IB HL/SL Geography Duck

Disclaimer: Some of this contents isnt ours/licensed/etc.

Any problems; email us.

Youre welcome

Good Luck.
Topic 1 - Populations in Transition
Population Change
Responses to High and Low Fertility
Migration
Gender and Change
Topic 2 - Disparities in Wealth and Development
Measurement of Regional and Global Disparities
Origin of Disparities
Disparities and Change
Reducing Disparities
Case Studies
Topic 3 - Patterns of Environmental Quality and Sustainability
Atmosphere and Change
Soil and Change
Water and Change
Biodiversity and Change
Sustainability and the Environment
Topic 4 - Patterns in Resource Development
Patterns of Resource Consumption
Case Studies:
Changing Patterns of Energy Consumption
Conservation Strategies
Option G: Urban Environments
Urban Populations
Urban Land Use
Urban Stress
The Sustainable City
Case Studies: ALL case studies in Option G.
Option D - Hazards
Characteristics of Hazards
Vulnerability
Risk and Risk Assessment
Disasters
Adjustments and Responses to Hazards
Case Studies
Option F: Leisure, Sport & Tourism
International Tourism
International Sport
National/Regional Tourism
National/Regional Sport
Local Tourism
Local Sport & Recreation
Sustainable Tourism
Global Interactions
Theme 1: Measuring Global Interactions
Theme 2: Changing Space - The Shrinking World
Theme 3: Economic Intervals and Flows
Theme 4: Environmental Change
Theme 5: Socio-Cultural Exchanges
Theme 6: Political Outcomes
Theme 7: Glocalisation

Topic 1 - Populations in Transition

Population Change
Explain population trends and patterns in births
Crude Birth Rate
: Number of live births per 1000 people per year. Also known as Natality.
Crude Death Rate
: Number of deaths per 1000 people per year. Also known as Mortality.
IMR
. Crude death rate of infants less than one year of age. (Infant Mortality Rate)
CMR.
Crude death rate of children below the age of 5. (Child Mortality Rate)
Fertility Rate.
Average number of births a woman has in her childbearing years.
Life Expectancy.
Average number of years of life remaining at a given age, usually measured at
birth.
E being the average number of subsequent years of life for someone now aged x.
Population Pyramids
are important to show the structure of a population in terms of sex and
age. They show trends in Birth rate, death rate, and life expectancy. They can also project
population momentum
and show
population projections
.
Population Momentum is the rate of the change of a population. It is how populations
continue to grow even if the fertility rate drops because theres a lot of people at
child-bearing age so it takes a little while longer for the rate to drop.
Population Projections can be determined from population pyramids by looking at the
gradient of the slopes. They show how a population might look in the future.
To analyze population pyramids you have to look out for certain characteristics outlined in the
images below. Something else you should look out for is the
scale
and in what
units
the
population is being measured in. For example it could be thousands, millions, a percentage, etc.
Global Population Change
Africa has had the highest growth in the past 100 years. Following is South America and Asia. Europe
and North America have grown very little. The global population is said to have grown
exponentially
.
People suspect that itll level off at around 12 billion. Effects of this are:
Pressure on governments to provide for their population.
Pressure on the environment.
Greater risk of famine and malnutrition as we consume all of our resources.
Greater disparities between MEDCs and LEDCs.
Divisions in Age Groups
:
The youthful population (youthful economically dependent) is known as people between 0 and 15 years
of age. The economically active population is between 15 and 65 years of age. Elderly dependents are
65 and above.
Reasons for indents/bulges and tall/short pyramids
:
In population pyramids there are usually some form of bulges or indents on either one or both sides of
the graph. Reasons for this may be:
High/Low birth rate or death rate
High/Low life expectancy
Baby boom
Government policies (pro-/anti- natalist)
Immigration/Emigration
(
Emigration is the act and the phenomenon of leaving one's native country to settle
in another country. It is the same as immigration but from the perspective of the country of origin.)

Communities of certain types of people (elder, women, economically active, etc)

2

Factors that affect

high birth rates
are:
primary based economy (more children are needed for labor)
traditional female role (in some cultures, womens jobs are only to have babies)
lack of education (some women dont know about contraceptives)
need for children caring for elderly (some societies want the children to take care of the elderly
in their old ages)
large families (in some countries, having a large family is traditional)
pronatalist policies (the government wants to increase the birth rate)
Youthful marriages, this is when, in some societies, where young women are married off by
their parents to a man whom is much older and has usually more money than the child bride.
The BR will increase due to the child being used to create children at a high rate as the, most
likely, abusive husband forces it upon her.
Factors that affect
low birth rates
are:
Availability of contraceptives (people have sex without unplanned babies)
Good education (people know how to use contraceptives and whats best for them)
Low IMR/CMR (less infants and children dying means women dont need to have more children
to compensate for the children that they wouldve had if the IMR/CMRs were higher)
Female emancipation (women can have careers instead of kids)
By Delaying Marriage, the amount of time for the increasing in wealth for the child increases.
This therefore will mean that by the time the child comes the money is more sufficient and
there is no need for a couple to have more children to support themselves.
Developed economy (instead of a primary-based economy where children are needed for
labor, a secondary, tertiary, or even quaternary based economy doesnt require children. Also,
families make more money in their own jobs. This also makes children more expensive in
society).
Better care for dependents (children arent needed to care for their elders).

Fertility Rates

Total Fertility Rate

(TFR) is the average number of children a woman would be expected to
have if she survives childbirth.
There are the highest fertility rates in Sub-Saharan Africa (between 6.0 and 7.0).
Northern and Southern Africa, Mexico, South and S East Asia, and the northern region of South
America all have fertility rates between 3.0 and 4.0. Notice how these regions are all (almost)
between the tropics of cancer and capricorn.
In the Northern and Southern hemispheres there are countries such as USA, Canada, Russia,
and most European nations (which are all generally MEDCs) as well as Australia, Southern South
America (eg. Chile, Argentina), and South Africa which have low fertility rates between 1.0 and
2.0.
Factors which affect high or low fertility rates include
Urbanization (family planning and need or want of children)
Culture/traditions
Healthcare
Importance of children (are
w e

assets or are we costly?)

Education/Employment opportunities for women
Infant Mortality Rate (a country may have a high TFR but their IMR may also be pretty
high)
Average Age of marriage
Availability of abortions and contraceptives.

Life Expectancy

Life expectancy is the average number of years a person is expected to live from birth if
demographics stay the same.
As a general trend,
life expectancy is higher in MEDCs than in LEDCs.
In Sub Saharan Africa, the
life expectancy is the lowest (around 50.8-41.4 years).
It is slightly higher (57.9- 71.6 years) in all of Asia, South America , and Central America
(Honduras, Nicaragua, etc.).
Life expectancy is highest (71.7-81.5+ years) in Northern America (USA, Canada), South Southern
America (Chile, Argentina), Oceania (Australia, New Zealand), Western Europe, and Japan.
Factors that affect life expectancy are:
Age (the older you get, the less years youre expected to live)
Sex (women live 5 years longer than men)
Residence (depending on where you live, the life expectancy changes. eg. As you go
East on Londons Jubilee Line, the
life expectancy drops a year
.
Occupation (some jobs are more dangerous compared to others duh.)
Nourishment (undernourished and overnourished people have bad health and are more
likely to die)
Accommodation (if you live in a slum or in poverty then theres generally pretty bad
health care)
Literacy (people who are illiterate dont have good education and therefore dont make
the best possible life decisions in terms of health, occupation, housing, etc.
Growth Rate
is measured by the formula:
r = (end population - initial population)/ initial population.

Responses to High and Low Fertility

Dependency and Aging Ratios
Dependency
Dependent population is the population dependent on the economically active.
Population below 15 A
ND
above 65 (depends on retiring age in that specific nation.)
Very crude due to different ages of economically active in different countries/ regions
and cultures.
Useful measure to compare countries or track changes
High proportion of elderly in MEDCs
High proportion of youth in LEDCs
Often displayed on a triangular graph (Three-variable data)
Ageing Ratios
Number of people aged 65+ for every 100 people aged 20-64
Europe - 23 of worlds 25 oldest countries
Acts as an indicator of the balance between the economically active and the older
population they must support
Varies widely from 6 per 100 workers in Kenya to 33 in Italy and Japan
Impacts of Youthful and Ageing Populations

Case Studies
Pronatalist: Singapore (
AFTER
1986)
Before 1986, Singapore was slowly trying to reduce the overall numbers of births occurring. The
number was extremely high, at around 7 average babies per woman, this number was very
high.
By having this extremely high number, this led to a concern that was portrayed towards to the
people of Singapore, which led to the introduction of programmes to help to control the birth
rate.
1957
:
1.47 million population
with a fertility rate of
6.4 Births per woman.
1965
: Singapore became independent leading to a F
ertility Rate of 4.8.
Early 1980
's: some
concern
from Singaporean government with the falling Birth Rate (BR)
1986
: the government
completely reversed this policy
A little bit after 1986
:
Graduate women
were able to send their
children to the best schools
.
Therefore, the slightly less "smart" women were only able to send their children to slightly
poorer quality schools. They also
struggled to receive equal benefits in terms of maternity
leave.
2000's:
A
dating agency
was set up by the government in order to get more couples together
and therefore harvesting more children.
2008
:
Birth Rate: 10.3, Death Rate: 4.5, Natural Increase: 5.8
The
Fertility Rate was at 1.26 (per woman).
This is really low. Therefore
the dependent
population is increasing.
Therefore the dudes in charge were like dayum we gotta get some immigrants in here to
increase the BR and FR.
What's the situation like now?:
Fertility Rate: 1.2
Birth Rate: 9.5
Death Rate: 4.5
Percentage of Population over 60: 10.2%
TL;DR,
before 1986, Singapore was ANTI-NATALIST
, then the government realised that they
made a mistake and changed it all around.

Anti-Natalist: China (one child policy)

China created this policy, which limited each family to one child, regardless of it being Male or
Female. Though many citizens would have preferred a boy due to cultural reasons.
This started in
1978
.
If the policy was not introduced, the population would have been
1.5 billion in 2001 rather than
2005
.
The most dramatic decrease in the fertility rate, from 5.9 to 2.9, occurred between 1970 and
1979.
The rate was already going down anyways when it was introduced, was there really a
need to introduce it?
Is anyone not applicable to it?:
Yes,
ETHNIC MINORITIES are exempt
from the harsh penalties. Only the Han Chinese
must follow the One Child Policy. The penalties include things such as completely
cutting off the supply of grain along with a massive fine which was about 3 times the
wages of a peasant worker. Later on in the childs life, they can face issues such as not
being given health care and having limited access to schools.
Positive Effects

Negative Effects

Neither

Slowed down population

growth.
(the population would
be 1.5 billion in 2001 rather than
2005.)

4:2:1 dependency ratio. This

means the 1 is supporting 6
people, 4 grandparents and 2
parents. This is an extremely
heavy burden placed onto the
child and may struggle
economically.

Strict, harsh penalties on

people with more than one
child. Naturally, this is
extremely unfair on the parents
accord. They may have needed
the extra child to help them to
survive on an economic
principal.

More physical space in

country.

High proportions of unmarried

men due to a simple answer,
there is a lack of women. 118
boys to 100 girls.

Some human
rights
activists
think its not very humane to
restrict the number of children
per family.

Little princesses and princes

are created leading to an
insecure bunch of stuck up
pricks, essentially.

Chinas Population Stats now:

Population Size: 1.37 billion
Population Density: 139.6km2
Crude Birth Rate: 12/1000 population
Crude Death Rate: 7/1000 population
Population Over 60: 13%

Youthful Population: Uganda:

Read
this
first. If you have
a lot of time,
read
this
.

Uganda is a country in Eastern Africa with a population of

37.6 million
. Their population is
expected to double by 2025, meaning itll become the
12th
most populous country in the world.
Uganda is home of the y
oungest population in the world.
78% is below 30 years old
.
More than half
of the population is
under 15 years old
.
Average Fertility Rate is
7.0 per woman
.
Extremely high, implies a lower opinion of women along with the lowered quality of
education on these girls. (They have a lack of contraceptives to prevent the larger
growth numbers.)
The high birth rate is not caused by a great desire for babies, but more so due to a high rate of
unwanted
babies.

Effects of a Youthful Population

Pressure on the economy
The dependency ratio is literally
1:1
, 1 dependent person (youth/old) per each
economically active one.
Poverty cycle (

of population lives in p
overty
)
Congested classrooms; lower quality education
Pressure on arable land; increases demand for food.
Overpopulation,
duh
Unemployment
Many young people have the potential to spark new and creative ideas.
Aging Population: Japan
Japan is a country in Eastern Asia which has an ageing population or how it is known in
Japanese as
k
reikashakai
, .
The population is
127 million
,
more than
of the population is
over 60
. This could
lower more
.
Causes of the Aging Population
The life expectancy of Japan is one of the highest in the world, at
82.59
years.
It has a
total fertility rate of only 1.39
. (Remember: Replacement rate is
2.1
, so this is
way less)
Traditional beliefs that overpopulation disrupts the natural balance.
High quality education
Late marriages
Female emancipation and focus on careers
High cost of childcare and education
Effects of an Aging Population:
Japan has the highest proportion of old dependents (about
23%
) and the lowest
proportion of young dependents (about
13%)
in the world.
Nearly
30%
of government funding goes towards
social welfare
.
Population will shrink from
127 to 90 million by 2055
if conditions stay the same.
Strange social phenomena
Possible solutions:
Immigration (at least 10 million) to prevent future population and economic decline but
Japanese are against the idea of multiculturalism.
Long term care insurance for elderly based on need. This is funded mostly by taxes,
and only 10% by users which is affordable.

