0-3p]2
i.e., 8]]= Pd
so that
p]2
= 15.625/1252 = 10-3 1\1\V-]
dPLldP]= ITL] = 2(1O-3)P] MW
Hence we have,
== 15+0.125 p]
= A (I-ITL]) = 24 {I - 2(lO-3)PI
reI}
and
= 20+0.05 P2 = A (l-ITL2) = A =
lC224
Solving, we get, P]=52 MW
Total loss
=
= Total Generation -
and
P2= 80 MW.
Total Load = (P]+P2) -
hood
(52+80) - 15.625 = 116.4 MW.
Example-3:
In a power system, the ICs of the two units are (with PI and P2 in MW):
108
_ .o!::.J__
Page
ICl=O.OI Pl+20;
IOEE82
IC2=0.OI5 P2 +22.5 Rs.! MWHr.
The system is running under optimal scheduling with Pl=P2=IOOMW. If the

incremental transmission loss of unit 2 is 0.2, find the penalty factors-and the
incremental transmission loss of unit 1.
--
Solution:
For optimalpower dispatch,we have,
PnAAA
= PnBAB = ASystem
i.e., (O.oIP!+20)Pn! = (0.015P2 +22.5)Pn2 where,

Pn2 = {I-ITL2}"! = {I-O.2}!.= 1.25 so that,
[0.01 (100) +20] Pnl = [0.015 (100) +22.5] 1.25
Solving,
we
get,
Pnl = 1.4286 and
Since,
Pn! = {l- ITL!}I
we get, ITLI = 0.3.
Example-4: .
A hydro plant a~d a steel plant are to supply a. common load of 90 MW for a
week (168 Hrs.). the unit characteristics are as under:
Hydro Plant: C]=300+15PH' acre feet/Hr. 0::::YH~100
MW
1252:Ps2:50
Steam Plant: Hs~53.25+I1.27Ps+O.0213Ps2 MW
If the Hydro plant is limited to 10000 MWH of energy usage, find the sharing of
load during the period as a means of economic operation schedule.
Solution:
Since load=90 MW, total energy=90(l68) = 15128 MWH
,.
Energy to be supplied by steam plant, Es=I5128 - 10000 = 5128

MWH. Wow, the steam .plant has the max.: efficiency .when
(Hs=a+bPs+cPs2); Power, P~ ..j"..Ja/c = ..J{53.251O:0213}
= 50 MW..
Number of hours of operation of the steam plant at its maximum

efficiency to supply
5128MWH of energy is givenby:_{5128/50}

"'_ -
= 102.4 Hrs.

109
10EE82
Thus, the final operating schedule is as under:
--:rotal Hours of operation = 168 Hours per week
Steam plant at 50 MW and
Hydro plant at 40 MW
both operate for 102.4 Hrs'!week
Only. hydro plant
at 90
MW:
operates
for remaining period of
(l~8-I02.4)
65.6
Hrs.zweek.
Example-5:
Three plants A, B, C supply PI=100 MW, P2=200 MW' and P3=300 MW .
. :.
Calculate the transmission
loss in the network in p.u. and the incremental
transmission losses in all the three units A, Band C, if the loss coefficient matrix
of the system on 100 MY A
[0.01
-0.001
base is: 0.00 I
0.02
-0.003;
-0.002
-0.002; 0.003
.0.03]
Solution:
PL = pTBP
= BIIPI2 + B22P22
+ B33P32+ 2 BI2PIP2+2 BI3PIP3+2 BnP2P3
= 0.308 pu = 30.8 MW
ITL
i.e., ITL~
=2
PkBik
2[PIBII
+ P2BI2 + P3BI3] = 0.004 pu = 0.4
Page
110
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MW i.e., ITL2 = 2[P)B2) + P3B22+ P3B23]= 0.06 pu = 6

MW i.e., ITL3 = 2[P)B3) + P2B32+ P3B33]= 0.082 pu =
8.2MW.
Example-6:
Two units are at two busses-connected through a transmission line. If 100 MW is

transmitted from plant 1 at bus-l to the load at bus-2, a line loss of 10 MW is
incurred. The IC curves of the units are, IC)=0.02P)+16; IC2=0.04P2 +20
Rs.IMWHr. If
Asystern
= 26 Rs./MWHr., the no-load fuel costs are Rs.250/- and
Rs.350/- per hour for unit-l and unit-2 respectively, determine the following:
(xvii) The values of PI, P2 and the received load for optimal operation?
(xviii) The optimum values of PI, P2for the above received load, if the system
losses are accounted for but not coordinated.
(xix)
Total
fuel
costs
Rs.!Hr.
for 'both
the
parts
above.
.:
Load-2
Load-l
III
--- _-_
_ ...
_ -
Page
ZII
- - 7 -
nd 6LOO'O ={JlIZJNPN+q(JZqNlqN+"~F"NI"N}
_J,l9r_s'333 JO lualUl_mdao
--
{(ZeSOJleSOJZAIA)/l}
(leeS OJ leeSOJZA IA) /(ZD-ID)SOJ
~(Jz~NI~N:r:r
= Zig pUB
nd ~L[Z'O ={J(JzlJN+Q(JlqN+BlIleN}{(ZezSOJlA)/I}
nd
lZg
/(b-ID )SOJ} :r:r = fig
~(Jf~NqN (feeSOJleeSOJfNA)
;:)41,.(q u;:)i\~ll ;:)l~Sl~~J!JJ;:)OJ SSO[ ;:)4l'M.0N
.uorssardxo
9966'0
=leeSOJ
pue
[[66'0
o~S'tl . pUB
=Ge8
60'[1+9L'[
Z9f7W'O
0[1'L-
= leeSO;)
='ee
s~nlllAzld ~q1lllql oS
:~lll
:060'('(- ~?.o
:o('['L-:='.o
'sn41
,,070',1:t /l:_4---___,_-:n-t;:-""7"
060'Z[-
6~IL'0
oZI'L-
= ~['O
f-
L'O= ::>1+ ql
Z90S'O= ['0 f-&'o=
Z
DI
::>f- BI=
I
DJ
09L'[
6f799'O=
9LIO'[
= ::>Z ::>I+ I = zA ~00 O'[='A

I~~TO =
ZJN
I S'O - = I IN
Z~=
I~
6f799'O = ZBN = IBN
'~--6""'f799'O =lI/111
ror-
S'O = ql
= Zll pun
~['of-I = III =
111 ~ql + III = 11
:l;:)P!SUO:)
:UO!ln[OS
Z8:i1:i101
(30Sd)
lo.llU03 pun Uopll.lOJdOlUOJ1SAS

.IOJM.0d
lOEE82
Example-8:
Figure below shows a system with plant-l and plant-2 connected to bus-l and
bus-2 respectively. There are two loads and 3 branches. The bus-l is the
reference bus with 1.0 0 pu voltage. Base MVA is 100. Calculate the loss
formula coefficients in pu and in MW-1 units, if the branch currents and branch
impedancevalues are as under:
Ia = 2.0 ~ j 0.50 pu
Ib= 1.6 ~ j 0.40 pu
Ie ~ 1.8 ~ j 0.45 pu
Za
= 0.06 + j
0.24 pu
+ j 0.12 pu
Zc = 0.03 + j 0.12 pu
Zb
= 0.03
Load-I -
Load-2
- Solution:
Consider:
Ic/(Ib+lc) = 0.5294
Ib/(Ib+lc) = (l~0.5294) = 0.4706
The current distribution factors are as follows:

Nal = -0.5294;
Nbl = Nb2 = 0.4706
Na2 = 0.4706;
Nc l = Nc2 = 0.5294
V,=1.0 00; V2 = 1 + Ia Za = 1.319

I, =Ib-Ia =-O.4+jO.l =J,'
1660;
200
12 =Ia +Ic =Iz
Thus, 0,= 16~0; 02~ -140; 88,= 1660 ,and

, Sothat the PF values are:
-140
882=20+14 = 340
cos88, = 0.97
and
cos882= 0.829
Now, the loss coefficients are given by the expression:

Bij = LL {cos(Oi-Oj)/(VNjcos88iCOs88j)NkiNkjRk
So that
Bu = LLNkJ2Rk/(V,2cos2881)
= 0.0338 pu = 0.3387(10-3) MW-'
B22 = LLNklRk/(Vigos2882) = 0.0237 pu = 0.237(10-3) MW-I
B'2
and
LLNkINk2Rk_ COS(OI-02)/(VIV2cos88,cos882)=9.6073(lO-5)
_pu
Department of EEE, SJIUJ'

113
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lOEE82
=0.9607(10)MW-1
Example-9:
The following table gives the unit charges of a 3 unit system. Initially the unit 2
is ON for 4 hours. Min. up time is 3 hours for all the units. The priority schedule
is 2-1-3. Find the unit commitment schedule.
Unit Max. ~ncr. Cost No load
~tart up Load
!M_W[Rs'/MW ost Rs'/Hr. ost Rs. ~attern
Hrs. MW
1
~OO ~5
100
100
lit
~OO ~5
100
100
100
1-2 200
3-4 500
'.
5-6 200
100
100
~OO
7-8 200
.Solution:
Based on the priority schedule we have the UC combination and the load.supplied worked out as per the table below: _
Unit combination
~: 010
lMax. capacity in MW ~OO
18: 110 J'r

---'- 111
~OO
~OO
Consider the distribution of load in the given pattern:

Stage a:
1-2 for 2 hours: 200 MW
- It is combination-a with unit 2 only ON. Thus
Operating cost is = 75(200)2 + start up cost of unit 2 = 30000-+ 100.= Rs.

30 I00.00 Stage b:
It is combination-c with unit all the units ON. Thus
Operating cost is = 75(200)2 + 75(200)2+ start up cost of unit I + 100(100)2 +
start up cost of unit 3 = 30000 + 30000+ 100 + 20000 +200 = Rs. 80300.00
Stage c: 5-6 for 2 hours: 200 MW
!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!'''!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!-~;

114
Page
_--
- -
~ --
- ~ ~-
lOEE82
It is combination-d with the unit-2 ON at full load and units 1 & 3 ON at no load
for one hour (due to min. up time of 3 hours for unit-l and unit-3) and with only
the unit-2 ON at full load for the next one hour. (Now, the unit-2 does not have
any start up cost component). Thus,
Operating cost is
75(200)
__
{75(2o.O)+ no load cost of unit 1 + no load cost of unit 3} +
15000 + 100+ 100 + 15000
= Rs.
30200..00
Stage d:
It is combination-a again with unit 2 only ON. Thus
Operating cost is = 75(200)2 = 30000 = Rs. 30.000.00 (there is no start up cost
now)
Thus, the total operating cost
= Rs.
30100.00 + Rs. 80300.00 + Rs. 30200..00 + Rs. 300.00.00
= Rs.
1,70,6001-
Example-In:
The unit charges of a 3 unit system are as un.der. Initially the unif 1 is ON for 4
hours. Min: up time is 2 hours for all the units. The priority schedule..is 1-2-3.
Find the unit commitment schedule.
Unit
#
Max.
MW
Incr, Cost
Rs'/MW
No load
cost Rs'!Hr.
Start up
cost Rs.
200
900
200.
400
100
950
ISO.
100.
. 100.0..
ISO.
..
Load
pattern
Hrs. MW
100
1-2
20.0.
3-4
30.0
5-6
40.0
. 1-8
200
10.0
.
Solution:
Based on the priority schedule we have the UC combination and the load
supplied worked out as per the table below:
nit combination
: III
ax. capacity in MW
-
- "~i)epar'twenfof EEE, SJBlT
Page
Thus, the total operating cost
lOEE82
_= {unit LfoL1Jlrs. (200 MW) + st up cost of unit-I} + {units 1_&2 for 2

hours (200+ 100 MW) + st up cost of unit-2} + {units 1,2 3 for 2
hrs.(200+100+100 MW) + start up cost ofunit-3} + {only unit I for thenext 2
hrs. (200 MW)}
=
Rs. 360400.00 + Rs. 550100.00 + Rs. 750100.00 + Rs. 360000.00
= Rs. 20,20,6001-
Department of EEE; SJBIT

116
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lOEE82
UNIT-6
POWER SYSTEM SECURITY: Introduction, factors affecting power system security,
Security analysis, Contingency Selection, Techniques for contingency evaluation-D.C. load
flow and fast decoupled load flow.
6 Hours
Introduction
The Power System needs to be operationally secure, i.e. with minimal probability of blackout
and equipment damage. An important component of power system security is the system's
'.
ability to withstand the effects of contingencies. A contingency is basically an outage of a

generator, transformer and or line, and its effects are monitored with specified security limits.
The power system operation is said to be normal when the
power flows and the bus voltages are within acceptable limits 'despite changes
In
road or
available generation. From this perspective.isecurity is the probability ofa power system's
operating point remaining in a viable state of operation. System security can be broken down
into TWO major functions that are carried out in an operations control centre:
(i) Security assessment and (ii) security cont:ol.
The former gives the security level of the system operating state. The latter determines the
appropriate security constrained scheduling required to optimally attaining the target security
level. Before going into the static security level of a power s;y-st~m,let us analyze the different
operating states of a power system. The states of power system are classified into FIVE states:
Normal
Alert
Emergency
Extreme Emergency and
Restorative.
Fig below depicts these states and the ways in which transition can occur from one state to
another.
117
_ ..-
__
--
~ __
-e.. ....__
-- Page
lOEE82
Reslorative
Disturbance
ControJ action
Alert
Extreme
Fig. Power systemoperating. states
The operation of.a power system is usually in a normal state. Voltages arid the frequency of the
system are within th~ normal range and no equipment is overloaded in this state. The system
can also maintain stability. during disturbances considered in the power system planning. The
security of the power system is described by Thermal, voltage and stability limits. The system
can also withstand any single contingency without violating any of the limits. The system
transits into the emergency state if a disturbance occurs when the system is in the alert state.
Many system variables are out of normal range or equipment loading exceeds short-term
.ratings in this state. The system is still complete. Emergency control actions, more powerful
than the control actions related to alert state, can restore the system to alert state."The
emergency control actions include fault clearing,.
excitation control, fast valving, generation tripping, generation run back-up, HYDe
modulation, load curtailment, blocking of on-load tap changer of distribution system
transformers and rescheduling of line flows at critical lines. The extreme emergency state is a
result of the occurrence of an extreme disturbance or action of incorrect of ineffective
118
_*..
- &
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lOEE82
emergency control actions. The. power system IS III a state where cascading outages and
shutdown of a major part of power system might happen. The system is in unstable state.
The control actions needed in this state must be really powerful. Usually load shedding of the
most unimportant loads and separation of the system into small independent parts are
required.
Factors Affecting Power System Security

Contingency Analysis
- Illustrative Example
- Procedure
- Methods of of Security AnalYSIS
Study with fast but approximate algorithms

..Detailed analysis with AC power flaw (Ex: NR Method)
Contingency Selection and Detailed analysis Introduction
System Security involves Procedures involved which ensure that the Power. System can
operate when components fail.
For Example:
- Maintaining Adequate Spinning Reserve ensures that when a generator fails, the remaining
units can take up the deficit load without too much of a drop in frequency
- Taking care of Transmission Line Flows When generation is dispatched ensures that, when a
. Line is taken out, the remainingiines do not get overloaded
The time at which failures occur are unpredictable

Any initiating event should not result in Cascading Failures leading to Blackout
Major Functions of System Security
- System Monitoring
- Contingency Analysis
- Security Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPF) System Monitoring
119
Page
Providesup-to-date
and Control
(PSOC)
IOEE82
information
Telemetry Systems: Critical Quantities are measured and transmitted to a central location
Measured Quantities
- V, I, Line Flows, f, Unit Outputs, CoB Status, Transformer Taps etc
Measured data is very large

Difficult for human operators to process
Di'gital Computers at control centres
- Gathers Telemetered Data

- Process this Data
- Stores the Data in a Data Base
.- Generate Alarms
'
- Operator can display this data

- Combines data with system models for on-line and offline analysis
,
"
- Telemetering is combined with Supervisory Control to provide operators with a capabality to

control components such as SWitches etc (SCADA) Contingency Analysis
Power System Problems due to events such as Transmission Line and Generator Outages etc,
can cause serious damage within very short duration
Contingency Analysis Programs
~ Model the events before they occur
" - Combined with standard analysis procedures such as Power Flow etc to study the-system
- Generate Operator Alarms
Other Features
- Fast Solution Methods
- Automatic Contingency Selection
DeplM'fotnent
of EEE, SJBIT
120
:::
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--- _-..
lOEE82
- Automatic Initialization of Contingency Power Flows using Actual System Data and State
Estimation Procedures
Secmity Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SCOPf') Third Major Security Function
Contingency Analysis Combined with OPF
Four States of Power System
- Optimal Dispatch (Figure A)
. State Prior to a Contingency

Optimal w.r.t Economic Operation
May not be secure
Post Contingency (Figure B)
.State after contingency has occurred

. A Security Violation may have occurred
Ex: Tn Line Flow or Bus Voltage outside Limit
Secure Dispatch (Figure C) .

_--.-State with no contingency outages
Corrections to dispatch parameters taking security violations into account
Secure Post Contingency (Figure D)
State when contingency occurs at the base operating condition- with corrections
Summary of Contingency Analysis

Line and Generator outages may result in line flow and Bus Voltage limit violations
The way in whichlost generation is distributed among r~aining
-DeplIrtme'ift-of EEE,.SJBlT
121
units is important
Page
lOEE82
Contingency Analysis procedures are used to predict effects of outages
Lost Generation is picked up by units in its own area as well as neighboring areas
Contingency analysis procedures Model
Single Everit outages (Ex: 1 Line, 1 Generator out)
Multiple Event Outages (2 Line, 2 Generators)
All Credible Outages are Studied one after another
The C.A procedure tests lines and voltages against their respective limits
Difficulties
Speed of Solution
Selection of All Credible outages
Changed system conditions over time