10

Migration
Migration
is the movement of people, involving a permanent (more than 1 year) change of
residence. It can be internal or external, and voluntary or forced.
General Push and Pull Factors
Voluntary Migration
Economic
Opportunities for work (Polish workers to UK)
Higher pay (British doctors to the US)
Tax Avoidance (British rock stars to the US, or even
Brits to Monaco
)
Education (Better Schools, Cheaper)
Family (Family located in another country)
Lifestyle (Retirement to warmer climates, social amenities eg Medical Spas)

Forced Migration
Political (Discrimination from government - Kosovo Albanians)
War (Chechnya)
Drought
Famine (Ethiopia in Sudan)
Disasters (Volcanic Eruptions)
Slavery (human trafficking)
Political instability
Barriers to leaving/arriving
Political (Immigrant Quotas)
Lack of money
Lack of education/ skills
Lack of awareness of opportunities
Illness
Threat of family division
Racial Tension
Return Migration
Earned sufficient money to return
Reunited with family
Government restrictions heightened
Causes of initial problems gone
Main trends in migration
Globalization of migrant labor
Acceleration of migration (happening more and more)
Differentiation of migration into different types (more reasons)
Feminization of migration as females become more emancipated.

11

Case study: Polish workers in UK. (MEDC to MEDC Migration)

- Check
this
out first.
Why has it increased?
In 2004, the UK and the Republic of Ireland started to allow
unlimited migration
from
countries which were new the EU. This were predominantly Eastern European
countries.
Migrants were mostly men and
80%
of migrants were aged between 18 and 34.
So were the poles welcomed into England?
Yes!
They offered a wide range of skills and were able to take up jobs which many
English people did not want. They were able to take jobs in sectors which were lacking
the people, like
plumbing, bricklaying, electricians and decorators.
They were able to create their own radio stations and help to cultivate a whole society.
Polish have the
highest migrant employment rate
in Britain.
The predominant number of them settled in Peterborough.
10%
of total population there are
Poles.
In Primary schools, 2004: no poles, 2008:
30%
polish attendance!
Within the Farms: very popular with the poles, 300 to 500 pounds can be earned in one
week.
Positives at the Origin (Poland):
Birth Rate lowered
Remittances
New Skills brought back to Poland
Local job pressure is brought down
Negatives at Origin (Poland):
Less economically active people in Poland to support local economy
Same goes for the number of skilled people, going down
The dependent population, especially, the elderly population. No one will be able to
look after them.
Money in the country starts to be highly dependent on the remittances coming in. This
is an
unreliable form
of income.
Positives at Destination (UK):
Fills vacancies in job market.
Less overall unemployment in the UK, regardless of nationality of employee.
Cheap Labor is available.
New cultures can be learnt by the locals.
Negatives at Destination (UK):
Strain on local services (hospitals, schools, etc)
Resentment towards the migrants (racism & discrimination).
Lack of the mixing of cultures.
As the level of young males goes up (because young males cause everything right), the
number of social problems will increase.
Polish are
20%
more likely to get a job than British.
So then, do some Poles be like
im so done (
In polish:
jestem tak zrobione)
and go home?
Yes, they go back because the pound is not as strong as the Polish Zloty.
The overall Eastern European economy is drastically improving.
Therefore, there is much more opportunity available in Poland.
In terms of helping Poland, this migration allows,
Remittances to be sent home to help their economy.
The new skills learnt in the UK can lead to a potential in improving the overall country.

12

Push Pull Diagram:

Case Study:
Mexicans to the USA
(LEDC to MEDC)
Numerous Mexicans head to the USA (260,000 a year on average)
Job opportunities are much higher (can improve their lives significantly)
On a whole, it is much safer than Mexico to raise a family, with overall better public
facilities to help the family. Hospitals & Schools are significantly better.
They leave due to the
high rates of crime
in Mexico, drug use and
corruption
are also
common.
Many also go to learn new skills which they can then bring back home and help their
families further.
Remittances, (like with the Poles) are extremely important.
$16 billion was sent back to Mexico in 2012.

Illegal Immigration:
3 Million Illegal Mexicans in California ALONE.
2 Million Illegal Mexican Children in Schools nationwide. The children cost 20 to 25%
more expensive than an average child due to the fact that they do not speak English
fluently and require extra classes.
80% of migration is Illegal.
Has been occurring for generations.
The USA appeals to them due to the already, large, and well established Spanish
speaking populations in states such as Texas and California.
Whats the deal with them?:
Nation as a whole, benefits from the immigrants. As seen above with the Poles, the
Mexicans are willing to work in jobs which the average American may not want. Jobs
such as cleaners, housemaids in Hotels.
However, within a small urban area, there are no direct advantages. They are able to
take up jobs from the small LOCAL market.
On these 2 levels above, the taxes that are paid are less than the benefits.
On a Federal Level: More taxes than benefits for the Mexicans.
Seasonal Migration:
A common trait occurring is when immigrants come to the USA during specific times of
the year, usually in groups. They work extremely hard during this time and then head
13

back home for the remainder of the year, bringing the fruits of their labour with them.

14

International and Internal Migrations in terms of their Geographic Impacts:

15

Gender and Change

Culture and Status
Women have less personal autonomy and less influence in decision making
Women have fewer resources
Religion reduces status of women
Education
Educating girls reduces fertility, IMR and CMR, increases labor force participation,
increases educational investment in children.
Men have higher literacy rates than women. (
84.9% / 72.1%)
. In India, 7
0%
of the
illiterate population is female.
LEDC countries men are more likely to go to Higher Level schooling, females drop out.
MEDCs females outnumber males in university enrollments
Birth Rates and Family Size
China
119 males to 100 females
- by 2020 there will be
30 million extra males
.
Family size relates to male births.
Health and Life Expectancy
5 years longer life expectancy
in women than men.
1600 women, 10000 newborn children
die everyday (9
9% in developing world
).
61% HIV patients
in Sub Saharan Africa are women.
14 million
teen girls are mothers every year (
90% happens in LEDCs
)
Employment
NOT using womens skills costs Asia-Pacific region
$41-46
billion.

women in workforce Middle East. (

47%
in Singapore)
Glass Ceiling problem; unequal opportunities, women are underrepresented in
management jobs
Women receive less wages for same work that men do.
Women have an increasing percentage of status professions in LEDCs.
Women work double days (taking care of family + professional work)
Empowerment, Legal Rights and Land Tenure
In all regions women are underrepresented in power positions but in most regions this
is improving.
Microcredit
(Bangladesh) allows women to control their lives.
Women are discriminated against in regards to the legal system + owning land.
Migration
Varied patterns, different genders migrate more in different places and benefit more.
Kenya
87% women
in rural areas,
54% men
.

16

Gender Inequality in Afghanistan and the MENA Region:

17

Topic 2 - Disparities in Wealth and Development

Measurement of Regional and Global Disparities
IMR
: Infant mortality rate - number of children under the age 5 dying per 1000 live infants.
HDI
:H
uman Development Index
Health: Life Expectancy at birth
Income: GNI pc PPP
Education: (2/3) Adult Literacy Rate + (1/3) Child Literacy Rate
GNI
: Gross National Income
GNH:
Gross National Happiness
The Value of Indices:
Certain indices are more advantageous than others. Each indice has been created to show a certain
factor. For example, with GNI, the main advantage is that it shows clearly the general income of an area.
However, a downfall to this may be that it
only
looks at one aspect. When comparing disparities
between countries, it is important to consider as many different factors as possible. This is one of the
main strengths of the HDI. It compares the three
MAIN
indicators of human development; health,
income, and education. Some other indicators may not seem as accurate at others yet can still tell us
important information. GNH doesnt seem as well-founded yet it still has potential in giving critical
information about the quality of life of the people living in a certain country.
Marginalization
refers to as social exclusion as a concept used to characterize forms of social
disadvantages and relegation to the fringe of society.
Processes
in which individuals or entire
communities of people are blocked from rights, opportunities and resources. eg Housing, employment,
health care, democratic participation.

Origin of Disparities
A way to remember:
P
lease
L
et
P
eople
E
verywhere E

at I
ce-cream

Place of Residence
: The place where a person lives shows what type of community theyre
from.
Land Tenure
: The ability to own land shows how wealthy they may be.
Parents Education:
The standard of education in which their parents have.
Ethnicity:
Some races may be discriminated against by other races. This deals with Caucasian,
African American, Hispanic, Asian, etc.
Employment:
People who have/or are able to get a job compared to those who are
unemployed.
Income:
How much money they are able to earn. If they have access to basic amenities or can
afford to live a more luxurious lifestyle compared to others.

18

Disparities and Change

The 8 MDGs (Millennium Development Goals) are a measure of human development via social,
educational, economical, and environmental problems. They are aimed mainly towards developing
countries for the exception of goal 7

These eight goals were created to work towards eradicating extreme poverty around the world. They
are meant to be completed by 2015 yet in reality, most goals are not going to met worldwide by this
deadline. However, as of 2013, the goal which has been achieved to the greatest degree is goal 2,
achieve universal primary education. All regions of the world seem to have gotten high enrollment
other than Sub-Saharan Africa.
What can increase life expectancy?
Improved diet and increased food production
Better provision of clean water
Immunisation programmes to eliminate diseases like small-pox and reduce others like TB
Better medical care
Improved postnatal care (reduced infant and child mortality)
Better education about diet, hygiene, etc.
Higher standard of living
Trends in Life Expectancy
Most regions have increasing life expectancy.
Indigenous populations are decreasing
Some regions are decreasing due to presence of HIV/AIDS.
MEDCs are attaining higher quality health services and higher qualities of life

19

Gini Index
This is a way to measure the distribution of wealth in society.
Makes use of the Lorenz Curve to show the distribution.

If the Gini coefficient is 0, that means perfect equality, while the closer it gets to 100 the more
unequal the distribution is. (perfect inequality)
Measuring Education
Can be measured by:
Adult literacy
Percentage of students in all stages of education
Percentage of university graduates
Education spending
Pupil teacher ratios
Male/female education equality
Education is an important factor as:
If people can read and write they are less likely to be exploited because they know
what they are being asked to do and/or what to sign
They understand the importance of family planning and can reduce fertility rates and
birth rates
They understand the importance of health, diet and medicine. They will know how to
prevent diseases e.g. HIV and malaria, how to remain fit and healthy by eating a good
diet and how to cure diseases when sick.
They have a better chance of getting a higher paid job.
They have a better chance of being independent and not relying on a husband/wife,
their family, community or country.

20

Reducing Disparities
Trade and Access to Markets
MEDCs account for
75%
of world trade and
80%
of world exports.
The flow of profits from TNCs (transnational corporations) is generally back to MEDCs.
The IMF (International Monetary Fund) and WTO (World Trade Organization) are the
main regulatory bodies.
There exist groups of countries (trading blocs) that have decided to
mostly
trade with
each other and have made it difficult for other countries to trade with them because of
strict regulations. Eg: NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association), EU (European
Union)
Most stock and capital exchange occurs between international banks in global MEDC
cities such as Paris, Frankfurt, and New York.
Fair Trade
This is trade that attempts to be socially, economically, and environmentally
responsible. This is trade in which companies take responsibility for the wider impact of
business.
Fair Trade organizations fight for better working conditions for laborers, higher wages,
less environmental destruction, and open access to global markets.
It has resulted in higher productivity and sales but also greater prices in MEDCs
because of the stricter requirements that affect LEDCs (no pesticides/child workers).
Remittances
The transfer of money and/or goods by foreign workers to their home countries
Extremely effective because it transfers money directly to where lower income people
are living where it can be used immediately for their needs.
Debt Relief
When the countries that loaned money to others decide that it is no longer necessary
for the country to repay its debt.
Structural Adjustment Programs as seen in the Mauritania case study.
The Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC), launched by the IMF to relieve
certain countries from their debt and to promote reform policies for growth, human
development, and poverty reduction.
Aid
Aid is effective when it:
Provides humanitarian relief
Provides external resources for investment and finance projects
Expand infrastructure
Supports effective economic and social policies
Aid is ineffective when it:
Allows countries to postpone improving economic policies
Replaces domestic saving, FDI (Foreign Direct Investment), and commerce, as
main sources of income
Promotes dependency
Lowers agricultural prices, leading to eventual famine
Is unpredictable.
Doesnt reach those who need it (unlike remittances).

21

Case Studies
Nigeria
:
Large country in Western Africa - population of
174 million.
Stuffed full of resources.
Part of the
top 10 oil producers
in the world
Under used, fertile land.
8th
highest population in the world, highest population in Africa.
Fast Growing economy due to
43%
of population being
youthful
.
In 2003 Nigerians made up the
happiest country in the world
(GNH)

Nigeria is considered a country with a distinct stylish culture.