122
Page
"
=l
0:1
r:IJ
l"l
t!l
t!l
.....
....=
'"1
0
o
'<
e(J)-
(1)
8'
'"1
sr
(1)
0(1;'
0-
'"
2"
sr
(J)
(J)
=-~
'"
I))
'".....
:::3
'<
'<
'"
S
I))
I))
(JQ
(J)
:!.
'<
(J)
'"
CIl
'"~....
..
'-'
r:IJ
---~
=......
Q.
=
==
:to
~
;l
"CS
-e
r:IJ
~
~
~
(1;'
0
.....,
'":::3
0
.....,
I))
to
0
<
(J)
~
0-
--l
=:l
...."CS
=c
....
0
N~
..
lOEE82
A Security Analysis procedure run at an Energy Control Centre must be very fast
Three Techniques commonly used
- Study the Power System with Approximate but fast Algorithms (DC Power Flow Methods,
Linear Sensittvity factors)
- Select only important cases for detailed analysis (Contingency Selection)
- Use Multiple Processors or Vector Processors: running cases in parallel (StilI in research
stage)
]24
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UNIT 7
SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL: Introduction, Energy management system, the
basis of power system stase estimation(PSSE), mathematical description of PSSE process,
minimization technique for PSSE, Least. Square estimation, Error and detection in PSSE,
System security and emergency control.
6 Hours
Power system state estimation (PSSE) has been traditionally performed at regional control
centers with limited interaction. However, due to the deregulation of energy markets, large
amounts of power are transferred over high-rate, long-distance lines spanning several control
areas [11]. These so-called tie lines, originally constructed for emergency situations, are now
fully operational and must be accurately monitored. Since
any control area can be strongly affected. by events and decisions elsewhere, independent
system operators (ISOs) can no longer operat~ in a truly independent fashion. The ongoing
penetration of renewable sources further intensifies inter-area power transfers, while their
intermittent nature necessitates more frequent state acquisition. At the same time, the advances
in metering infrastru~ture are unprecedented:' phasor measurement units (PMUs) provide
finely-sampled voltage and current phasors, synchronized across the grid; smart meters reach
the distribution level; and networked processors arebeing installed throughout the grid. The
abundance and diversity of measurements offer advanced monitoring capabilities, but
processing them constitutes a major challenge, which is exacerbated in the presence of
malicious data attacks and bad data. There are two key issues in modernizing the power grid
monitoring infrastructure: Firstly, PSSE should be performed at the interconnection level. Yet
an interconnection may include thousands of buses, while 2~3 measurements per state are
typically needed. Requiring also real-time processing along with resilience to corrupted data
render centralized state estimation computationally formidable. F~rther, a centralized approach
is v.ulnerable and is not flexible when 'it comes to policy and privacy issues. Secondly,
decentralizing information processing for the power grid can be performed at several
hierarchies. PMU measurements can be processed by phasor data concentrators (PDCs) [26];
conventional supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) measurements together with
PDC fused data can be aggregated by the ISO; and finally, estimates from IS0s can be merged
at the interconnection level. These considerations corroborate that distributed PSSE and bad
data analysis are essential for realizing the smart_grid vision.
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Existing distributed- methods for PSSE and bad data analysis are reviewed in Section II. The
PSSE problem,
its unique requirements
are highlighted in Section III. In
and challenges
Section IV, a 'new distributed PSSE methodology
is developed.
direction method of multipliers a systematic cooperation
Based on the alternating
between local control centers is
enabled with, unique features: it facilitates several practical PSSE formulations; it lowers the
overhead for inter-area information exchanges; its convergence
is guaranteed regardless of
local observability or parameter tuning; and the resultant algorithm can be executed by solvers
already in use at local control centers. Building on this framework, a robust decentralized
estimator is derived in Section V. Different from the conventional two-step bad data analysis,
the novel approach implements Huber's M-estimator
in 'a decentralized manner, while PSSE is
accomplished jointly with bad data removal. Leveraging
sparsity of the introduced bad data
vectors, the new algorithm augments standard PSSE solvers by a few iterations: The novel
,
robust decentralized
algorithms' are numerically
evaluated
in Section VI, and the paper is
wrapped up in: Section, VII. Regarding notation, lower- (upper-) case boldface letters denote
column vectors (matrices), and calligraphic letters stand for sets.
State estimation
The tool used for power system monitoring
and which is central for all subsequent grid
analysis is the state estimator. The objective of state estimation
is to estimate the voltage
phasor at each bus of the monitored electrical grid so that it is as consistent as possible with the
measurements
made on the grid. 'An important aspect of the problem is the redundancy,
meaning that there are more measured variables than state variables to estimate. The network
'equations are gi-ven in I and give the relations between the measurement vector z and the state
vector x
z = h(x) + e; (1)
where e is the measurement noise vector [2, 5]_ Because of the redundancy, there are more
measurements than state variables to estimate so the system is over determined.
This is why a.statistical method must be used to get an estimation of the state variables, The
Weighted
Least Sguares
Department of~,
126
SJBIT
(WLS) method is used for power system state estimation. The

Page
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method ensures that the performance index or sum of squared residuals J is minimized. J(x) =
(z D h(x))T RD I (z hex)); (2)
where R is the covariance matrix which gives the variance of each measurement.
The
algotitlnn ased to solve this equation depends on the type of nreastrrement. Minimization of J
gives the equation below:
lex) =@J(x)@x
= HT (x)RI (z hex)) = 0; (3)
where H = @h(x) @x is the Jacobian matrix ofh with respect to the state variables. Resolution
of equation 3 depends on the linearity ofh(x), which depends on the measurements used.
The measurement residual r can be computed as
r
= z hfbx);
(4)
where bx is the estimated state vector, and thus represents the difference between the actual
measurement
and the estimated
expressed as r
=S
measurement.
The' measurement
residual r can' also be
e; (5)
where S is the residual sensitivity matrix and -represents the sensitivity of the measurement
.residuals to the measurement errors and e is the measurement noise vector. The sensitivity
matrix S can be calculated as S = I K; (6)
where I is the identity matrix. The residual sensitivity matrix S has certain properties
S is not
symmetric unless the variances associated, with all measurement types are equal. _ S:S
- S:R:ST
S_:
S:R
Using equation (5), the covariance of the measurement

matrix=can be determined
= SR:
errors called the residual covariance
(7)
Measurements provided by, the SCADA system are the voltage, active or reactive line power
and active or reactive injected power, while PMUs will provide voltage phasors at the bus and
current
phasors
owing
in the transmission
line.
The hex) functions. between
power
measurements and state variables are non-linear so the relations must be linearized during the
resolution process and converge to the solution after some iterations. In the case of phasor
measurements,
all hex) functions are linear, so the computation time needed by the state
estimator is shorter when only phasor measurements
are used. It can be shown that when the
input of a state estimator includes measurements to which a normalized noise has been added
then indices J and Jt can be evaluated statistically [5]
- Dep-artifJent-of'EEE; SJBl'f
127
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E(J) = m n; (8)
E(Jt) = n (9)
where m is the number of measurements available, n is the number of state variables to

estimate, J and Jt are the perfoiInance indices. The sum of the squared residuals is shown to
have
distribution. This can be deduced from the property of a sum of squared random
variables, which have a normal distribution. The redundancy is particularly important forbad
data detection and elimination.
UNIT-8
POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY: Introduction, Modes of failures of a system, Generating
system and its performance, derivation of reliability index, reliability measure for N-unit
system, cumulative
probability outages-Recursive Relation, Loss of load probability,
Frequency and duration of.a state.
8 Hours
Reliability Indices
. This analysis relies on two general classes of information to estimate the reliability: .
component reliability parameters and system structure. Using system structure and component
performance data, we can evaluate the reliability of specific load-points or the whole
distribution system. The structure information is achieved by the circuit traces presented
previously.
In the following paragraphs the performance data is discussed. Predictive reliability techniques
suffer from data collection difficulties. Simplifying assumptions (default values) are required
for practical analysis of distribution systems.
'8.1. Functional characterization

The availability ofcomponent functionally is characterized by the following indices: .
Annual Failure Rate = the annual: average frequency of failure
,. .
Annual Down Time = the annual outage duration experienced

at a load point.
These indices are computed for each segment in the feeder. All load points within a segment
experience jhe same failure rate and down time.
-t:._. __
f)epartment of EEE, SJBIT

128
~e
lOEE82
In the reliability analysis program, failure rates and repair times from field data are preferred.
When this data is not available, default values are fetched from a table in the relational
database which has generic average failure rates and repair times for each type of device.
8.2. Reliability Indices Calculation
After finding the reliability analysis sets for the segment-of interest S, we can calculate the
reliability indices. First assume there is a single failure incident.
Probability of failure
Chance that a component will fail
Probabilistic value with no unit '.
May be difficult to interpret
Frequency of failure (failure rate)
In terms of number of failure within specified time
Easier to.predict from history
Express in per hour, per day, per year
Reliability is a measure of the ability of the power system to deliver electricity to all
points of utilization within accepted standards and in the amount desired, for the period
of time intended, under the operating conditions intended.
RELIABILITY
<:
:>
Adeq-uacy __SE~URITYAdequacy : relates to the existence of sufficient facilities within the system to satisfy the
consumer load demand at all times; taking into account scheduled! unscheduled outages
assessed using the power flow (AC/DC) solutions.
Security: ability of the electric systems to respond to sudden disturbances arising within that
system, such as electric short circuits
assessed using dynamic calculation.
129
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10EE82
Power Systems Reliability Indexes

Deterministic indexes
Do not take into account the uncertainties that affect reliability
Simple calculation and require less data
Percentage reserve
Reserve margin as the largest unit online
Probabilistic indexes
. Reflect uncertainties in the system
Loss of load'probability (LOLP)
Probability that generation will not meet demand in a year
Loss of load frequency (LOLF) .
How often does the system fail in a year'
Expected energy not supplied (EENS)
Deterministic criteria
N-m contingency analysis System with
'N'
components should be able to serve peak load
when loss ' m ' components Sometimes called security analysis

Probabilistic criteria
Loss of load expectation, for example, 1 day in 10 years, ._

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Power system operation and control
IOEE82
ASSAINGMENT9l!ESTIONS
----tjNIT
- 1: CONTROL
Part ..A
CENTER OPERA TIONOF POWER
SYSTEMS
1. What is energy control center? Discuss the functions of control centre.

2.
Explain with a neat block diagram the .digital computer
configuration
of SCADA
systems.
3. Two areas A and D are interconnected. The generating capacity of area A is 36000 MW
and its regulating characteristic is 1.5% of capacity per 0.1 Hz. Area D has a generating
is 1% of capacity per 0.1 Hz. Find
capacity of 400 MW. and its regulating characteristic
each area's share of a +400 MW disturbance (increase in load) occurring in area D and the
resulting tie-line flow.
4. What is aSCADA
system? Draw and explain the functional.block
diagram ofthe
dual
computer system for control and monitoring of power sytem. .

5. What is area control error(ACE)? Briefly explain.
6. What is a SCADA system? Explain with
a neat
block diagram. the digital computer
configuration.
7.
What are the major functions that are carried out in an operations control center?
8.
What are the EMS functions?
9.
Define Energy control centre.
"10. What is contingency analysis program?

11. What is SCADA?
12. What are .the functions of SCADA?
13. What are the different operating states of a power system?
14. What is emergency state?
15. Write importance of state estimation in power system.
16. What is security monitoring and control?

17. List the factors that affect the power system _security.
18. What are the important types of relays used for protection?
19. What do you understand power system stability?
Page 1
IOEE82
20. Distinguish between reliability and security of a power system.
1.
UNIT - 2 & 3: AUTOMATIC GENERATION CONTROL
Explain the objectives and functions of Automatic generation Control (AGC) in a power
system.
2.
Describe the function of AVR with a neat block diagram.
3.
Explain how mathematical model of speed governing system is developed for Automatic
generation control.
4.
Two generators
rated
200 MW and 400 MW are. operating
droop characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5% respectively

load. Assuming
that the generators
in parallel.
The
-.
from no load to full
are operating at 50 Hz at no load, how would a
load of 600 MW be shared between them? What will be the system frequency at this
load?
Assume . free governor
operation. Repeat the problem,
if both governors have a
..
a..
_
droop of4%.
5.
Distinguish A VR anq ALFC control loops of a generator.
6.
Explain what is meant by control area. Obtain the transfer function model and explain
ALFC of a single area of an isolated po~er system.
7.
Explain with relevant diagrams tie line bias control ofa two area system.
8.
Explain the parallel operation of generators, with relevant droop characteristic graph.
9.
Draw and explain complete block diagram representation of single area having a turbogenerator supplying an isolated load for load frequency problem. Discuss the response of
the system for a-sudden change in load demand.
10. Derive the expression for tie-line power and freque.ncy deviation for two area' system.
11. What is the objective of power system control?
12. Why the frequency and voltage are to be regulated in power system?
13. What happens to frequency if the load on the generator increases?
14. Define per unit droop.

15. State the difference between P-f, and Q-lVI.
16. What decides the loading of generating stations?
17. What is the duty of tlle power system operator?
::
Page 2
10EE82
18. What are the problems associated with the interconnected power system?
19. What is the function of Load Frequency Control?
20. Explain the Principle of Tie-line Bias control.

21. What is the putpose pf primary ALFC?
22. How is the real power in a power system controlled?

23. What is meant by control area?
~
24. Define area control error.

25. Write the tie line power deviation equation in terms of frequency?
26. List the advantage of multi area operation.

27. List out the various needs for frequency regulation in power system.
28. What is the purpose of a speed changer?
UNIT - 4:
CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER
l.
Explain howthe voltage control is achieved by injection of power at nodes.
2.
What ,is voltage instability? Explain the phenomenon :-of voltage collapse with relevant
PV and QV diagrams.
3.
Explain different sources of reactive power' generation a~d absorbers of reactive power in
a power system,
4.
What is meant by sub synchronous resonance? Briefly explain
5.
Briefly_~~plain voltage instability and voltage collapse.
6.
What is series compensation? Explain the advantages of series compensation,
7,. Derive the equations to get the relation, between voltage between voltage, power and
re.active power at a node,
Part-B
UNIT - 5 OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT COMMITMENT

1. Derive an expression for transmission loss as a function of plant generation. Also list
the assumption made in deriving the'expression.
2. Shows a system having two plants I and 2 connected to buses 1 mrd 2 respectively.
Page 3
10EE82
There are two loads and a network of four branches. The reference bus with a
voltage of 1.0/0 P.U. is shown on the diagram. The branch currents and impedances
are:
Ia=2-jO.5 P.U;
Za=l:urrrrjO.06
Ib =1.6 - jO.4 P.U;
z, = 0.01 5 + jO.06 P.O
I,=1.0 - jO.25 P.U;
Ze = 0.01+ jO.04 P.O
Id = 3.6 - jO.9 P.U;
z, = 0.01 jO.04 P.O
P.O
Calculate the loss formula co-efficients of the system in P.u. and in reciprocal MW,
if the base is 100 MVA.
3. Explain equal incremental cost criterion for economic generation scheduling. Also
write the algorithm for the iterative. method for obtaining economic loading of
generators. Neglect transmissionlosses.
UNIT - 6:
POWER SYSTEM SECURITY
1. With the help of a flow chart, explain the dynamic programming method in unit,
commitment.
2. Explain the problems and constraints found in unit commitment. How they arc
solved?
3. Explain the need of an optimal unit commitment problem.
4. Explain briefly the constraints on unit commitment problem.
---
5. What is spinning reserve and does this reserve help in operating a power system
efficiently?
6. Explain Prioritylist method using full load average production cost. State the merits
and demerits.
..
7. Explain with a neat flowchart the procedure for finding the solution for unit
commitment problems using forward DP method.
Page 4

UNIT- 7
lOEE82
SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL
1. Define system security and explain major functions involved in the system
security.
2. Explain briefly the factors affecting the system security
3. Explain briefly the problem of detection of network problems
4. Explain contingency analysis with the help of flow chart
5. Explain the sensitivity method of contingency evaluation.
UNIT - 8
POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY
I. Explain calculation of network sensitivity factor and contingency ranking.
2. Write short notes on:

I.
Spinning reserve
II.
Importance of unit commitment
Ill.
Detection of network problems
IV.
Power system contingency analysis
3. Define the following

1.
Optical dispatch
11.
Post contingency
111.
Secure dispatch
IV.
Secure post-contingency
-- -
4. With the -blockdiagram, explain AC power flow security analysis
..
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Department of EEE,SJBIT
Page 5
10EE82
VTU QUESTION BANK
Part-A
UNIT -1:
CONTROL CENTE&.OPERATION
OF POWER SYSTEMS
1. Derive the expression for tie line power and frequency deviation for a two area system.
June 2014
2. Explain the objectives and function of AGC in a power system.
June 2014
3. Two synchronous generators are initially supplying a common load as shown in Fig.Q.l(c)
at
IPU
frequency (SOHz). The rating of unit 1 is 337MW and has 0.03P.U. Droop built into its governor. Unit 2
is rated
at fl.20MWand has O.OSP.U.droop. Find each units share of a O.IP.U. (7S.7MW) increase in the
total demand. Also find die new line frequency.
June 2014
Fig.Q.I(c)
UNIT -2 & 3 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR.:
I. Describe the function of AVR with a neat block diagram.
June 2014
2. Explain parallel operation of generator with relevant droop characteristic graph with an infinite bus..
June 2014
3. Two generators rated 200MW and 400MW are operating in parallel. The droop characteristics of their
governors are 4% and S% respectively from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are
operating at SOHz at no load, how would a load of 600MW be siiared between them? What will be the
system frequency at this load? Assume free governor operation.
June 2014
4. Explain how mathematical-inodef of speed g-overnor system is developed for automatic generation
control (ACG).
June 2014
S. What is load frequency control (LFC)? Explain with a block diagram the model of a LFC for an isolated
power system. Assuming relevant transfer function for each block, arrive at the overall transfer function
(closed loop) to give frequency deviation as output for a load change as input.
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_4:
June 2014

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10EE82
UNIT -4 CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER:

1. Explain briefly the components/equipments of power system that can generate and/or absorb reactive
power.
June 2014
2. Derivellie"'e'"quations
to get the relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node.
June 2014
3. In the radial transmission system shown in Fig.Q.4(c), determine the real and reactive powers to be
delivered by the generator G. Neglect the voltage drops in the lines and transformers. All P.U values
are referred to the voltage bases shown and 1OOMVA. Determine also the power factor at which the
generator must operate.
June 2014
Fig.QA(c)
PART-B
UNIT -5 OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT COMMITMENT:
1. Discuss the thermal constraints and the role of spinning reserve in unit commitment Problem.
.:
June 2014
2. Explain the dynamic programming method with a help of flowchart in unit commitment.
June 2014
UNIT -6 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY:

I. Discuss the factors affecting power system security.
June 2014
2. Explain the contingency analysis for detection of network problems.
June 2014
3. With the bleek diagram, explain AC power flow security analysis. _
June 2014
Department
of EEE, SJBIT
Page 2
10EE82
UNIT 7 SYST~M MONITORING
AND CONTROL:
1. Explain the objective and process of power system state estimation (PSSE).
June 2014
2. Explain how lease square estimation (LSE) method is used in PSSE.
June 2014
UNIT-8 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY:

1. Briefly explain the two state generator models. With the usual notations derive the expression for
availability and unavailability in termsof failure and repair rate.
June 2014
2. A power plant has generating units with the data shown table 8(b). Prepare the capacity outage
probability table and indicate the cumulative probabilities. Unit number Capacity in MW Failure
rate/year Repair rate/year..
June 2014
Unit No
Capacity in MW
100
150.
250
Failure rate/year
Repair rate / year
1.0
19
--
0.1
- J.I
4.9
73.0

Page 3
..
IOEE82
VTU QUESTION BANK
Part-A
UNIT -1:
CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS -
1._ Derive the expression for tie line power and frequency deviation for a two area system.
June 2014
Consider the interconnected system shown in figure 1. It consists of two area connected by a
tie line of reactance

equivalent
Xtie.
For load-frequency
generating unit exhibiting
studies, each area may be represented
its overall performance.
Such composite
by an
models
are
acceptable' since we are not concerned a out inter-machine oscillations within each area.
The power flow on the tie line from area I to area 2 is
EIE2.
I?12 =
x sin (51-02)
XT
Linearsing about an initial operatingpoint
represented by 01=010 and D2=820, We have
Where ~012 ~ .6.0)- .6.02,and T is the synchronizing torque co~fficient given by
--. -
T=
(1)
The block diagram representation of the system is shown in figure with each area represented by
an equivalent inertia M, load-damping
constant D, turbine, and governing system with an
effective speed droop R. The tie line is represented by the synchronizing torque coefficient T. A
positive .6.P12represents an increase in power transfer from area 1 to area 2. This in effect is
Department
of EEE, SJBIT
_--
__ --
~_,...
_..s. ...__
Page 1
lOEE82
equivalent to increasing the load of area 1 and decreasing the load of area 2; therefore, feedback
of ~PI2 has a negative sign for area 1 and a positive sign for
area 2.
The steady-state frequency deviation (f-fo) is the same for the two areas. For a total load change
of L'lPL,
~F = ~ffil
= ~ffi2 =
.......... (2)
Consider the steady-state values following an increase in area 1 load by ~PLl. For area 1,
. we have
(3)
And for area 2,
(4)
The change in mechanical power depends on regulation. Hence,
~PmJ
= - ~f
...................................
liPm2
= - ~f
..........................
(5)
(6)
Substitution yields
.........................