Theres loads of shops and other such amenities that cater towards the rich part of the
population.
Also, the whole culture in Nigeria is great, everyone loves football for a start.
11,000 years of history of people living in this country.
Lagos is Nigerias largest city but not its capital!
Capital is Abuja with a population of
780,000 people
.
Lagos is also the centre of Economic Activity and houses
15 million
people.
In the South is where the Niger River Delta is found.
Main City: Port Harcourt.
High amount of oil reserves down south; therefore more wealth available.
The whole country is one big disparity, The North and South have drastically different economic
situations.
Place of residence
Poor quality schools and hospitals in the North
Percentage of rural population is higher in the North
Lack of basic amenities in rural areas.
Regional differences,
47%
rural population in Nigeria.
HDI is
0.471
Land tenure
Land = wealth
Small holdings cannot generate surpluses (people farm at subsistence levels especially)
Government owns all the land and distributes to all its favorites leaving
24.4 million homeless
in all of Nigeria.
Parents education
Schooling is free but not always compulsory, trying to focus on getting primary education for
everyone (
83%
total attendance)
Ethnicity
510
languages spoken
3 major groups
compete for power
Hausa Fulani 2
9%
in the North (land locked so
no oil
)
Yoruba
21%
- South
Igbo
18%
- South

22

Christianity vs Islam disputes

North inhabited by Muslims (Hausa Fulani), they feel
marginalized
.
South inhabited by Christians (Igbo, Yoruba) who access to oil fields.
Certain ethnic groups are confined to certain jobs- limits opportunities for some.

Employment
Employment for rural to urban migrants, therefore Lagos is more attractive.
24%
unemployment Nigeria
Many migrants forced to beg, work odd jobs or become part of the informal sector
Many children have to work to help their parents make a living - meaning they miss out on an
education and they contribute to sweatshop labor
No unemployment benefit
Income
Despite its oil (10th largest world reserve) and large population, Nigeria remains desperately
poor.
70%
lives
below
the poverty line
Nigeria also has a wealthy and educated elite living in Lagos.

23

Italy
: Read this if you have
time
.
Wealthy and Healthy - They have a lot of money and a long life expectancy.

the size of Nigeria

Terrain: Mountainous
Stable and aging population in Italy whereas Nigerias is youthful.
Italians also have a stylish culture too.
The have a ton of history, several thousand years. Italians were very influential.
Lowest local HDI in Italy
is still higher
than the highest HDI in Nigeria.
Their wealth mainly comes from
Tourism
Good niche markets, like expensive goods (eg. cars, clothing)
Home appliances
Chemical Industries
Comparison:
NIGERIA

ITALY

510 Languages with 3 Dominant ethnic

groups
Hausa-Fulani (29%)
Yoruba (21%)
Igbo (18%)

1 Language with one main religion:

Roman Catholic.
High Percentage of immigrants from
Africa.
Slight Ethnic divide between North and
South.

National Language is ENGLISH.

Schooling free but not
compulsory
In secondary schools, 32% Male
and 27% Female.

National Language is ITALIAN

Schooling free & Compulsory
High quality of further education
facilities
Universities

Government owns all land

Land is distributed to its
favourites
People do not own their own
homes.

Land is PRIVATELY owned

People own their own homes.
Land Consolidation in
Mezzogiorno (the middle section
of the country)

24

Reducing Disparities Case Study: Mauritania

Located in Africa, in the

North West
.
Its population is around
3,281,635 (July 2011 estimated)
30%
Arab
(
Berber
and Bidane/M
oors
)
30% Non-Arabized
:
Haratin,
Serer

,
Soninke
,
Bambara,
Toucouleur

,
Fula
40% Mixed

Level of Development:
Water
:
Low. Most of the countrys agriculture depends on rainfall which is lacking in the
predominant desert areas and unpredictable rainfall patterns hugely influence
agricultural production from year to year.
HDI ranking
:
In 2007 the HDI ranked Mauritania at #
137 out of the 177
country census.
Food Crisis
:
2008 - Malnutrition at 12.6% of the overall population and exceeding 15% in
some regions. A 2009 food survey shows that
138,000 people
in the country are
severely food insecure
with
246,000
being m
oderately food insecure
.
Rural to Urban Migration
:
More than
60%
of the population live in
urban areas
.
Export Dependency
:
Exports of Mauritania are limited to iron ore and fish. Iron accounts
for
50% of total exports
by value. This is risky due to the low market price of iron ore
and depletion of oil reserves. Fishing is also problematic due to
overfishing
by foreign
boats.

25

 Lack of Port Infrastructure:

There is no road link between the main port of export,
Nouadhibou, and the capital, Nouakchott. The development of the West Coast
pan-African highway and deepwater port near Nouakchott will decrease the limitations
of Nouadhibou.
Oil Poor
:
This is dependant on fluctuating market price for oil imports. Discovery of oil
off the coast in mid-2001
may
solve this problem.
Importation of Food
:
The periodical need to import food is a major obstacle to achieve
trade balance. High rate of rural to urban migration has increased the number of people
dependant on others to produce food. Acute periods of drought, especially in the 1970s
and 1980s, have increased the importation. Mauritania is not always self-sufficient with
less expensive imported goods, eg. rice. Livestock rearing accounts for
15% of the GDP
with there
being more goats than people and more than a million camels.
Structural Adjustments Programmes (SAPs)
Designed to
cut governmental expenditure
Reduces the amount of state intervention in the economy.
The programme will also help to promote liberalization.
Promote international trade, France is their key partner.
They consist of 4 elements.
Greater use of a countrys resource base.
Policy reforms to increase economic efficiency.
Generation of foreign income through the diversification of the economy and
increased trade.
Reducing the active role of the state.
Stabilization Methods: Short Term S
TEPS
to stop the further deterioration of the
economy. eg: Wage freeze, reduced subsidies on food health, etc.
Adjustment measures: Longer term
POLICIES
to boost economic competitiveness. eg:
Tax reductions, export promotion, downsizing of the civil service, privatization and
economic liberalization.
Heavily Indebted Poor Countries
initiative
Launched in 1996 by IMF (International Monetary Fund)
2 main goals:
To relieve certain low income countries of their unsustainable debt to donors.
To promote reform and sound policies for growth, human development and
poverty reduction.
Debt Relief is a 2 stage process.
If the country is following ways to lower their debt, they will get something
called debt service relief.
After a while the country will get at least 9
0% debt relief
from bilateral and
multinational creditors to make the country have a lower level of debt.
Aid from China:
They gave an aid package to Mauritania
!
USD$3.3 million in 2006

26

 Economy of this nation is based on Agriculture. They export fish, copper and iron ore.
This
site
provides a statistical approach towards the remittances aspect.
Development Programmes

Aim

Result

Sustainable Rural Development

Stem the degradation of

vegetation cover and to
improve the environment by
enabling local populations to
rationalise the use of national
resources.

Replacing fuelwood with

butane

Senegal River Valley

Integrated Development of
Irrigated Agriculture in
Mauritania.

Higher agricultural output,

wider crop diversification,
reduction in rural poverty,
improved food security, better
ecological balance.

Oasis Development Project

Improve the living standards of

poor people in the oasis zones.

Establishment of microcredit
cooperatives (theres about 70).
20 years after they started this
project (2002) private
investment has come to play a
larger role in conjunction with
the tourist value of the oasis.

Nouakchott

Alleviate the worst deprivation

in the capital.

Improved water supply, better

schools, more microcredit
available.

Tourism

Develop tourism in Mauritania. It

generates revenue +
contributes to
ecological/cultural
preservation.

No mass tourism, only special

tourist interest groups.

27

Topic 3 - Patterns of Environmental Quality and Sustainability

Atmosphere and Change
Global Warming
: The increase in global temperature since the 1980s.
Energy Balance
: The balance between the incoming energy from the sun and the outgoing
energy from the atmosphere. Climate change is altered by shifting this balance.
Albedo
: The Earths reflectivity.
Greenhouse Effect
: The process by which gases allow short wave radiation to pass through the
atmosphere and gases trap long wave radiation in the earths atmosphere.
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect
: The increasing amount of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide,
methane, and chlorofluorocarbons from agriculture, land use changes, industry, transport, and
electricity).
Greenhouse Gases:
A
ny gas that absorbs and emits radiation in the thermal infrared range. The
gases include: Carbon Monoxide, Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrous Oxide,
water vapour and Ozone.
Causes of Global Warming

Increase in emission of greenhouse

gases, specifically carbon dioxide.
Drastic increase in human activity.

Effects of Global Warming

Rise in sea-levels and flooding

Increase in storm activity
Changes in agricultural patterns
Loss of industry
Reduced rainfall
Extinction of wildlife (loss of biodiversity)
Human deaths
Diseases (eg skin cancer)

Possible solutions:
Mitigations

Renewable energies
Hybrid transport
Reduce, reuse, recycling of resources
Afforestation + Reforestation
Carbon sequestration (trapping)
International agreements (Kyoto protocol)

Adaptations

Sea defences
Air-con/Heating
Meteorology
Disease treatment
Desalination of water
Resettlement/migration

28

Soil and Change

Explain the causes of soil degradation
Terms
:
Soil degradation
: It is the decline in quantity and quality of soil. It includes erosion by wind and
water, biological degradation (loss of humus and plant/animal life), physical degradation (loss
of structure, permeability), chemical degradation (acidification, declining fertility, pH,
salinisation)
Acidification
: Decrease in pH of the soil causing harmful effects on vegetation which may
trigger the circulation of toxic metals.
Permeability
: The property of soil to allow fluids to pass through it.
Salinisation
: The build-up of salts in or at the surface of the soil.
Soil Exhaustion
: The loss of nutrients in soil from farming the same crop continuously
Horizons
: A specific layer in the soil.
Accelerated Erosion
: Refers to an essentially natural process occurring at an increased rate
under conditions of ecological disequilibrium.
Leaching
: Natural process by which water soluble substances are washed out from soil.
The
Universal Soil Loss Equation
is A = RKLSCP. We use it to predict how much soil erosion occurs in
an area based off 5 key factors.
Factor

Description

Erosivity of the soil (

R
)

How vulnerable the soil is to being eroded

because of rainfall. More rainfall causes more
erosion.

Erodibility (
K
)

How susceptible the soil is to erosion. Soils

with high infiltration rates and strong structure
are less susceptible to erosion.

Length-Slope Factor (
LS
)

The length and steepness of the soil.

Crop Management (
C
)

Type of crop being grown and farming

practices.

Soil Conservation (
P
)

Type of conservation method used.

Natural Causes
of Soil Erosion:
Rising Temperatures
: makes it harder for vegetation to grow, thus reducing vegetation cover
and increasing risk of wind or water erosion.
Falling Rainfall
: Reducing rainfall makes it harder for veg to grow, making soil more
susceptible.
Flash floods
: Rainfall leads to erosion of topsoil and land degradation.
Wind
: Wind erosion increases.
Topography
: Flatter land is less vulnerable to water erosion but more to wind erosion. Vice
versa for land with more relief.
Cultural Causes
of Soil Erosion:
Overgrazing
: Allowing livestock to graze means that vegetation is stripped.

29

 Over Cultivation
: Farming land too intensively so nutrients cant regenerate.
Deforestation
: Land receives less nutrients and it is more vulnerable due to no interception of
wind or water erosion and less stability from the root systems.
Overpopulation
: More people means a higher demand for agri products and more
deforestation.
Fertiliser/Pesticides/HYV/GM Crops: Encouraged overcultivation, loss of nutrients.
Industry: Chemicals, metals, pollutants leak from industry cause degradation.
Unsustainable Water Use: Arid land develops around used water sources.
Vehicle Use: Increased used of vehicles across terrain damaging topsoil.
Conflict: Bio/chemical weapons degrade soil.

Discuss the environmental and socio-economic consequences of this process, together with
management strategies:
Desertification
: As land becomes more arid, degraded, loses nutrients it cannot support
vegetation and turns into a desert.
Reducing Crop Yields
: The amount of crops that land can support will reduce. Leads to famine
and decline in profits.
Conflict
: can arise over loss of resources.
Famine
: Less crops, less food, more hungry.
Increased use of chemicals:
Fertilisers may be used instead of natural nutrients that end up
worsening the situation. Can pollute water sources.

Water and Change

Identify the ways in which water is utilized at the regional scale.
Only around 2% of the worlds water is freshwater and 54% of accessible freshwater is used by
humans.
70% of our water is used for agriculture, 22% in industry, and 8% for domestic use.
Agriculture uses water for irrigation, spraying, and flooding of crops. There are different ways in
which people use water in farming, some crops require more or less water than others.
Industry uses water for cooling processes, manufacturing, transporting pollutants, waste, and
tourism.
In homes, water is used in toilets, showers, faucets, for washing clothes, etc.
Examine the environmental and human factors affecting patterns and trends in physical water
scarcity and economic water scarcity.
The worlds demand for water is increasing because of three main factors:
Population increase
Development increase
Water withdrawals.