_ ...-
_-~
- -
_ .c:;:_. __
(7)
Page 2
10EE82
. And
(8)
Solving equation 5.6 and 5.7, we get

- L\PLl
L\f
...........
(9)
And
L\P12=
Where
pr" 2I)d
(10)
P2' ~re the composite
frequency
response characteristics
of area 1 and 2,
respectively.
As load in area I is increased, L\Pu results in a frequency reduction in both areas and a tie
line flow of L\P12.A negative L\P12is indicative of flow from area 2 to area 1. The tie line flow
deviation
reflects the contribution
of the regulation
characteristics
(lIR+D) of one area to
another.
Similarly, for a change in area 2 by L\PL2,we have
- L\PL2
L\f
(11)
And
- Department of EEE,SJ8IT
Page 3
_.-
==
__
--
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_ C:-,_
10EE82
(12)
The above relationship
forms the basis for the load-frequency
control of interconnected
systems.
FREQUENCY BIAS TIE LINE CONTROL

The basic objective of supplementary
control is to restore balance between each area load and
generation. This is met when the control action maintains
-.
Frequency at the scheduled value .
Net interchange power with neighboring areas at scheduled values
The supplementary control in a given area should ideally correct only for changes in that area. In
other words, if there is a change in area I load,' there should be supplementary
control action
orily in area 1 and not in area2.

Examination of equations indicates that a control signal-made up of tie line flow deviation added
to frequency deviation weighted by a bias factor would accomplish the desired objectives ..This
.
control signal is known as area control error (ACE) ..

From equations, it is apparent that a suitable bias factor for an area is its frequency- response
characteristic
p. Thus,
the area control error for area 2 is
(13)
Where
(14)
Similarly, for area J
Department of EEE,5J8IT
Page 4.
_ ..- _-.
<$ -_
lOEE82
.. (15)
Where
.........................
. (16)
The ACE represents the required change in area generation, and its unit is MW. The unit
normally used for expressing the frequency bias factor B is MW/O.l Hz:
The block diagram shown in figure illustrates how supplementary control is implemented. It is
applied to selected units in each area and acts on the load reference set points.
The area frequency-response characteristic (l/RtD) requiredfor establishing the bias factors can
be estimated by examination of chart records following a significant disturbance such as a
sudden loss of a large unit.
2. Explain the objectives and function of AGC in a power system.
June 2014
. Automatic generation control (AGC) is a significantcontrol process in: the power 'systems"
~
operating constantly to balance the generation and load at a minimum' cost. AGC performs.a
continuous real-time operation to adjust power system generation for economically tracking load
changes: Frequency control, economic dispatch (ED), and interchange transaction scheduling are
the main functions of an AGC system. Frequency control and interchange transaction scheduling
are continuous control actions, while ED is discontinuous. A perman_entoff-normal frequency
deviation directly affects power system operation, security, reliability, and efficiency by
damaging equipment, degrading load performance, overloading transmission lines, and
.:
triggering protection devices. Therefore, frequency control in the form-of load frequency control
(LFC) is one of the important-power
system control
problems for. which there has be-en
. considerable research works . The LFC adjusts the generator set-point automatically in such a
way that compensates the mismatch between the electrical load and the supplied power by the
connected generators
Department
of EEE, SJBIT
Page 5

3. Two synchronous
Fig.Q.l(c) at
generators
10EE82
are Initially
supplying a common load as shown in
IPU frequency (50Hz). The rating of unit 1 is 337MW and has 0.03P.U.
Droop built into its
governor. Unit 2 is rated at 420MW and has 0.05P.U. droop. Find
each units share of a O.IP.U. (75.7MW)bicrease in the total demand. Also find the new line
frequency.
June 2014
Fig.Q.l(c)
Sol.
R system = [IJ-(PIratedlRI)+ (P2rated/R2]* (PIrated +P2rared)

= [-111 337/0.03)
+ (42010.05]*
(337 +420)]
= - 0.0386 P.D
The new system frequency due to the load increase is
pel
f(P.U)
= R system* Del L(p'u)

= .;0.0386* 0.1
= - 0:U0386P.D
Which is a decrease of 0.231 Hz frequency. Both generating units have the same frequency.
Their share of load is determined by the regulation.
Del P1= Del t(pu/R1
= - 0.00386/ -0.03
= 0.129 P.U
=43.3 MW
Del ~2= Del f(p.uY~2

==
0.0038(51 -0.05
o.oni
P.U
=32.4MW
Page 6

UNIT -2 & 3 AUTOMATIC
10EE82
VOLTAGE
REGULATOR:
1. Describe the function of AVR with a neat block diagram.
June 2014
Ampli
fler
A schematic of excitation (voltage) control system
A simplified block diagram of the generator voltage control system is shown in Fig2.2. The
generator terminal voltage V: is compared with a voltage reference Vrerto obtain a voltage error
signalV. This signal is applied to th~ voltage regulator shown as a block with transfer function
K~I (1+TAs). The output of the regulator is then applied to exciter shown with a block of transfer
_..
function Kc/(l+Tes). The output of the exciter
Ell!
is then applied to the field winding which.
adjusts the generator terminal voltage. The generator field can be represented by a block with a.
transfer function Kd( I+sT F). The total transfer
The stabilizing compensator shown in the diagram is used to improve the dynamic response of
the exciter. The input to this block is the exciter voltage and the output is a stabilizing feedback
signal to reduce the excessive overshoot.
Department
Page 7
of EEE, SJBIT
__ -
__ ~
--
.... _-
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lOEE82
Amplifie
Exclter
Genefatorfleld
llV
A simplified block diagram ofvoltage (excitation) control system
Performance of AVR Loop

The purpose of the A VR loop is to maintain the generator terminal voltage with in acceptable
values. A static accuracy limit in percentage
is specified for the AVR, so that the terminal
voltage is maintained within that value. For example, if the accuracy limit is 4%, then the
terminal voltage must be maintained with in 4% of the base voltage.
The performance of the A VR loop 'is measured by its ability to regulate the terminal voltage of
the generator within prescribed static accuracy. limit with an acceptable speed of response.
Suppose the static accuracy limit is denoted by Ac in percentage with reference to the nominal
value. The error voltage is to be less than (Ae/l OO)~IVlref.
2. Explain parallel operation of generator with relevant droop characteristic graph with an
infinite bus.
June 2014
.:
Parallel Operation of Gener~tors

Tie line flows and frequency droop described for interconnected power areas are composite
characteristics based on parallel operation of generators. Each area could maintain its speed
w= 2n: f, then a load common to both areas, by superposition have the terminal voltage,

---_-.
--
'"='-_,-
_c
Page 8
Powe~ system operation anfcontrol
V)oad
=Visinw.t
IOEE82
+ Vzsinwzt, Where, 1&2 represents areas and '1' time in sees. Generator speed
versus load characteristics is a function of the type of the governor used on the prime movertype 0 - for a speed droop system and type 1 - for constant speed system.
Parallel operation of generator with infmite bus
Comtant Sysmm
- - - - Frequency(iDfinim bllS)
'"' 1.0(50.OHz
!o
;-
0.98
~Gene~rOpera:tt-n
~ Operation
II
IJt
I
-I- - ----
!Mo1or ::::I
JI
-:
---
O.S
Loail, P(per wt)
1.0
The generator characteristic is such that it is loaded to 50% of its capacity when
.. paralleled to the bus. .
Therefore, Unit speed regulation = R = L'lf(pu)/L'lP(pu)