Virtual Water
is the amount of water used to produce something
A
water footprint
is the amount of water needed to produce goods and services in a country.
This includes the actual amount used in the country as well as the amount used in other
countries to produce imported goods and services.
Two types of
water scarcity
:
Physical
when demand for water is greater than supply of water.
30

 Economic
when water is available yet not accessible to people.
Water scarcity leads to
population
,
environmental
, and
political stress
. This is also increased by the
effects of climate change. Rain yields are predicted to decrease and global climate patterns will affect
the alluvial systems of the world that seasonally provide water for agricultural.
Examine the factors affecting access to safe drinking water.
Even though there is an abundant supply of water globally, it is unevenly distributed. There are three
main issues: sustainable use, access to safe water, fair allocation.
More than 1bn people worldwide dont have access to the necessary 20-50 liters of safe freshwater a
day for their basic needs (showering, cooking, drinking). 88% of diarrhoeal deaths are from a lack of
access to clean water. Water related diseases like such are in most cases preventable yet they cause
around 1.5 million deaths a year.
Case Study: Water scarcity in Mali

Capital:
Bamako
.
Population:
16.4 million.
2 major rivers; Niger and Senegal.
Mali is
65%
in the Sahara = frequent droughts
The population is concentrated near the rivers (
100,000 on the bank on the Niger
).
11 million people lack access to water
.
Large population increase -> large demand for water.
36%
of population lives under the poverty line
Large disparities in access and quality of the water provided.
Contaminated water from industry/agriculture.
80% diseases are water related in Mali.
WaterAid
is an
NGO
running a scheme in Bamako to provide c
lean water and sanitation
. They
have financed the construction of a water network. They train locals to manage and maintain
this.

31

Biodiversity and Change

Ecosystem
: Interdependent community of plants/animals with the habitat.
Biome
:
A large naturally occurring community of flora and fauna occupying a major habitat
Biosphere
:T
he regions of the surface and atmosphere of the earth occupied by living
organisms
The main source of energy is the
sun
. It supplies energy to plants through
photosynthesis
. Some is lost
to
respiration
but most is converted to
energy
. Plants take in simple nutrients from the soil and when
they die they decompose back into the soil so the nutrients are
cycled
. The
pyramid of numbers
is
related to energy conversions and how each stage in the food chain needs a larger number of
organisms to support it.
The
tolerance level
is the factors that affect how well an ecosystem can handle stress before it
collapses. It depends on the
quality of the soil, temperature,
and
solar energy
. Limiting factors are a
factor at max/min level that burden the ecosystem or that may kill many organisms and disrupt the
ecosystem.
Resilience
is being able to cope with change. More biodiversity means more resilience
because there are more organisms with their particular niches.
Rainforests are arranged in layers, this is called
vertical stratification
. This occurs because many
species compete for light and nutrients in poor, heavily leached soils. Different plants have adapted to
different tolerances to light and shade.

32

Use of Rainforest
Appraisal (AMAZON)

Description and Explanation - what Evaluation of Effects

is involved, how does it occur?
Social Economic Env Political

Shifting Cultivation
Slash and Burn Effect

Cut down areas of vegetation for

temporary living and

Questions about land ownership.

On a small scale this is sustainable
and relatively low impact.

Forestry
clear felling
selective logging

Clear felling wipes out the entire

area. Selective logging is the partial
cutting down of an area. This is to
create land space for other uses.

Land ownership.
Economic gainz.
Environmentally leads to global
warming because the rainforest is a
carbon sink. Also destroys the habitat
of animals who live there.

Cropping

Use of rainforest soil for production

of crops.

Intensive cropping with high-demand

crops leads to more negative effects
eg soil erosion as well as
deforestation from clearing the land.

Beef farming

Intensive beef farming vs organic

beef farming. More vs less land.

Detrimental to the environment.

Leads to soil erosion due to
overgrazing from the animals.

Tourism

Intensive tourism vs ecotourism.

Infrastructure for transport and
accommodation. Nature walks.

Intensive tourism uses non

renewables, more pollutants used.
Clears the top layer of rainforest
humus, disrupts nutrient cycling etc.

Plants for Medicine

Periwinkle plant. Fight Leukaemia.

Fewer than 10% of the trees have
been explored for medicinal uses.

Cut down other trees to reach

Periwinkle. Destroy culture of
indigenous tribe. Conflict.

Mining

Great potential for copper, tin, iron,

gold. Government provides tax
incentives.

Pollutant involved in gold extraction.

Fishes in rivers get contaminated with
mercury poisoning. Deforestation.
Conflict between indigenous people
and miners. Generates wealth.

33

Sustainability and the Environment

Define the concept of environmental sustainability.
There are three different types of sustainability: economic, environmental, and social.

Environmental sustainability relates to interactions with the environment that replace what is used so
that it can be continued indefinitely. Other factors must be considered in sustainability such as:
Protecting natural environments (ecological sustainability)
Protecting peoples needs and wants (social sustainability)
Having economic systems that allow us to do this with the resources we have (economic
sustainability)
Sustainability is important now because of
high population growth
,
economic development
, and our
fragile natural environments
. This causes stress on both p
opulations
and
environments
.
Case Study:
Evaluate a management strategy at a local or national scale designed to achieve
environmental sustainability
->
WATCH T
HIS
Vaxjo, Sweden
is a small city (with a population of 80,000) that has committed to becoming completely
green. Since 1996, they have tried to replace oil with renewable energy. This is completely plausible
since Sweden imports all of its oil and Vaxjo is in an optimal location (60% of surrounding area is forest)
to use biomass from the waste from the nearby timber mills. Vaxjo has the high quality of living of an
MEDC with the small carbon footprint of an LEDC. (yeah its pretty incredible i know) They accomplished
this by changing three main aspects of their city:
Heating
: Oil based to biomass for more reliable, cleaner, and cheaper energy. There are
subsidies and the ecobudget encourages people to change.
Transport
: People use cars that use ethanol instead of fuel. There are specific zones for
pedestrians or bicycles only.
Buildings
: New technologies have allowed people to maximize on insulation and the use of
wood, passive, and solar heating. The use of vertical gardens to reduce the urban heat island
effect as well as cleaning the air space.

34

 As of now, the city has accomplished:

51% of their energy comes from renewable sources.
Carbon emissions have reduced by 24% per person.
91% of heating is from biomass.
2,250 new jobs were created for the development of bioenergy.

35

Topic 4 - Patterns in Resource Development

Patterns of Resource Consumption
Ecological Footprint
:The impact of a person or population on the environment. Amount of land
required to sustain their use of natural resources.
Biocapacity
: Capacity of an area to provide resources and absorb wastes.
Carbon Footprint
: Amount of carbon dioxide and other carbon compounds emitted due to the
consumption of fossil fuels by a person, group, population, etc.
Carrying Capacity
: The maximum population an environment can sustain given the resources
available.
The top 7 countries with the biggest ecological footprint:
Qatar, Kuwait, UAE, Denmark, USA, Belgium, Australia.

Map showing countries based on the size of their ecological footprint.

Remember:
When describing map you never go specifically by country or continent. Use vocabulary such as
Northern hemisphere MENA BRICs Western/Eastern Europe. Divide Asia into North, South East,
subcontinent of India, China, Western, and North Eastern.

The Malthusian Dilemma

Who was
Thomas Malthus
? Whats this whole neo-Malthusian/anti-Malthusian debate thing going on?
The term Malthusian comes from Thomas Malthus, an English economist who developed a highly
popular theory about population growth. He stated that p
opulation grows exponentially while food
production grows arithmetically.
In current times people have both sided with him and extended his

36

thesis- they come together, like a Mexican gang and call themselves the,
Club of Rome
.
The anti-malthusian view comes from a more modern Danish economist known as E
sther Boserup
. Her
main theory was that when a time of crisis comes, instead of disaster, humans will increase productivity
with innovation, therefore contradicting Malthus theory.

Boserups Basic Theory

The main ideas that the
Malthusian viewpoint follow all stem from the theory that
crisis leads to
collapse.
Malthus stated that the population had to be
controlled
by both
positive checks that raise
the death rates
and
preventative checks that lower the birth rate
. There has been an ongoing
population explosion since the mid 20th century, Malthusians believe that this will lead to the
collapse
of the population in the mid 21st century
. They support this by taking examples from
natural
disasters, human policies, famines, and diseases
. The anti-malthusians strongly believe that with
crisis
comes human innovation
. When times of peril come,
necessity is the mother of invention
. This goes
to say that people will
come together to fix the problems
that come to them. Also, people are the
major resource on the planet, which will never die out.

37

Case Studies:
Trans Alaskan Pipeline (TAPs)

One of the worlds largest pipeline system (

1,230 km
)
It crosses
3 mountain ranges
and over
800 rivers/streams
91,500 american jobs created
by OCS-related development in Alaska
50% increase in known US oil reserves
Built between 1974 and 1977 after the 1973 oil crisis caused a sharp rise in oil prices in the US
Extracting Oil in a
fragile environment
: cold, isolated, big, mountainous, freeze/thaw,
geologically unstable (earthquakes, avalanches)
Construction
: By-passes for animal crossings, underground pipes (thaw-stable soils), insulated
and elevated (thaw-unstable soils), zig-zag above ground for expansion or contraction from
temp change and movement from earthquakes, hi-tech pipes and casings to preserve existing
temperatures
Oil companies:
Discovered oil at Prudhoe Bay (1968), constructed pipeline (completed 1977)
with
$8 billion private money
.
Environmental Groups
: Tried to block pipeline (1970), Contract with Pipeline Company to advise
and manage (1990)
Indigenous Americans
: Lawsuit (1971) over lack of involvement
Government: Gave money and land to indigenous Americans in return for control over pipeline.
Legislation for indigenous americans (1971) and pollution (1990).
Social Effects
: Boomtowns: V
aldez
,
Fairbanks
,
Anchorage.
Economic Effects
:
2000 contractors
and subcontractors and
70,000 workers,
oil supplied to
USA.
Environmental effects:Americas last wilderness, Pipeline + road (for construction, operation
and maintenance), Exxon Valdez oil spill (1989), disruption to local ecosystems, visual pollution,
ground heating for heavy oil.

Deepwater Horizon Disaster

Deepwater Horizon was an

ultra-deepwater
offshore drilling rig
Largest oil spill
in US history
In April 2010, an explosion ripped through the Deepwater Horizon oil rig in the Gulf of Mexico.
2 days later, the rig sank with oil pouring out into the sea at a rate of up to 62 000 barrels a day
at its peak
Threatened wildlife along the US coasts as well as livelihoods dependent on tourism and
fishing
160 km of coastline was affected
Extent of environmental impact is severe and will last a long time
Cost to BP, who operated the rig, may reach $20b
Dispersants were used to break up the oil slick but BP was ordered by the US government to
limit their use, as they could cause even more damage to marine life in the Gulf of Mexico
By the time the well was capped (July 2010), about 4.9 million barrels of crude oil had been
released into the sea

38

Changing Patterns of Energy Consumption

Examine the global patterns and trends in the production and consumption of oil.
Terms:
Oil
: Used for fuel, transport, heating, plastic, and food production.
Oil refining
: Crude oil is processed and refined into more useful products such as petroleum,
gasoline, and diesel fuel.
Peak oil production
: The year in which the world or an individual oil-producing country reaches
its highest level of production, with production declining thereafter.
Energy security
: a countrys ability to secure its energy needs.
Energy insecurity
: a lack of security over energy sources.
Geopolitics
: political relations among nations, particularly relating to claims and disputes
pertaining to borders, territories, and resources.
Cartel
: An organisation of people who supply the same good and join together to control the
overall supply of the product. The members of a cartel can force up the price of their good
either by restricting its supply on the world market or by agreeing on a particular supply price
and refusing to sell the good for any less.
Oil:
Top 8 oil producers account for 50% of production: Saudi Arabia, USA, Russia, Iran, China, Venezuela,
Mexico, Norway.
Top 7 oil consumers account for 50% of demand: USA, Japan, China, Germany, Russia, Italy, France.
At the present rate of production and consumption of oil,
reserves will only last for 40 more years
.
Examine the geopolitical and environmental impacts of these changes in patterns and trends.
Wars have been started by countries being aggressive to others (think Gulf War, Americans went in
because of the disputes with oil.)
OPEC:
Stands for the The Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries.
Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi, Venezuela, Qatar, Indo, Libya, UAE, Algeria, Nigeria, Ecuador,
Gabon are all members
Established to counter oil price cuts by USA and EU companies.
By agreeing to restrict supply, member countries were able to influence oil prices.
Gave power to member countries and other countries must keep good relationships.
Means that there must be political stability in the Middle East.

39

Examine the changing importances of other energy sources.