M(Hz)/50(Hz)
llP(MW)/ Prate(MW)
- If it is desired to increase the load on the generator, the prime mover torque is increased,
-which results in a shift of the speed-droop curve as shown below. The real power flow, is
.given by, P
Department
= V) V2 sin(8,
of EEE, SJBIT
- 82) /
x , where
= synchronous
reactance
Page 9
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lOEE82
I
I
qGe:ne~r
Opera'n
o.s
1.0
Load, P (per unit)
Parallel operation of two identical anits
_ ....
Load, P (per unit)
Department of EEE,SJ8!T
Page 10
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10EE82
Two generators paralleled have different govemor-speed-droop characteristics. Because they are
in parallel, power exchange between them forces them to synchronize at a common frequency.
Since the two units are of equal capacity having equal regulationare initially operating at 1.0
base speed as shown abuv~
If unit is operated at point A, satisfies 25% of the total load and unit 2 at point A2 supplies 75%.
If the total load is increased to 150%, the frequency decreases to fl.
Since the droop curves are linear, unit 1 will increase its load to 50% of rating and unit 2 to be
"
overloaded.
Parallel operation of two units with differ~ntcapacitx and regulation
The case when two units of different frequency and regulation characteristics are operated in
parallel is as shown below. The regulation characteristicsare
Rl
= ~f(pu)
/ ~Pl (pu), R2 = ~ (pu) / ~P2 (pu)
R..yuJ"lioil. R I
"/
!ndl,4i
(:p('"f,lrjO",~
ii
g
(ft:'qU(ncv
':7
J;
----~-
-""-~,,-----
I
I
Fi~'i"
-(~_p("la.~!''lll!
frequency
.:
--i AI',
~.~
:J
Unit I '111'.... , IMW)
..
Page 11
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3. Two generators rated 200MW and 400MW are operating in parallel. The droop
characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5% respectively from no load to full load.
Assuming that the generators are operating at 50Hz at no load, how would a load of
-
600MW be shared between them? What will be thesystem frequency at this load? Assume
free governor operation.
June 2014
Solution
L1f= AB1 (10 BAXA + 10 BBXB = 400 1 -10(Q:015)(36,000) - 0(0.01)(4000) =_
0.06896 Hz
Tie Line flow = L1T L = (lOBA "XA) AB1 (10BA XA + 1OBBXB) =
5400*400/4800 = 372.4MW
Smaller system need only 27.6 MW
Frequency regulation is much better
4. Explain how mathematical model of speed governor system is developed for automatic
generation control (ACG).
June 2014
Sol:
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL
The regulation of power supply insists that the supply frequency variations should remain with in
l % about the declared frequency of 50Hz. When load on the generator or group of generator
increases rotor slows down resulting in reduction in frequency. However the governors adjust the
.
input so as to bring the frequency to original level. _This control of frequency by action of
governor is called primary control; The action of governor is automatic. A drop in speed due to
increased load causes governor action so as to admit more steam (or water) into turbine and
increased electrical output. The frequency of governor action alone would not return the original
frequency, hence secondary control is necessary.
Page 12
10EE82
In secondary control, the loading on different plants is changed according to the
instruction of the load dispatcher, thus the frequency to generating station is brought to the
required value. The amount of load shared by each generator is determined by the setting of
turbine control. system (primary control) and the amount of the load shared by the generating
station is determined by load dispatch centre.
FUNDAMENTALS OF SPEED GOVERNING
The basic concepts of speed governing are best illustrated by considering an isolated
generating unit supplying a local load as in Figure 4.1.

Valve/gate
Generator
Turbine
Or water
LOAD
.Governor
Speed-
Figure 4.1: Isolated generating unit supplying a local load

Generator Response to Load Change
When there is a load change, it IS reflected instantaneously as a change in the electrical torque
.
output Te of the generator. This causes a mismatch between the mechanical torque Tm and the
. electrical torque Te which in tum results in speed variations as determined by the equation of
motion.
For load-frequency studies, it is_'preferable to express the above relationship in terms of
mechanical and electrical power rather than torque. The relationship between power P and torque _
T is given by
(4. 1)
P = (J)r T
Page 13
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By considering a small deviation (denoted by prefix 11)from initial values (denoted by subscript
0), we may write

P = Po+I1P
T=To+I1T
(4.2)
From equation 4.1,
..
Po+I1P = (wo+l1wr )(To+I1T)
The relationship between the perturbed values, with higher-orderterms neglected, is given by
I1P = wol1T+Tol1wr
(4.3) .
Therefore,
(4.4)
Since, in the steady state, electrical and mechanical torques are equal, Tmo=Teo.With speed'
expressed in pu, Wo= 1. Hence,
(4.5)
The following transfer function (figure 4.2) represents the relationship between rotor
speed as a functioii'of the electrical and "mechanical torques.
Figure 4.2: Transfer function relating speed and power
--- _-..
_ 1!:
Page 14
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Within the range of speed variations

mechanical
with which
we are concerned, the turbine
power is essentially a function of valve or gate position and independent
of
frequency.
Load response to frequency
deviation
In general, power system loads are composite of a variety of electrical devices. For resistive
loads, such as lighting and heating loads, the electrical power in independent of frequency. In the
case of motor loads, such as fans and pumps, the electrical power changes with frequency due to
changes in motor speed. The overall frequency-dependent
characteristic of a composite load may
be expressed as
~Pe = ~PL
~PL = non-frequency-sensitive
D~O)r
= frequency-sensitive
+ D~O)
'. (4.6)
load change
"load change
D~ load-damping constantThe damping constant
IS
expressed as a percent change
In
load for one percent change
In
frequency. Typical values of Dare 1 to 2 percent. A value of D=2 means that a I % change in
frequency would cause a 2% change in load.
The system block diagram including the effect of the load damping is shown in figure 4.3.
1
~wr
...
Figure 4.3: Effect ofload damping in the system
Department of E_H, SJBIT
Page 15
lOEE82
This may be reduced to the form shown in figure 4.4.
----+~.__________;-----+
~Pl
_ ~wr
..
Figure 4.4: Reduced transfer function
In absence of a speed governor, the system response to a load change. is determined by

the inertia constant and the damping constant. The steady-state speed deviation is such that the
change in load is exactly compensated by the variation in load due to frequency sensitivity..
5. Wh~~ is load frequency control (LFC)? Explain with a 'block diagram the model of a
LFC. fO.ran isolated power system. Assuming relevant transfer function for each block,
arrive at the' overall transfer function (closed loop) to give frequency deviation as output
'
'!"
for a load change as input.
."
June 2014.
Sol:
Automatic Load Frequency Control
The ALFC is to control the frequency deviation by maintaining the real power balance in the
system. The main functions of the ALFC are to i) to maintain the steady frequency; ii) control;
the tie-line flows; and iii) distribute the load among the participating generating units. The
control (input) signals are the tie-line deviation ilPtie(measured from the tie-line flows), arid the
frequencydeviation ilf (obtained by measuring the angle deviation ilo). These error signals Af
and ilPtieareamplified, mixed and transformed to a real power si-gnal,which then controls the
..
valve position. Depending on the valve position, the turbine (prime mover) changes its output
power to establish the real power balance. The complete control schematic is shown in Fig
Page 16
_ ...- _-_
- ~-'--
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~-
Fig: The Schematic representation of ALFC system
For the analysis, the models for each of the blocks in Fig2 are required, The generator and the
electrical load constitute the power system. The valve and the hydraulic amplifier represent the
speed governing system. USIngthe swing equation, the generator can be
The load on the system is composite consisting of ~ frequency independent component and a
frequency dependent component. The load can be written as ~ Pe '= A Po + A Pr where, Ll P~i~ the:
change in the load; A Po is. the frequency independent load component; A Pr is the freque~cy'
dependent load component. ~ Pr
A (0 where, D is called frequency characteristic of the load.
(also called as. damping constant) expressed in percent change in load for 1% change in
. frequency. If D.= 1.5%,. then a 1% change in frequency causes '1.5% change in load. The
combined generator and the load (constituting the power system) can then be represented as
shown in Fig2.5
..
Fig. The block diagram representation of the Generator and load
-~--
_""_-
Page.17
lOEE82
The turbine can be modeled as a first order lag as shown in the Fig.
AP,(s}
Fig2.7: The block diagram representation of the Governor

Ail the individual blocks can now be coimected to represent the complete ALFC loop as shown
in Fig2.8.
Governor
Turbine
Powersy5t~1l1
1
Aw(s)
Speed droop
Fig2.8:. Z:he block diagram representation of the ALFC

Concept of AGC (Supplementary ALFC Loop)
The ALFC loop shown in Fig2.8, is called the primary ALFC loop. It achieves the primary goal
of real power balance by adjusting the turbine output f1 Pm to match the change in load demand f1
PD.All the participating generating units contribute to the change in generation. But a change in
Page 18

load results in a steady state frequency deviation
10EE82
/j.
f. The restoration of the frequency to the
nominal value requires an additional control loop called the supplementary loop. This objective
is met by using integral controller which makes the frequency deviation zero.
The ALFC with the supplementary loop is generally called the AGe. The block diagram of an
AGC is shown in Fig2.9. The main objectives of AGC are i) to regulate the frequency (using
both primary and supplementary controls); ii) and to maintain the scheduled tie-line flows. A
secondary objective of the AGC is to distribute the required change in generation among the
connected generating units economically (to obtain least operating costs).
UNIT -4 CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE POWER:

1. Explain briefly the components/equlpments ofpower system that can generate. and/or
absorb reactive power.
June 2014
Sol:
Generally reactive power injections are of the-followingtypes .
Static shunt capacitors
Static series capacitors
Synchronous compensators
Shunt capacitors and Reactors:
shunt capacitors are used for lagging power factor circuits whereas shunt reactors are used
for leading power.factors that are created by lightly loaded cables. In both the cases the effect
.
is to supply the required amount of reactive power to maintain the voltage. Capacitors are
connected either directly to the bus bar or to
the tertiary winding of the main transformer and are distributed along the line to minimise the
losses and the voltage drops. Now when the voltage drops, the vars produced by shunt
Page 19
_ ..- _-..
~-'-
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capacitor or reactor falls, so when required most, the effectiveness of these capacitors or the
reactors also falls. On the other hand, on light loads when the voltage is high, the capacitor
output is large and the voltage tends to rise to excessive level, so some of the capacitors or
reactors are to be sWItchedout by over voltage relays. For fast control of voffagesm power
systems, switched capacitors in parallel with semiconductor controlled reactors are generally
used to provide var compensation.
Series capacitors:
(a}
Xl=Wt.
Vs.(without capacitor)
1
"c-wC
v _
Vs (with capaciklr)
_/w
jb)
(a) Line with series capacitor, C load. (b) Phasor diagram for fixed VR
Here the capacitors are connected
111
series with the line. The main aim is to reduce the
inductive reactance between supply point and the load. The major disadvantage of the
method is, whenever a short circuit current flows through the capacitor, protective 'devices
like spark gaps and non linearresistors are tobe incorporated, Phasor diagram for a line with
series capacitor is shown in the figure (b).
Relative merits between shunt and series capacitors.
If the load var requirement is small, series capacitors are of little help.