Renewable energy sources are ones that can be used more than once. They dont deplete the earths
natural resources.
Solar
:
clean, renewable, abundant.
high costs (4x more than fossil fuels)
increasing use of 15-20% per year
no atmospheric pollution
Canberra, Australia
Wind:
good for small-scale production
requires an exposed site and strong, reliable winds
expensive to construct
Burbo Bank in England
Tidal
:
renewable, clean
requires a funnel shaped estuary free from development
high cost of development
limited suitable sites
environmental damage to sites
Severn Barrage in Wales
Nuclear:
not
renewable despite small amount of raw materials used to produce large amounts of energy
cheap, reliable, abundant
waste disposal is difficult
Fukushima, Japan

HEP:
renewable
specific factors required for a site (relief, geology, river, climate, demand, infrastructure)
expensive to build
difficult to find a site
Kerala, India

40

Conservation Strategies
Discuss the reduction of resource consumption by conservation, waste reduction, recycling, and
substitution.
Terms
:
Recycling
: Processing of waste so that materials can be reused
Reuse
: Use a product multiple times.
Reduction
: Using less of a product
Substitution
: Using one resource rather than another
Landfills
Burying the trash
Initial cost is very cheap
Lined with special plastic liner in order to prevent leachate (liquid waste) from getting
out.
However, leakage still occurs, leading to poor quality of soil, destroying biodiversity.
Incinerators
At 2000 degrees, trash is burnt.
It is cheap, everything is burnt meaning no space constraints.
Ash that is produced is sterile and will not cause infections.
Steam produced is then reorganised into being used to provide energy for people.
Air pollution is caused. Co2 and other greenhouse gases are released.
Composting
This is a natural means which uses the waste as fertilizer or soil conditioner.
Pollution:
Addition of a substance to an area or biosphere due to human activity.
There are 4 main sources of pollution:
Fossil Fuel burning
Pollutants: Carbon Dioxide, Sulphur Dioxide, Nitrogen oxides and smog.
Effects: Global Warming & Climate Change
Domestic Waste
Pollutants: Organic Waste, paper, plastics, glass
Effects: Eutrophication (increased nutrients in a water body), water borne
diseases, landfill leakage spoiling the environment.
Industrial Waste
Pollutants: Heavy metals, fluorides, lead, acids
Effects: Poisoning (Mercury, Minamata disaster in Japan, fish were tainted due
to a leakage by a factory which made people have reactions negatively to it.)
Agricultural Waste
Pollutants: Nitrates (from fertilizers), organic waste and pesticides
Effects: Eutrophication, disease spread and bioaccumulation.
Kyoto Agreement:
Signed on the 11th of December 1997
An agreement to cut carbon emissions (EU 8%, Jp 7%, US 6%).
Hasnt been successful!
Ways to keep Kyoto target without cutting back on domestic emissions:
Plant forests to absorb carbon or change agricultural practices
Install clean technology in other countries and claim carbon credits for themselves

41

 Buy carbon credits from countries such as Russia where traditional heavy industries
have declined and the national carbon limits are underused.
Meant to be the beginning of a long-term project.
USA, China, India, Australia, and Canada didnt sign at first.
Evaluate a strategy at a local or national scale aimed at reducing the consumption of one resource.
Energy Conservation Case Study:
Substituting Fuelwood with alternatives in Nepal
Nepal
:
Landlocked, full of mountains and valleys, many rivers.
One of the 20 poorest countries in the world.
30.4 million overall population
84% rural population
80% of economy is supported by agriculture
10% access to the electricity grid
2003: BR: 32, DR: 10
2013: BR: 21.5, DR: 6.7
33% of population are youthful dependents (below age of 15)
GDP ppp $1500 USD
Lowest asean energy use
29% forest cover
22L water needed a day
20% income spent on fuel
Problems with Fuelwood:
Demand is rapidly increasing (population growth and tourism)
Few alternatives, especially in rural areas
Lack of money to build infrastructure
RAPID deforestation (causes erosion, flooding, loss of habitats, rising river levels)

Strategy 1: Substitute with solar power, briquettes

Parabolic solar power cookers
(completely natural replacing firewood)
Imported German material is expensive.
Briquette stove made out of forest/industrial/domestic waste
Briquettes just as efficient as fuelwood, inexpensive, also cleaning up waste,
easy to use
Foundation of Sustainable Technology (FoST) initiative:
Designs these technologies
Conducts interactive training workshops

42

 Strategy 2: Substitute with Micro-Hydro in Ghandruk, Nepal

Small, locally built schemes designed to produce small amounts of energy, by Nepali
engineers in the 1970s.
Practical Action funded, a UK based energy production.
Ghandruk milling dam
15 minutes instead of 15 hours grinding for 3 days supply of corn
0 hours collecting fuelwood
More leisure/study time for women/children
Reduction in fire/smoke so less respiratory diseases
Diver water from a river that feeds back
Only a 2m drop is required for subsistence production
Community owned and operated
Decentralised, sustainable energy
Suitable for small areas

43

Option G: Urban Environments

Urban Populations
Urbanization
Define Urbanization and explain the variation in global and growth rates and patterns
The increase in proportion of people who live in towns and cities
Includes rural-urban migration and natural increase
Most urbanization currently occurs in East Asia and South Asia
India and China
Affluent LEDCs in Africa eg. Lagos
Mostly in Northern Hemisphere
Around the tropics
Coastal/Rivers
Western Europe
Fastest growth in East Asia
Centripetal Movement
Rural-Urban Migration:
People from outside the city move into the city.
Gentrification
Reinvestment of capital (money) into inner city areas, usually residential.
Can be either commercial or residential, for personal gain or economic profit
Can lead to the social displacement of the poor; as an area becomes gentrified, house prices
rise and the poor are unable to afford increased prices
Often encourages young and upwardly mobile residents to move in
eg: London Docklands
Re-urbanization or Urban Renewal
The development of activities to increase residential living space in an area.
Population densities within the existing built-up area of a city. This may include the
redevelopment of vacant land, the refurbishment of housing and the development of new
business enterprises
Often reflects sound and sustainable policies that avoid the destruction of greenfield sites and
thereby can conserve open country and wildlife
Involves the reclamation of derelict land and the refurbishment of existing built-up areas
(brownfield sites).
Adopted in cities that have reached an advance stage of development and have sufficient
public and private funding to undertake ambitious schemes

44

Centrifugal Movement
Suburbanization:
The outwards growth of cities to engulf other villages and surrounding areas. May
result in out migration of inner urban areas to suburbs, or from inwards rural urban movement.
Counter-Urbanization
A process involving the movement of people away from inner urban areas to new towns,
estates, commuter towns, or estates on the periphery or just beyond city limits.
Started in about 1900 in Europe and the 1920s in the USA
Now a global phenomenon, in which the affluence of urban residents increases, and they move
further from the city centre
Caused by rapid growth of urban population and demand for more housing and space
Rising disposable income has enabled people to meet the costs of new housing and the
associated transport costs of commuting to the city centre for work
In some cases, it has caused industry to decentralise, providing employment outside the city
centre
Urban Sprawl
The unplanned and uncontrolled physical expansion of an urban area into the countryside.
Closely linked to suburbanization.
DO NOT
mix them up guys.
eg. What happened in Mumbai that caused them to move the CBD to Navi Mumbai
(New mumbai)
Natural Change
The contribution of natural change to patterns of population density within urban areas.
What affects natural change:
Family life cycle: Rent, House, Upsize, Improve, Downsize, Retirement/Assisted Living
Depending on the age, different infrastructure is needed.
Eg. A younger person wants to live closer to entertainment areas while an older person
wants to live closer to hospitals.
This leads to natural changes in the city with different aged populations moving throughout the
city.
The Global Megacity
Explain the global increase in number and location of megacities.
Megacity
: Large metropolitan area or
urban agglomeration
of 10 million people or more.
Top ranking megacities were held only by MEDC cities in the 1975s.
Most megacities are now found in less developed areas such as Dhaka, Kolkata and Karachi Growth rates of over 3% per annum.
This is due to less developed countries having a higher percentage of their population located
in rural areas.
China has an urban population of 52.6%.
Characteristics of megacities:
Dynamic, Vibrant, centers of activity (economic, social, cultural)
Economic hubs. Densely packed urban areas able to efficiently generate wealth and culture.

45

Problems:
High population density
Uncontrolled spatial expansion
Infrastructural deficits
Poor housing provision
Ecological strain
Environmental damage
Crime
Pollution
Increasing disparity between rich and poor
Megacities between 1975 and 2009:
1975

2009

1. Tokyo 26.6 Million

1. Tokyo 36.5 Million

2. New York 15.9 Million

2. Delhi 21.7 Million

3. Mexico City 16.7 Million

3. Sao Paulo 20.0 Million

4. Mumbai 19.7 Million
5. Mexico City 19.3 Million
6. New York 19.3 Million
7. Shanghai 16.3 Million
8. Kolkata 15.3 Million
9. Dhaka 14.3 Million
10. Buenos Aires 13.0 Million

Urban Land Use

Residential Areas
Factors Affecting Location:
Wealth:
Some areas are more expensive than others leading to a difference of residential areas.
In some LEDCs, Social position also determines the area of residence.
Ethnicity
: Cultural differences between immigrants and existing residents lead to difficulties in
communication and values, resulting in varying degrees of residential segregation. Over time,
many migrant groups have been assimilated while others remain spatially segregated.
Family Life Cycle:
The family life cycle often dictates where certain groups of people live.
Families are more likely to reside in areas with parks and school which are likely the suburbs.
Young people are more likely to live near the center of the city. When people progress through
the cycle, they are more likely to move further away from the city (centrifugal force).
Urban Poverty and Deprivation: C
onsiderable variation in quality of life between residential
areas.Areas labelled
poor are areas of deprivation, poverty and exclusion.

46


Slums

MEDCs: Inner city areas and former industrial sites (brownfield) LEDCs: Shanty town, deprivation.
Total slum-dwellers =
one billion
, expected to be 2 billion by 2030
Located in unwanted areas - swamps, floodplains, steep slopes or near industrial complexes
Positives
: Point of assimilation, less commuting, strong sense of kinship and culture, low crime.
Negatives
: Lack of security of tenure, basic services are absent, overcrowding, hazardous, low
hygiene, poor sanitation, high disease.

Areas of Economic Activity

Zoning - New York
Industry, warehouses and factories occupy 4% of total area
Found primarily in the Bronx, on either side of Newtown Creek in Brooklyn and Queens and
along the western shores of Brooklyn and Staten Island
Riverfront locations are especially important for transport and utility uses
7.5% of the city is dedicated to transportation and utilities.
Approximately 4% is dedicated to open space and recreation
Feature of the CBD
Commercial and economic core of a city
Most accessible to public transport
Highest land values (PLVI)
Area of highest shopping quality
Concentration of department stores, chain stores and retail specialists
Absence of manufacturing industry
Concentration of banks, businesses
Low residential population
High density of pedestrians - zones of maximum accessibility, often pedestrianized areas and
shopping
Functional zoning of similar activities, e.g. banks, shoe stores
Transport terminals
Offices
Lack of green space
Congestion (traffic and pedestrian)
Factors leading to CBD decline
Planning policies can encourage urban expansion and out-of-town development
City councils aim to attract new investment and offer greenfield sites for development
Companies and investors find cheaper peripheral locations, closer to customers in the suburbs
City centres are often perceived to be dirty, unsafe and with poor/aging infrastructure
Progressive suburbanisation leads to urban sprawl; city centre may be a great distance away
Congestion reduces accessibility of CBD
Cost of development and upkeep/rent in CBD is high
Rise in car ownership leads to increased personal mobility and the rise of leisure shopping

Informal economy
Features
No qualifications or training required
Unregulated hours and pay
47

No job security or legal protection

Small premises, sometimes domestic
Labour intensive
Barter of cash transfers, no documentation
Some illegal business
Adaptive technology using local raw materials

Advantages
Vital in developing the economies of low and middle income countries
Provides unskilled and semi-skilled migrants with casual but immediate work
Allows establishment of new business without the time and money - informal business
is preferable in low-income countries
Benefits of interdependence
Goods produced at minimum cost in informal economies can be further processed and
sold in formal economies
Contributes to urban wealth
Fosters innovation
Disadvantages
Associated with drugs, political corruption, prostitution, bribery and smuggling
Threatens security of residents
Turns away potential visitors
Downgrades the citys image
Lack of tenure
Health and safety risks - prevalence of disease, lack of protective clothing and
adequate training
Poor sanitation
Pollution
See Dharavi Slum Case Study
Relocation of retail/service/manufacturing
Counter-urbanisation
Suburbanisation
Urban sprawl
More pollution and traffic congestion as residents have to travel further
Less concentrated environmental impact but larger area impacted
High cost of ensure infrastructure and adequate resources in new areas
Can increase house prices in the area = image up for the area, positive to more wealthy
but makes area unaffordable for poor, thus increasing disparities.

Urban Stress
Urban Microclimate
Microclimates are concentrated areas with a similar climate. Cities tend to be warmer than their
surrounding areas because
materials retain heat
,
less natural vegetation
, and h
igh energy use
.
Urban heat islands
are metropolitan areas that are significantly warmer than areas around them which
are generally rural. Factors that affect the intensity (UHII - Urban Heat Island
Intensity
) are:
Weather Conditions:
Clear/Calm conditions intensify UHII because of maximum solar radiation

48

during the day.

Topography/Hydrology:
Inland cities have a higher UHII. Coastal cities have cooling from
onshore winds.
Population Size/Density
: Large population has higher levels of energy use that pollute and
generate heat. There is a large concentration of people, traffic, and industrial activity.
Economic Development:
High building densities increase levels of energy consumption and
weak emission controls.
Building/Street Design:
Canyon like street are cooler by day and retain heat at night.
Roughness of urban environments obstructs wind and retains heat more than open rural areas.
Land Surface Cover:
Concrete/Asphalt have a high thermal capacity and retain solar radiation
and release it at night. Urban vegetation and water bodies reduces the UHII.
Anthropogenic heating:
Moving/Stationary traffic, heating, air-conditioning supplements solar
radiation and increase the UHII.
Air pollution
: Fossil fuel consumption, domestic burning, traffic emissions all equal to more
particulate matter in the air which retains heat.
Other Types of Environmental and Social Stress
Air Pollution
causes stress because it
affects health
,
pollutes the environment
, and
increases global
warming.
Cultural Causes of Air Pollution

Natural Causes of Air Pollution

High population and population density

High traffic
Heavy Industry
Dirty energy - fossil fuels
Domestic chemicals - fertilizers/cleaning
products

Topography - Heat inversion layers

Cities in basins
Forest fires
Volcanoes

In MEDCs there were higher and more unacceptable levels of pollution but now they are marginal. In
LEDC cities there used to be higher and more unacceptable levels of air pollution and while they have
decreased, they are still categorized in the unacceptable level now. LEDCs tend to have more air
pollution because of dirty energy that they use. Dirty sources of energy are fuelwood and coal, and
they are used more because there is less regulation enforcement against it.
Premature deaths a year due to air pollution:
40,000 - London
200,000 - USA
400,000 - China
Noise pollution
comes from activities to do with industry and congestion. The problem with noise is
that it is detrimental for people so it directly causes social stress in citizens.
In Mumbai noise pollution measures up to 80-90 db (normal is 55db). The government has restrictions
in different areas, residential (55db), commercial (65db), and industrial (75db). In London, industry
generates 85 db+ exposed to around 200,000 workers. At Heathrow airport, around 300,000 people are
exposed to 57 db+. Noise pollution can be contained by being aware of where areas of large noise are

49

concentrated. there can be no-honking days (Mumbai). Areas with high noise pollution should be
dispersed around a city.
Congestion and Overcrowding
Congestion
is the blockage of movement and leads to environmental stress. In terms of
transport, congestion doesnt allow people, ideas, or goods to get to efficiently flow.
Overcrowding
means too much for too little space, and it leads to environmental stress. Its bad
because there is not enough space for people to move around. In terms of housing, it means
that there may not be enough space for people to live. It affects transport, housing quality,
noise/air pollution, health, and it puts pressure on infrastructure (power, water, waste).
Depletion of Green Space and Waste Overburden - The natural environment under stress
Green space
is good for:
Health
for physical and psychological reasons.
Equity
because populations which are exposed to green environments have the lowest levels
of health inequity related to income deprivation.
Protecting
and preserving the natural environment.
Percentage of Green Space in:
Mumbai - 1%
Singapore - 10%
London - 47%
A
vertical garden
is a garden along the vertical side of a building. It helps to increase the total amount
of green space in a city. They reduce urban stress because they allow people of all socioeconomic
classes to be exposed to green space in the middle of a city.
Waste
is a problem in cities because:

The increasing amounts of resources and produce increase the amounts of emissions and
waste.
Waste is expected to increase further for all cities as they intensity and concentrate.
They are major concerns for both MEDCs and LEDCs.
However, waste can be managed by the government making proper decisions when it comes to the
disposal of waste and sewage.
Social Deprivation, Crime, and Inequality - Communities under stress
Social deprivation
: when people are deprived of basic resources or they only have access to
low quality resources compared to the rest of society. Its about quality.. (and fairness). It has to
do with housing, infrastructure, healthcare, employment, and education.
Crime
:
an action or omission which constitutes an offense and is punishable by law.
Inequality
:
difference
Social deprivation, crime, and inequalities are all problems for society and urban communities because
they create negative environments and therefore place stress upon individuals. The
Gini Coefficient
is a
measure of statistical dispersion intended to represent the income distribution of a nations residence.

50

Causes of crime include:

Inequality
:
The gap between the rich and poor leads to crime more than poverty. There is
unequal access to employment, education, health, and basic infrastructure.
Unemployment
: Unemployed youths between 15-24 are more likely to be perps.
Less po-po
:
The speed of urbanization increases pressure on the ability of authorities to meet
public security and safety demands. Large communities have less cooperation between the
community and the cops. Its the opposite for smaller communities.
Bad planning
:
The design of a community may affect citizens. For example, lots of narrow
streets are creepy. People have nowhere to run. The book legit says this.
Globalization/Communications
: The ease of communication through phones or other devices
makes it easier to organize crime.

Stress of other infrastructure (Water, Sewage)

Urban blight describes run down, derelict, poorly maintained environments. Characteristics of this
include derelict buildings, graffiti and rubbish, dead cars, broken lights, windows, wasteland, vandalism,
and basketball hoops without nets. In MEDCs and LEDCs areas of urban blight follow the same
characteristics.The only difference between them is that in LEDCs the blight is more dispersed. Urban
blight reflects poorly of a city because while it may be spread out, it still represents a un-development
of sorts.

51

The Sustainable City

The City as a System

52

Two different types of systems:

Unsustainable (open/linear)
- Uncontrolled inputs and outputs.

Sustainable circular system

- Inputs are reduced while outputs are recycles

53

Sustainable Strategies
Refer to Curitiba and Vaxjo case studies.

Case Studies: ALL case studies in Option G.

Case Study: London, England - MEDC City:
London is a:
Command center for the world.
Major center for international business and finance.
Close relationships with key countries around the world.
300 languages are spoken in London.
At one end of the banana for Europe.
Most populous city in the European Union, 8.2 million in London and 14 million
people in greater London. (with the 8.2 million included)
Nationally, it is the UKs number 1 city.
Seat of government and is the capital.
Regionally, for South East England, it has a large hinterland and catchment areas for
employment.
Iconic landmarks everywhere.
Large Hinterland.
London was built around a river, known as the River Thames.
London has a strong manufacturing base, geographical location. Large wealth of knowledge in
the sectors of science.
Its largest industry is Finance.
Over 300,000 people are employed.
London has a stark contrasts of wealth. In one particular instance, the rich are
273 times
more
wealthy than the poor, who live only a block or so away.
The M25 Ring Road ENCIRCLES London, anything past that, its not considered London.
Middle/ High Class housing is located in Chiswick.

54

 The Isle of dogs is sort of an island in the East of London.

It was the home of numerous Docks in the 20th century. With large trading shippings making
their way through the River Thames to enter the docks where their goods would be unloaded
off the ships by numerous dock workers.
As the ships got larger, the depth of the water could not handle it, meaning the ships stopped
coming in. This occurred in the late 1960s. The area was soon derelict.
The ships moved further eastwards, into deeper waters.
1967: East India dock closed.
1961-1967: 83000 jobs lost.
1961-1971: Population decline (eg. Tower Hamlets 18%, Southwark 14%)
However, from the early 1980s a new, gentrification council was introduced. Named the LDDC,
the London Docklands Development Council. They were tasked to gentrify the area.
From the early 1980s to 1998,
Employment in the area increased dramatically, 27,000 people to 71,000 people.
The number of Businesses went from 1000 to 2400
22,000 former warehouses were turned into flats for the well-to-do people.
There were numerous attempts to regenerate the inner city, that had high amounts of
derelict housing and/or unused land.
The council also encouraged private sector investment.
The Council reclaimed 600+ ha derelict land.
Improved transport infrastructure: light railway, extensions to the Jubilee Line, London
City Airport and the Limehouse Link all improved transport to the area.
55

 Investment: public 1 billion + private 8 billion Employment eg Canary Wharf brought

40,000 jobs.
Regeneration is BOTH Centrifugal and Centripetal. As when lowered income people leave the
inner city, a number of wealthier people will enter.
Advantages

Disadvantages

22,000 new homes created from previously

redundant warehouses.

Lower income people forced to leave as the

number of higher cost housing increases.

Property Developers given opportunity to build

up.

A new number of social issues may occur.

Overcrowding
Lack of people to suffice
businesses on weekends.
Crime.

Derelict land is gone

A stark contrast can be seen when seeing areas

such as the London Docklands and Canary
Wharf with extremely expensive housing
neighbouring the poorer estates.

Less hygienic problems, with more green spaces

and therefore less pollution.
Increase in employment.
New businesses created.
Air Pollution in London
High, due to high number of vehicles.
Heavy industry also contributes.
Respiratory diseases increases drastically.
Green Spaces in London
London was designed to have green spaces integrated into it from the beginning.
Waste is a key issue as well, there is so much of it that it limits the flow of trash smoothly.

56

Londons tough hoods

Brixton and Croydon are rough.
Mainly in eastern, brownfield sites.
They are well graffitied up and crime rates are high, with a person being able to see the
damage clearly when simply walking through it.
Why has this happened:
The crime rates increased due to the law enforcement simply giving up on the area
and there is a severe lack of enforcement, therefore increasing the crime rate.
Also, due to the lack of money inflowing, the quality of educations that people were
getting were much lower, meaning they didnt have schools to go to, meaning they
could have got up to mischief. Also, the quality of jobs that they were able to get were
also much lower, this means that the can not make enough of money to move out of
the area and improve their lives.
50% of Londons young people have NO educational skill at all.
These places are obviously the main place in which migrants would head to.
The Local Governmental organisations do not maintain it at the same levels that they would for
a more well-off area.
In general, the disadvantaged areas are in the eastern end and the inner city of London (unique
aspect).
Londons residential problem
Population Density is at 4,500 people per km2.
47% of all space in London is green or recreational space.
Most of Londons housing is 2 & 3 storey terraced housing.
So this all sounds lovely, whats the issue then?
LACK of Housing.
POOR QUALITY housing
May lead to health issues.
Higher Crime rate
Vandalism
HIGH PRICES
Not everyone can EASILY afford it meaning that it can contribute to poverty as
well.
750,000 people in London are on 250 pounds or less per week.

57

Case Study: Mumbai, India - LEDC City:

Mumbai is one the most densely populated cities in the world. With a density of 21,800 people
per km2. This obviously leads to overcrowding, congestion and overall chaos. It IS a megacity.
Land is extremely expensive, with similar prices to NYC.
The population is still rapidly growing along with the economy.
The infrastructure is extremely weak, to handle this.
For example, the trains are unable to handle more than 1,700 people per journey.
However, on average, they take about 4,500 per trip. That is more than the ENTIRE
student population at OFS to put in perspective.
The roads are also constantly jammed up due to the lack of width in order for the
smooth movement of cars. Theyre all single laned.
How did Mumbai get like this?
Cotton trade during the American Civil War was very vital, the whole city (Bombay then)
became very rich.
As it was a British Colony, and through the usage of the Su
EZ
Canal, the deep waters
became an important, major port.
Also, due to the growth wealth of the middle class, they are buying cars which only
increases the overall congestion in the area due to the high number of vehicles.
The officials cannot encourage the usage of trains any more due to the fact of them
being extremely overcrowded already.
Speaking of which, the Trains only travel North and South and not East to West.
Both routes are needed now.
There is no further space for redevelopment. New ideas must be created:
Large bridge to bridge the gap (ba dum tss) between the 2 areas, over the
water in order to reduce congestion on the roads.
Roads are having to be built OVER the existing motorways and train tracks due
to a lack of space.
Dharavi (slum):
Its a large slum located in the heart of Mumbai.
It, rather ironically, neighbours live in expensive properties, but what can be done about it?
Government can kick them out, but then where would they go? Housing projects for
them would have to be made at a high cost.
The land of Dharavi is extremely valuable to property developers as well.
If they stay, it will anger the rich people surrounding the area, but it is the most cost
efficient method, which is currently happening.

58

Advantages

Disadvantages

Economic Activity: SGD$1 Billion

The residents pay NO tax. Informal Economy

Houses the Poor (no additional charge towards

the government)

The slum is an eyesore, it does not look pretty.

High level of employment

High levels of pollution

Gradual Improvement

Lack of schools

Community Spirit (resilience of the people is

amazing)

Lack of Doctors

Navi Mumbai:
It is located west of Mumbai.
Is the new CBD in order to help and distribute the congestion to different parts of the
area.
Many people are starting to move there, a community is slowly building up. Its
population numbers are around 1.2 million people.
It is a planned city with certain key features.
The train system is extremely good, with wide doors allowing for 12 people to
enter side by side. Much wider inside than the cramped conditions of the
Mumbai Trains. The stations also have areas for the passengers to safer cross
over the tracks through the usage of underpasses and overpasses.
The river banks are all well designed with aspects of anti-flooding techniques
built into the system in order for them to be able to lower the risk of flooding.

59

Case Study: Curitiba, Brazil - Sustainable City

South-west Brazil
Rapid population growth
600% increase from 1950-2007
Used innovation to avoid population growth problems
Innovating public planning has led to:
Public transport being more efficient and more desirable than car
Little urban sprawl
Cheap and low cost technological solutions used
Development occurs through the involvement of community
Pollution Management:
Aim - Reduce number of cars on the road
Bus routes improved: Inter-district and feeder services
More people used public transport
Single Fare idea like Singapores Ez-Link system
Extra wide doors on the buses to facilitate the movement of more people
Route covers the entire city.
Turtle
Idea of live close to workplace
Reduces transport time and volume
Methods
Recycling
Garbage reselling - in exchange for food and bus fare
Prevented malnutrition and cleaned streets
Profits went to social causes (drug rehab)
Transportation
High capacity, fast, expansive bus transport means no cars needed (bus every minute)
66% of trips in city made by bus
30% decrease in car use since 1974 even though population doubled
7mn gallons of fuel saved yearly
Bus routes and land uses planned together
Affordable Public Housing
Housing provided for low income families
50,000 houses provided
Green spaces
Made flood prone areas into parks - so no damage to residential
Government goats hired to trim grass instead of machines
Artificial lake created instead of canals (at 20% the cost)
Companies attracted to the area- increases GDP

60

Option D - Hazards
Characteristics of Hazards
Hazard
- A threat (natural or human) that has the
potential to cause loss of life, injury, property
damage, socio-economic disruption, or
environmental degradation.
Hazard Event
- The occurrence of a hazard.
Disaster
- A major hazard event that causes
widespread disruption
to a community or region,
with: significant demographic, economic, or
environmental loss, and which the affected
community is unable to deal with adequately without
outside help.
There are three types of hazards
:
Geophysical
: Earthquakes, volcanoes, landslides.
Hydro-Meteorological
: Hurricanes, floods, coastal erosion.
Human-Induced
: Chemical/oil spills, hazardous materials, waste.
Hazard events can be characterised by the following:
Magnitude
: How large was the hazard event? Enormous, normal?
Frequency
: How frequently does this hazard event occur? Frequently, rarely?
Duration
: How long does the hazard event last for? Long, short?
Areal/Spatial Extent
: How much extended is the hazard event? Is it widespread, limited?
Spatial Concentration
: How concentrated is the hazard event? Is it random, concentrated?
Speed of Onset
: How quickly does the hazard event begin? Rapid, slow?
Predictability
: How regular is the hazard? Is predictability high, low?