_ ..-_- .. -- ~--
Page 20
_"'*-_-
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If the voltage drop is the limiting factor, series capacitors are effective, also to some extent
the voltage fluctuations can beevened.
If the total line reactance is high, series capacitors are very effective and stability is
improved.
With series capacitors the reduction in line current
J
IS
small, hence if the thermal
considerations limits the current, little advantage is from this, so shunt compensation is to be
used.
Synchronous compensators.
A synchronous compensator-' is a synchronous motor running without. a .mechanical load
.. and
depending on the excitation level, it can either absorb or generate reactive power. when used
with a voltage regulator the compensator can automatically run overexcited at times of high
loads and under excited at light loads. A. typical connection of a compensator is shown in the
figure along with the associated voltage -. var output characteristics.
ToAVR
4.15 V wppl)'
9------0-
. tvID 1fT)
I1W
Syncfuonous
C:() mpen so tor
Fig: Typical Installation with synchronous compensator connected to tertiary (delta) winding
of main transformer
Department
of EEE, SJBIT _ -
Page 21
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I
1.07
1.05
! ....
----------- ....
: r""o<oop
..
-20
----Absorb
o.
MVA ..
Generate
__
Fig: Voltage-reactive power output of a typical 40MVAr synchronous compensator

.
A great advantage of the method is the flexible operation for all load conditions.
Being
a' rotating, machine, its. stored energy.
IS
useful for riding. through transient
disturbances, including voltage drops.
2. Derive the equations to get the relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a
node.
June 20i4
Sol:
. Relation between voltage, Power and Reactive Power at a node
The phase voltage V at a node is a function of P and Q at that node.
i. e V
= f(P,Q)
The voltage is also independent of adjacent nodes and assume that these
are infinite busses.
the total differential ofV,
- Department of EEE, SJBIT
Page 22
--- _-..
::
--
~-.

dV = (avl Op). dp
IOEE82
+ (avIOQ). dQ
and using the relation (Opl av) . (avl Op) = 1 and

--C8QI av) . (avI8Q)
dv
1
=1
= dp I(OpI av) + dQ I (8QI av) ---------(1)
..
From the above equation it is seen that the change in voltage at a node
is defined by two quantities,

(Opl av) and (8QI av)
Normally (8QI av ) is the quantity of greater interest and can be experimentally determined using
Network Analyser by injecting known quantity of VARs at the node in question and measuring
the difference in voltage produced.
3. In the radial transmission 'system shown in Fig.Q.4(c), determine the real and' reactive
powers to be delivered by the generator G. Neglect the voltage drops in the lines and
transformers.
All P.U values are referred
to the voltage bases shown and 100MV A.
Determine also the power factor at which the generator must operate.
_, .0 4P\l.
,0 .
June 14
13)'}:V ) 0 ., Po
)0.1 PI)
1It.v'
Fig.Q.4(c)
Sol:
Department
_.-
--.-._-
_-!: ..._-
o! EEE, SJBIT
Page 23
lOEE82
X'~A ~~
f 1/ O':y~
(0.1
II 0 ..0
~ o..ll>u .
To
t'n4
XC-
Qe
'lCo
...
l's ~ Qr; .
C,o-:f-Pu
+
() +
-:;- eJ.6
. Q&.
IS.2s
0 =- ~.12Sf\J
2.<;"
f!)
s:
::
2.1~~-
PE
~t*t)
_t~,.
..
Page 24
--
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PART-B
UNIT -5 OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT COMMITMENT:
1. Discuss the thermal constraints and the role of spinning reserve in unit commitment
Problem.
June 2014
Sol:
..
Thermal Constraints:
For transmission lines of the given system:
..
- Simin :S Sbi :S Simax i = 1,2,.... nb, the number of branches,

where, Su is the branch transfer MVA.'
Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints:
Bus voltage and Bus angle Constraints are needed to maintain a flat bus voltage
profile and to limit the overloadingrespectively
Spinning reserve (SR) is the term used to ,describe the total amount of "generationavailable from
all the synchronized {spinning) units of the system. minus the present load plus the losses being
supplied. i.e.,
Sp.Res., Psp = {Total generation, L PIG}- { L PDj(load)+ L PI (losses)}
The SR must be made available in the system so that the loss of one or more units does not
cause a large drop in system frequency. SR must be allocated to different units based on
typical Council rules. One such rule is as follows:
_ ......
'SR must be capable of making up for the loss of the

most heavily loaded unit in the system'
Reserves must be spread around the system to avoid the problem of 'bottling of reserves' and
to allow for the various parts of the system to run as 'islands', whenever they become
electrically disconnected.
Page 25
_ ...
-
_- .. --
."._-
- <!:-'_ -
2. Explain the dynamic programming
IOEE82
method with a help of flowchart
in unit commitment.
June 2014
Sol:
The untt commitment problem determines the combination of available generating units-ancr--scheduling their respective outputs to satisfy the forecasted demand with the minimum total
production cost under the operating constraints enforced by the system for a specified period that
usually varies from 24 hours to one week. Attempts to develop rigid unit operating schedules
more than one week in advance are extremely curtailed due to uncertainty in hourly i<_lad
forecasts at lead times greater than one week. Besides achieving minimum total production cost,
a generation schedule needs to satisfy a number of operating constraints. These constraints

'. reduce freedom in the choice of starting up and shutting down generating units. The constraints
to be satisfied are usually the statusrestriction of individual generating units, minimum up time,
minimum down time, capacity limits, generation limit for the first and last hour, limited ramp
rate, group constraint, power balance constraint, spinning reserve constraint, hydro constraint,
etc.
The high dimensionality
and combinatorial nature of the unit commitment problem .curtail
attempts to develop any rigorous mathematical optimization method capable of solving the
whole problem for any real-size system. Nevertheless, in the literature; many methods using
some sort of approximation and simplification have been proposed. The available approaches for
solving unit commitment problem can usually be classified into heuristic methods and
mathematical programming methods. The proposed mathematical programming approaches are
dynamic programming, Lagrangian relaxation, Benders decomposition and mixed Manuscript
received August 12, 2007.)n the literature, dynamic programming an~ Lagrangian relaxation
have been used extensively to develop industry grade unit commitment .programs. Their major
advantage seems to be the requirement of reasonable computation time when compared to"other
mathematical approaches. In dynamic programming, it is relatively easy to add constraints that
..
affect operations at an hour (such as power balance constraints) since these constraints mainly
affect the economic dispatch and solution method. However, the dynamic programming suffers
from the curse of dimensionality. Hence, it is required to limit the commitments
Page 26
_.- -~
_ 6,",__
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considered at any hour through some .simplification techniques such as truncation and fixed
priority ordering. This simplification, particularly for large scale systems, can lead to suboptimal
schedules. The utilization of Lagrangian relaxation in production unit commitment problems is
much more recent than the dynamic programming methods. It has the advantage of being easily
modified to model characteristics of specific utilities. Lagrangian relaxation method is more
advantageous due to its flexibilityin dealing with different types of constraints. It is relatively
easy to add unit constraints. Lagrangian relaxation is flexible to incorporating additional
coupling constraints that have not been considered so far. The only requirement is that
constraints must be additively separable in units. Such constraints could be area reserve
constraint, area interchange constraint, et-c.To incorporate such constraint into the framework of
Lagrangian relaxation, a Lagrangian multiplier is defined for each constraint for each time period
and the constraints are adjoined into the objective function of the relaxed problem. The
Lagrangian relaxation method is also more flexible than dynamic programming because no
priority ordering is imposed. The amount of computation varies linearly with the number of
units..Hence, it is computationally much more attractive for large systems. One weakness of the
Lagrangian relaxation method is that the dual optima1 solution seldom satisfies the once relaxed
coupling constraints. Another weakness is the sensitivity problem that may cause unnecessary
commitments of some units. Therefore only a near optimal feasible solution can be expected.
However, the degree of sub optimality decreases as the number of units increases.
Page 27
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K=1
OC1(K.l) = MIN(PC(K,l)+SqK-l,L:I)}
{LJ
{q ="N'" Feasible Sta1c5in Interval
K-I
Trace Optimal Schedule
Departmen-t of EEE, SJBIT
Page 28
----
_-..
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UNIT -6 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY:

1. Discuss the factors affecting power system security.
Sol:
-~------
.. ---.-.--
June 2014
The Power System needs to be operationally secure, i.e. with minimal probability of blackout
and equipment damage. An important component of power system security is the system's
ability to withstand the effects of contingencies. A contingency is basically an outage of a
generator, transformer and or line, and its effects are monitored with specified security limits.
The power system operation is said to be normal when t~e

power flows and the bus voltages are within acceptable limits despite changes in load or
available generation. From this perspective, security is the probability of a power system's
. operating point remaining in a viable state of operation. System security can be broken down into
TWO major functions that are carried out in an operations control centre:
(i)
Security assessment and (ii) security control.
The former gives the security level of the system operating state. The latter-determines the .
.
appropriate .security constrained scheduling required to optimally attaining the targ~t security
level. Before going into the static security level of a power system, let us analyze the different
operating states of a power system. The states of power system are classified into FIVE states:
Normal
Alert
Emergency
.:
Extreme Emergency
and
Restorative.
Department of EEE,SJBI!
--- _-..
- ~_.- -
Page 29
:::
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Fig below depicts these states and the ways in which transition can occur from one. state to
another.
--
Disturbance
Control action
. Extreme
Emergency
~emergency
2. Explain the contingency analysis for detection of network problems.
June 14
Sol:
Contingency Analysis procedures are used to predict effects of outages
Lost Generation is picked up by units in its own area as well as neighboring areas
Contingency analysis procedures Model
Single Event outages (Ex: I Line, 1 Generator out)
..
Multiple Event Outages (2 Line, 2 Generators)

All Credible Outages are Studied one after another
.
~-'-
- Page 30
P~AT
GEN. EAcj
BUS
f2~ON ALL
LINES
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,_~
..
6Pj
= -P~
CHECK ALL LINES