61

Compare the location of areas subject to drought with those that experience tropical storms:
Hurricanes or tropical storms occur normally in the westward-flowing air just north of the equator. Sea
temperatures must be over 27 degrees. Water must be shallower than 60m. Low pressure air must be
far enough away from equator for the
Coriolis effect
to be in place and rotate. Hurricanes affect coastal
areas. Droughts occur in areas of: arid/semi-arid land, subtropical pressure zones, far away from the
sea for
continentality
, cold offshore currents nearby to limit condensation in the air, and in rain-shadow
areas.

Earthquakes
An earthquake is the
sudden, violent shaking of the earths surface
. Earthquakes are found along plate
boundaries, specifically constructive, destructive, and conservative boundaries.
Factors that affect the damage caused by an earthquake are:
Strength and Depth + Aftershocks
: Stronger earthquakes cause more damage. Shallow focus
earthquakes are potentially more damaging than deep since rocks absorb energy from deeper
ones. More aftershocks cause more damage.
Population Density
: Earthquakes hitting places with a higher population density will affect more
people.
Type of Buildings
: MEDCs generally have better-quality buildings that are earthquake-resistant
and people are more likely to have insurance.
Time of Day
: Earthquakes during a busy time of day (rush hour) may cause more damage.
Distance from Epicentre
: Areas closer to the epicentre have more damage.
Rock and Sediment Type
: Loose materials experience
liquefaction,
solid rock is safer.
Secondary Hazards
: eg. Mudslides, tsunamis, fires, contaminated water, disease, hunger.
Economic Development
: MEDCs are generally less affected by being more prepared and have
more access to response services, technology, and health services. Also there are greater funds
to deal with earthquakes.
If MEDCs are so much better prepared, have better responses to damage and better quality buildings, how
come earthquakes in MEDCs create much more damage?
Although MEDC countries are so much better prepared for earthquakes than in LEDCs, there is much
more damage caused in MEDCs because there is greater value to damaged property. People in MEDCs
hold significant economic and societal significance. Imagine a country which has massive skyscrapers
and stuff suffering from an earthquake and compare this to small LEDC city.
Methods to reduce effects of earthquakes
:
Improving forecasting and warning systems
Improving building design, location, and emergency procedures
Observing:
Crustal movement
Changes in electrical conductivity
Strange and unusual animal behaviour (eg carp fish)
Historic evidence and trends

62

Hurricanes
A hurricane (aka cyclone or typhoon) is an intense storm that brings heavy rainfall, strong winds, high
waves, and secondary hazards such as flooding and mudslides. Normally occur in the
westward-flowing air just north of the equator along coastal areas. Sea temperatures must be over 27
degrees. Water must be shallower than 60m. Low pressure air must be far enough away from equator
for the Coriolis effect to be in place and rotate the storm.
The impact of hurricanes will vary because
:
The storm path is unpredictable.
Strongest storms dont always cause the greatest damage.
Distribution of population throughout the Caribbean islands increases the risk associated with
hurricanes.
Hazard mitigation depends on the effectiveness of human responses to hazard events.
LEDCs continue to lose more lives to natural hazards as a result of inadequate preparation.

Droughts
A drought is an extended period of dry weather leading to extremely dry conditions. They occur in
areas of: arid/semi-arid land, subtropical pressure zones, far away from the sea for
continentality,
cold
offshore currents nearby to limit condensation in the air, and in rain-shadow areas. Droughts are NOT
found in deserts.
Hazards that are related to droughts are:
Declining water resources and flood shortages.
Flooding of valleys, alluvial fans, and plains.
Increased soil erosion.
Surface subsidence due to water abstraction.
Sedimentation or deposition of river sediments.
Landslides and rockfalls.
Weathering.
The impact of droughts will vary because:
Economic:
Economic development (MEDC vs LEDC)
Access to water
Land use
Environmental:
Loss of biodiversity in flora and fauna
Lower water body levels and loss of wetlands
More wildfires
Wind and water erosion
Poor soil quality.
Social:
Type of land use
Attitudes about water usage
Development.

63

Human Induced Hazard

Types of Human Induced Hazards:
Multiple Extreme, Nuclear war, Recombinant
DNA, Pesticides, Intentional Biocides, Antibiotics ,
Vaccines, Uranium mining, Rubber manufacture,
Rare catastrophes, explosions, Commercial
aviation (crashes), Common killers, Auto crashes,
Coal mining, global threats, Fossil fuel, Sea
surface temperatures, Aspirin, Appliances,
Skateboards
, Bicycles

64

Vulnerability

Vulnerability is the conditions that increase the susceptibility of a community to a hazard or to the
impacts of a hazard event. The relationship between hazardous areas and population density is that
many rapidly growing cities are in hazardous areas; large urban areas such as New Orleans are
especially vulnerable to natural hazards. There is a higher potential casualties and economic loss.
People live in hazardous areas because of the resources that hazards can offer. Rivers can be
considered both resources and hazards because floodplains provide water, silt, fertile soils,
transportation, recreation AS WELL AS too much water which causes flooding. Conflict is caused when
there is a drought as there is competition for water, desertification, and famine.
People in LEDCs are more vulnerable to and more likely to be affected by hazards because of their lack
of wealth, preparedness, education (risk and emergency planning), higher population densities, and less
effective communication and readiness in the case of emergencies.

65

Risk and Risk Assessment

Risk is the probability of a hazard event causing harmful consequences (expected losses in terms of
death, inquiries, property damage, economy, and environment).

Technology used to predict:

66

Disasters
A disaster is a
major hazard event
that causes widespread disruptions to a community or region with
significant demographic, economic, and/or environmental losses, and which the affected community
cannot deal with adequately without outside help.

Over time, the intensity of disasters has become more frequent due to changes in the Earth's climate
and the population size + density. However, the impact of disasters has reduced due to advances in
human technology.

67

Adjustments and Responses to Hazards

Haiti Earthquake

Chile Earthquake

2008, LEDC, 7.0 on Richter

N. American/Caribbean plates
9 million homeless, 800 deaths.
15% economy damaged
City and region are mainly shanty towns.
Problems of overcrowding and unprepared
construction.
Only food relief for 200,000 people.
Months after, people were still sleeping in
tents.
Building back better campaign.

2010, MEDC, 8.8 on Richter

Coast of Chile
Triggered a tsunami.
521 deaths.
High building standards, adequate
emergency preparedness, and high standard
of living.
Seismic design code
Strong columns, weak beams

Short, Mid-Term, and Long Responses

The main priority is to Rescue.
Rehabilitation to make homes safe to live in.
Reconstruction is rebuilding.

68

Case Studies
*
There is quite a number here,
we know.
Just try and know one MEDC, one LEDC and one human
induced case study well. (
Read
through the rest of them, but maybe dont study as much)
*
General Details - MEDC Earthquake
Kobe, Japan
(MEDC of 1.5 million)
January, 1995
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Destructive plate boundary between Pacific, Eurasian, and

Philippine plate. When oceanic crust dives below continental
crust creating a subduction zone. The thrust from the Pacific
plate popping back up caused a release of pressure leading
to a 6.4 Mw earthquake 16 km below the surface.
Japan has 30% worlds earthquakes.

Previously lower quality of building construction (weak

structure and inappropriate materials)
Delay times (high population density)

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

6400 killed
40,000 injured
300,000 homeless
Roads collapsed

Power failures

Environmental

Gas and water pipes burst

Fires
No water for 10 days

Economic

102,000 buildings destroyed

Dock and port area destroyed, ground
became liquefied.

$220 billion needed for repairs

Companies had to close temporarily eg
Panasonic

Political

Japan rejected international aid.

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

Communal search efforts for survivors in the rubble

Emergency aid needed but Japanese rejected international
offers of aid and dealt with the earthquake themselves.
Homeless people were dealt with quickly and the city
recovered thanks to government money.
Water, electricity, gas services were fully working by July.
The railways were back in service by August. 80% of port
rebuilt in a year.

A lot of the buildings in Kobe and Japan made after the

1960s are earthquake proof (necessary by law) with
counterweights on the roofs and cross steel frames.
Many of the damaged buildings in Kobe were built
before this period and were made of wood, which
caught fire. People are educated on earthquake
preparation in Japan.

Event Profile
Magnitude: Large
Onset: Quick
Duration: Short (20s)
Extent: Moderate
Concentration: Quite
Frequency: Often
Predictability: High

69

General Details - LEDC Earthquake

Haiti
(LEDC of 9.8 million)
January, 2010
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Conservative boundary between the North American and

Caribbean plates. Both were moving in the same direction. This
built up pressure due to the friction between the plates. When it
released, it caused a 7.0 Mw earthquake 16 miles from
Port-au-Prince, 5 miles below the surface (shallow).

Microcosm of problems
low per capita income $790
80% live in poverty
soil degradation
overpopulation
62% literacy

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

316,000 killed
1,000,000 homeless
3 million affected
250,000 homes
Transport and communication links damaged

Due to all of the deaths,

hospitals/morgues overflowed and
bodies were piled on the street. This led to
diseases, eg. cholera spread.

Environmental

Contamination of water sources

Difficult to manage debris/waste

Agricultural industry affected

Increase in water borne diseases

Economic

30,000 buildings affected

20% of population lost jobs due to

buildings destroyed
Clothing industry most affected (brings in
85% income)
Difficult to bring in aid

Political

60% government buildings hit

Prison destroyed, 4000 inmates escaped.

Weakened governmental power

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

$100 mn in aid from US + $300 mn from EU.

810,000 placed in aid camps
1 mn shelters provided
Healthcare supplies to prevent disease
Communal rescue system within Haiti
4.3 mn provided with food rations

98% rubble hasnt been cleared yet

People still live in aid camps
40% unemployment (now)
Temporary schools set up
Eventual water and sanitation for 1.7 mn

Event Profile
Magnitude: Near enormous
Onset: Quite rapid
Duration: Kind of short
Extent: More so limited
Concentration: Quite
Frequency: Very rare
Predictability: High

70

General Details - MEDC Drought

2012
Texas
Drought
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

La nia weather pattern. When surface temperatures are

cooler in the Pacific.
Polar vortex irregular changes
Dramatic decline in rainfall.

- Common high use of water.

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

Restricted use of water

Changes in water usage.

Environmental

Drain in reservoirs
Dried up Medina lake

Dry landscape causes wiildfires, affecting

people and property
Dust storms

Economic

High food prices

High water prices
High cattle prices

$8bn worth of crops fail (Texas produces 55%

of US crops)

Political

Affects the political climate change debate

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

Water only available for people one day a week.

Fire response team
Community wildfire protection plan.

Changing attitude about water usage.

National Weather Service - prediction.
Storm Prediction Center.

Event Profile
Magnitude: Big
Onset: Slow
Duration: Long
Extent: Widespread
Concentration:
Frequency: Moderate
Predictability: Low

71

General Details - LEDC Drought

Sahel
area.
Desertification of the Sahara
Drought since 1960s.
12 countries (Mali Niger
Chaaad
Burkina Faso Mauritania)
10 million affected
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Tropical convection.
West African monsoon
El nio.
Fragile environment
Poor rainy season

Not enough money to cope with drought.

High prices for food.
Conflicts in Mali.
Large families
Population pressures

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

20 million at risk

Children dont reach growth potential from

malnutrition
Famine

Environmental

Extremely arid land

Dry and bare land

Major desertification
Soil erosion

Economic

Farmers cant cope

Animals die
26% crop reduction

Political

Governments declared food and nutrition

crisis.

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

UN convoy distributes food (unsustainable)

Red Cross raises money

Early planning attempts

Strain of seeds in Kenya
Education of local community

Event Profile
Magnitude: Enormous
Onset: Slow
Duration: Long
Extent: Large
Concentration:
Frequency: High
Predictability: High

72

General Details - MEDC Hurricane

Hurricane Katrina (cat. 5)
Southern USA
, Gulf of Mexico
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Gulf of Mexico
Warm water
Shallow

New Orleans
Levees Overwhelmed

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

1200 drowned
1 million homeless
$300 bn in damages
Disease
Thefts etc

Jobs lost
Highways disrupted
Migration

Environmental

Storm surge, flooding of 6m.

Economic

Businesses affected

Political

Leaders pointing fingers at each other.

Agricultural production damaged

Tourism affected
Oil facilities

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

UK government sent food aid.

US government gave $50 bn.

Criticism to levees.

Event Profile
Magnitude: Large
Onset: Medium
Duration: Long
Extent: Large
Concentration: Widespread
Frequency: Moderate
Predictability: High

73

General Details - LEDC Hurricane (Cyclone)

Cyclone Nargis
South of
Burma
Southwest Myanmar, May 2008
3000 dead/missing
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Bay of Bengal is known for its Monsoon season. Warm waters,

low air pressure system. Tropical storm that developed into a
category 3/4 storm.
Low vertical wind shield
Shallow continental shelf

Low level of development and education.

Military government in decline and declined aid.
High population density

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

Villages destroyed (50% homes).

Neighbours had to help each other,
disappointed by their government.

Widespread disease (diarrhoea,

dysentery, skin infections) due to
survivors crammed into buildings.

Environmental

Floods were almost immediate and stayed

inland eroding the land (storm surges).

Agriculture affected (crops destroyed).

Economic

$10 bn damage
95% buildings collapsed on delta
1000+ temples destroyed

Flooded rice fields -lost harvest and

income

Political

Government denial of outside help (help still

managed to get inside through Black Market)

Hit Burma one week before military

government national referendum on a
new constitution that the Burmese
thought to be an illegal to establish
military power.

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

Government broadcasts 48 hours before storm, telling the route

to warn those in the path.
More than two weeks after the storm, relief had only reached
25% of the population.

International aid was neglected by the government. 2

mn USD was raised by
avaaz.org

.
US Emergency Assistance Team delivered medical
supplies and other humanitarian supplies.

Event Profile
Magnitude: Large (not enormous)
Onset: Moderate
Duration: Medium
Extent: Moderately widespread
Concentration: yes
Frequency: Often
Predictability: High

74

General Details - Human Induced Hazard

Human Induced Hazard
Deepwater Horizon,
Gulf of Mexico
BP oil spill- Began on the 20th of April 2010 and lasted 87 days.
Causes:
Natural Environment

Cultural Environment

Drilling in water 1 mile deep

BP has never had a major spill so they hadnt prepared

well yet.

Effects

Primary

Secondary

Social

11 dead

creates queries/doubts about safety and

preparedness in face of risk.

Environmental

4200 miles of coastline

Wildlife deaths (birds, dolphins, turtles)

Economic

2.6 million barrels in total spilled

27000 jobs in the area

Political

British oil company

Conflict between US/UK.

Responses:
Short Term

Long Term

Blowout preventer (failed)

top kill - pumping junk and mud to clog oil
top hats - on top of the blowout preventer
capping stack with three valves (worked)

New technologies by BP and government.

Event Profile
Magnitude:
Large
Onset:
Rapid
Duration:
Long (87 days)
Extent:
Widespread
Concentration:
Concentrated
Frequency:
Rare
Predictability:
Low

75

Option F: Leisure, Sport & Tourism

Sport
: A physical activity involving a set of rules or customs. The activity may be competitive.
Leisure:
Any freely chosen activity or experience that takes place in non-work time
Tourism
: Travel away from home for at least one night for the purpose of leisure. Excludes
day-trippers.
Recreation
: Leisure time activity undertaken voluntarily and for enjoyment. Includes leisure
pursuits, organised outings and events, and on-paid (professional) sports.
It is difficult to define these terms because of the interrelationships that exist between them.
Recreation that is not sport or tourism.
Recreational tourism
Non-recreational tourism (work, not leisure)
National and international sports travel
Non-recreational sport (work, not leisure)
Recreational sport

Factors that influence the amount and type of leisure of people:

Employment, social security, students, age, cultural factors.
Overall, youthful and elderly dependents have the most time for leisure in a society.
The exception is people who are wealthy enough to not spend time working.
When looking at a site of recreation or leisure activity, one can use the
Butler Model
to
understand it.
Essentially it shows that as time progresses, the number of tourists will change.
When attempting to understand the type of traveller that will be taking holidays, one must use
the
Plogs Continuum
.
It shows what classification of tourist one can receive depending on his or her choice of
destination.
Psychocentric is for someone who prefers the safer route, and Allocentric is for
someone who wants to take risks.

76

International Tourism
Changes in demand:

Changes in supply:
Access
: Travel agents, phone, post, brochures, internet
Transport
: Air travel, railways, cars, cruise ships
Accommodation
: Resorts, hotels, B&B, caravans, tents

International Sport
International participation and success:
Examine the social, cultural, economic, and political factors affecting participation and
success in two major international sports

77

 Case Study
of a contemporary international sports event:
The London Olympics
Evaluate the short and long term geographic costs and benefits of hosting such an
event at both the local and national level.
London 2012:
14500 athletes from 204 nations
Cost of $15 billion to run the games
There were 3000 hours of sports coverage
1 billion people watched the games
$462 million was generated as additional income for the UK residents per annum
17,900 jobs were created
3.5% Economic Growth
These were the first Olympics where the usage of Social Media was much higher along
with smartphones.
Entire area where the games were held (Lea Valley) was gentrified and the athletes
village was turned into public housing once games were completed.

78

National/Regional Tourism

Multiplier Effect
: Re-spending of tourist dollars
Trickle-down Effect
: idea that economic benefits will gradually reach all people in an economy
Carrying Capacity
: Maximum number of tourists that a site or event can satisfy at one time
Leakage
: Tourism money lost out of the system
Case Study: Nepal
Natural attractions: Mountains, trekking, enhancements, wildlife
Cultural attractions: Religious/cultural sites, events, different cultural groups, gateway between
India and China.
1990: 255,000 tourists
1998: 465,000 tourists
2010: 600,000 tourists

Key factors to Nepals tourism growth:

Growth in world tourism from 3As
Ongoing political unrest (civil war, massacres, etc)
2011 Year of Tourism for Nepal
Tourism from India
Positive Impacts:
Jobs (accommodation, transport, services, hospitality)
Tourist money for business and infrastructure
Spread of economic benefits to rural areas
Tourists are a reason to protect and preserve fragile environments/cultural values and
traditions
Tourists give locals opportunities to interact with the world
Challenges for tourism in Nepal:
Fragile environment
Waste
Energy and water consumption
Overuse of trails and over-accommodation
Need for investment but danger of large-scale business control
Spread of benefits outside of Nepal
Sustainable tourism in Nepal - Saraburi
Yes: Well-managed, room to grow, style is appropriate for the environment, benefits are
spread
No: Fragile environment, rich will benefit, tourism infrastructure is expensive
Management practices used in Nepal:
Visas ($25USD for 2 weeks)
Minimum Impact Code in fragile areas
Mountain climbing only with permit
Alternative fuel for energy and water
Upper Mustang Biodiversity Conservation Project

79

 Local-scale tourism projects (Siraburi Village)

Nepal Tourism and Management College

National/Regional Sport
1.
2.
3.

International: World, Regions, Nations, Clubs/Regions

National: Open division, Age group.
Regional: Open division, Age group, Local.

Rugby is important to SA because it brought the end of the racial divide in the population. Before 1992
there were separate leagues for black and white rugby players. In 1995 the newly merged team won
the rugby World Cup and so commenced the quotas of black players in all rugby teams. Three years
later, Super Rugby was started and SAs team became much more successful.
The Currie Cup:
14 teams for the 14 provinces. There are two tiers: Premier (8 teams) and First (6 teams). Western
Province, Bulls, and Lions are the top teams. These are the top because of: history and culture,
geographic spread, and how success attracts talent which contributes to more success.
Branding:
Field
: ABSA, cup of heroes
Players
: Adidas, Reebok, Vodafone, DHL, Mr. Price, clothing logos
Supporters
: mostly whites, team jerseys flags
Stadium
: Macsteel, Dunlop tires, hotels, Durban Country Club
Explain the hierarchy of a league and the location of its teams:
League
: a competition between teams
Hierarchy
: different levels
Describe; big to small.
SA is a major rugby nation, has different levels of competition (international, national,
regional). Looking at the National league (Currie Cup). 14 teams (5 super teams of intl
rugby), two divisions. Within the 14 teams the most successful are Western Province
Stormers (Cape Town), Bulls (Pretoria), Sharks (Durban).
Why are the teams where they are?
Cultural (apartheid, Afrikaans and English speakers, whites/coloured,
success/money, pop)
geographic (population concentrated on the coast)

80

Explain the relationship between team location and the residence of its supporters:
The sport of rugby is played at all levels in South Africa: international, national, and regional. The
national Currie Cup provides an example of a variety of relationships between teams and locations. This
cup is a league of 14 teams from the 14 provinces in South Africa. Of these 14 teams, 5 of them make
teams for the international Super Rugby league. Within the 14 teams, there are two divisions: the
Premier (top 8 teams) and First (bottom 6 teams). The three most successful teams are the Western
Province Stormers (Cape Town), the Bulls (Pretoria), and the Sharks (Durban).
Teams and supporters, for each level of competition, generally come from the same large
population centres. There is a strong sense of pride from the local participants and people are raised to
support their local team. The branding of teams provides strong influence on the cities population. With
the in-migration of people and players to cities, the sphere of influence widens. In the same way, the
out-migration of people and players spread the support of a certain team. For example, a South African
who supports the Bulls and moves to Singapore will create a pool of Bulls supporters in Singapore.
There are other factors that contribute to the location of the supporters of teams. A sports
teams popularity can increase through social media. Awareness spreads from fans to their friends circle
and beyond. There can be a change in appeal if certain players appear on a new team. Fans may be
particularly attracted to a certain player and they may change which team they support solely for that
reason. Finally, a fan may support a team based on their identity and beliefs. For example, if an Afrikaner
lives in a predominantly non-white city, they could still support the Bulls (Pretoria), a city where the
players are mostly white. Which team will have the most supporters? why?

Local Tourism
Location of Venice
Venice is in Northern Italy, a high HDI region in a high HDI country. Its in a lagoon that is
linked to the mainland via a causeway.
Key Statistics
Population of 60,000
37,500 day trippers in August
60,000 tourists a day during high season
Population decreasing rapidly
High tourist numbers (day trippers) lead to fewer hotels and restaurants and a high cost of living
which leads to a lack of money to manage the negative effects of tourism which leads to
depopulation.
The
Irridex
The irritation index; how irritated are people by tourism. A perception of carrying
capacity.
Euphoria - visitors are welcome and there is little planning
Apathy - visitors are taken for granted and contact becomes more formal
Annoyance - saturation is approached and the local people have misgivings. planners
attempt to control
Antagonism - open expression of irritation
Tourism divides the community. Operators want more tourists for employment and income but
the locals way of life is destroyed. Venice is a high cost city - there are no roads, inefficient
delivery of goods, and local industries move away for cheaper land and better transport
connections.
81

Local Sport & Recreation

The Tourism Business District (TBD) is the recreational business district and often coincides with
the CBD. Tourist business activities such as accommodation, catering, and shopping are found.
The TBD in Singapore is in the Orchard area (somewhat coincides with the CBD)
Solutions to problems:
Act to support cultural diversity and legacy
Engage in activities that add value to the community
Avoid activities that degrade the environment
Act to disperse the benefits
Patronise locally owned enterprises
Leisure Hierarchy: Placing recreational activities in an order of importance.
Hamlet: quiz nights/cycling/walking etc
Large town: sports/dance/bingo etc
Capital city: top level sports/int events/art galleries/shopping
Factors:
Population size
Range and number of services
Sphere of influence
Level of development
Location (coast/park/forest etc)
Accessibility (airport/roads etc)
History
Advertising and recognition
Weather
Events
Planning/Zoning
Urban Regeneration
: Improving an area that has experienced a period of decline + upgrading.
London had a sustainability plan through the Olympics to regenerate areas. They worked
through climate change, waste, biodiversity, inclusion, and healthy living.

Sustainable Tourism
Sustainable tourism is tourism attempting to have a low impact on the environment and local
culture, while helping to generate future employment for local people. The aim of it is to ensure
that development brings a positive experience for local people, tourism companies, and the
tourists themselves. It is not the same as ecotourism.
operates within natural capacities for the regeneration and future productivity of natural
resources
recognises the contribution of people in the communities, customs, and lifestyles linked
to the tourism experience
accepts that people must have an equitable share in the economic benefits of tourism
maintain the quality of the environment while maximising the economic benefits
using resources sustainably
reducing overconsumption and waste
maintaining biodiversity
supporting local economies
involving local communities
82

training staff
marketing tourism responsibly
undertaking research
integrating tourism into planning
providing better information

Case Study: Sustainable Tourism

Refer to: Nepal - Saraburi
thx xoxo
Shoutout to this guy for making some
sick flashcards.

Congrats on finishing SL
Geography from the creators! <3

83

Global Interactions
Theme 1: Measuring Global Interactions
KOF Index:

Essentially this refers to the level of how globalised a country is in 3 aspects:

Economic (38% of the index)

Trade
Foreign Investment
Portfolio Investment
Social (39% of the index)
Personal Contacts
Information Flows
Cultural Proximity
Political (23% of the index)
Government policies
Membership of organisation
Number of embassies
Number of treaties
Each country is then ranked according to these 3 different scales and then they're placed in order. (out
of 100 the score is) The higher the number, the more globalised it is in that category. (Then theres a
84

section for the overall most globalised country.) The reason why each