FOR OVERLOAD
fQ = f; + a2i 6Pj
AFTER GENERATOR
OUTAGES
YES
NO DISPLAY
ALARM
MESSAGE
CHECK ALL LINES

FOR OVERLOAD
AFTER LINE
OUTAGES
Page 31
---
_-.
--
--_-
- <!:"'- -
lOEE82
3. With the block diagram, explain AC power flow security analysis.
June 2014
Sol:
AC Power Flow Methods:
The calculations made by network sensitivity methods are faster than those made by AC power
flow methods and therefore find wide use in operations control systems. However, there are
many power systems where voltage magnitudes are the critical factor in assessing contingencies.
In addition, there are some systems where VAR flows predominate on some circuits, such as
underground
cables, and an analysis of only the MW flows will not be adequate to indicate
overloads. When such situations present themselves, the network sensitivity methods may not be
adequate and the operations control system will have to incorporate a full AC power flow for
contingency analysis. When an AC power flow is to be used to study each contingency case, the
speed of solution and the number of cases to' be studied are critical. To repeat what was said
before, if the contingency alarms come too late for operators to act, 'they are worthless. Most
.
operations control centers that use
.an AC power flow program for contingency analysis use
either a Newton-Raphson. or th~ decoupled pow~r flow. These solution algorithms are used
because of their speed of solution and the .fact that they ar~ reasonably reliable in convergence
when solving difficult cases. The decoupled bad flow has the further advantage that a matrix'
alteration formula can be incorporated into it to simulate the outage of transmission lines without
reinverting
the system Jacobian matrix at each iteration. The simplest AC security analysis
procedure
consists
transmission
of running an AC power
line, and trans-former
flow analysis
for each possible
generator,
outage as shown in Figure 11.8. This procedure
will
determine the overloads and voltage limit violations accurately (at least within the accuracy of
the power flow program, the accurac~ of the model data, and the accuracy with which we have
obtained the initial conditions for the power flow). It does suffer a major drawback, however,
and that concerns the time such a program takes to execute. If the-list of outages has several
thousand entries, then the total time to test for all of the outages can be too long. Weare
thus
confronted with a dilemma. Fast, but inaccurate, methods involving the a and d factors can be
used to give rapid analysis of the system, but they cannot give information about MY AR flows
and voltages. Slower, full AC power flow methods give full accuracy but take too long.
Department of EEE, 5JBfT
Page 32
_.-
_- ..
--
.,.._-
_ G
r-,
__.,.
IOEE82
+-
Pick outap i from the list and remove

that compOnent from me power flow
model
List or Possible
auta,es
i.l
Run an AC Power Flow on the

.-
current model updated.to reflect

the outage
.
AlannUst
Test for overloads and voltage

limil violations. Repon all
..
..
limit violations in an alarm

list.
.-
..
"+ - -
I Yes
Last outage done? J

No .
i""
i+ I
End
FIG. J 1.8 AC power flow security analysis.
Page 33
lOEE82
UNIT 7 SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL:

1. Ex,.elainthe objective and process of power system state estimation (PSSE).
June 2014
Sol:
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state variable based on
measurements from that system according to some criteria. Usually, the process involves
imperfect measurements that are redundant and the process of estimating the system states is
based on a statistical criterion that estimates the true value of the state variables to minimize or
maximize the selected criterion. A commonly used and familiar criterion is that of minimizing
the sum of the square'sof the differences between the estimated and "true" (i.e., measured) values
of a function. The ideas' of least-squares estimation have been known and used since the early
part of the nineteel_1thcentury. The major developments in this area have taken place in the
twentieth century in applications in the aerospace .field, In these developments, the' basic
problems have invol,ved the location of an aerospace vehicle (i.e., missile, airplane, or space
vehicle) and the estimation of its trajectory -given redundant and imperfect measurements of its
...
...
position and. velocity vector. In many applications, these measurements are based on optical
observations and/or radar signals that may be contaminated with noise and may contain system
measurement errors. State estimators may be both static and dynamic, Both types of estimators
have been developed for power systems. This chapter will introduce the basic development of a
static-state estimator.
In a power system, the state variables are the voltage magnitudes and relative phase angles at the
system nodes. Measurements are required in order to estimate the system performance in real
time for both system security control and constraints on. economic dispatch. The inputs to an
estimator are imperfect power system measurements of voltage magnitudes and power, VAR, or
,
ampere-flow 'quantities. The estimator is designed to produce the "best estimate" of the-system
voltage and phase angles, recognizing that there are errors in the measured quantities and that
there may be redundant measure-ments. The output data are then used in system control centers
in the implementation of the security-constrained dispatch and control of the system
Department of EEE,-SfBIT
Page 34
IOEE82
2. Explain how lease square estimation (LSE) method is used in PSSE.
June 14
Sol:
The method of least squares is about estimating parameters by minimizing the squared
discrepancies between observed data, on the one hand, and their expected values on the other
(see Optimization Methods). We will study the method in the context of a regression problem,
where the variation in one variable, called the response variable Y ,can be partly explained by the
I....
..
variation in the other variables, called co variables X (see Multiple Linear Regression). For
example, variation in exam results Yare mainly caused by variation in abilities and diligence X
of the students, or variation in survival times Y (see Survival Analysis) are primarily due to
variations in environmental conditions X. Given the value of X, the bes~ prediction of Y (in
terms of mean square error= see Estimation) is the mean f (X) of Y given X. We say that Y is a
function ofXplus noise: .
Y = f (X) + noise.
The function f is called a regression function. It is to be estimated from sampling n co variables
and their responses (xl, yl), ... , (xn, yn).
Suppose fis known up to afinite number p :Sn of parameters ~ == W 1;....Bp),that is, f = :fJ3. We
~
. estimateB bythe value ~' that gives the best fit to the data. The least squares estimator, denoted
UNIT-8 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY:

1. Briefly explain the two state generator models. With the usual notations derive the
expression for availability and unavailability in terms Of failure and repair rate.
June 2014
-Sol:
Forced outage Rate (F 0 R)= Unavailability
Let
Jl
= Expected
Repair Rate
R = Mean Repair time

Department
of EEE, SJBIT
_",,- _- .. - - --_-
- "*-'_ -
Page 35
,
IOEE82
.......:. .
= Expected failure rate
~-.
M= mean failure rate
= Cycle time T = lIf;
,
V = Expected failure rate I Lam + U;
A
= Availability = U / L+V-, m / m+r:" m /"1" '.
Also we can write U
= down
time / down time
. A = up time / down time
2. A' power
plant has generating
outag-e probability
in MW Failure
+ up time;
+ up time
units with the d~ta shown tabl~ 8(b). Prepare the capacity
table and indicate the cumulative

rate/year
probabilities.
Unit number Capacity

June 2014
Repair rate/year.
Failure rate/year
Repair rate / year
Unit No
Capacity in MW
100
1.0
19
150
0.1
4.9
250
1.1
_. -
73.0
Sol:
Page 36
_ ..
..
__
~_-
_ <5:
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_-~
__
.~
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.:
"C-
OSl+OSI
SOL16"0=S86"0*'86"0*S6"0
OS.l+OOI
SOL I 6"0=S86"0*86"0* S6"0
LPO"O
~O~I 6"O=S86"0*86"0*S6"0
S86SrO'0
OSI
SOL r6"O=S86"0*86'0*~6"0
-OI*69I'l
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SOL1'6"O=S86"O*86"0*S6"0
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-SOL 16"0=S86"0",S6"0*S6".o
-0I *'178'17"
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SOL16"0=S86"0*86"0*S6'0
'wn:)
!d
IS86'Q__
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SO"O
86'0
lO'O
----fL
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6"17
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0017
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90

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL

No. of Lecture Hrs./

Total No. of Lecture

CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

Basic generator control Joops, Cross-coupling

OF VOLTAGE AND REACTIVE

POWER: Introduction, generation and

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (pSOC)

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

2. Electrical Energy Systems Theory, O.J Elgerd, TMH,2008.

Sons ,Second Edition, 2009.

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

Title of the Chapter

UNIT - 1 CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF

UNIT- 2 & 3 AUTOMATIC VOLTAGEREGULATOR &

AUTOMATIC LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL

UNIT- 4 CONTROL OF VOLTAGE AND REACTNE POWER

UNIT-5 OPTIMAL SYSTEM OPERATION AND UNIT

- UNIT- 6 POWER SYSTEM SECURITY

UNIT- 7 SYSTEM MONITORING AND CONTROL

UNIT- 8 POWER SYSTEM RELIABILITY

Department ofEEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

CONTROL CENTER OPERATION OF POWER SYSTEMS:

(iii)Digital Computer Configuratjo_n

(vi)Operation Without Central Computers

Expression for Tie Line Flow

Parallel Operation of Generators

(ix)Area Lumped DYE.emicModel.

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

near nominal values and at near rated frequency subject to

Effects of Poor Power Quality

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

Major causes o_fPoorPower Quality

Steps to address Power Quality issues

fundamental frequency for normal system operating conditions .

and consequent overheating.

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

Power Quality Solutions:

Structure of Power Systems

Departml'ot of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

Major Concerns of Power System Design and Operation

Quality: Continuous at desired frequency and voltage level

Reliability: Minimum failure rate of components and systems

Security: Robustness" nonnaI state even after disturbances

Stability: Maintain synchronism under disturbances

Economy: Minimize Capital, running and maintenance Costs

1.2Need for Power System Management

Energy Load Centre

Department of EEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

Control Centre of a Power System

Alarm lights, alarms, dedicated telephone communications with generating

Control Features - Control Centre

j)cpal'tmcnt ofEEE, SJBIT

Power System Operation and Control (PSOC)

SCADA - Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition: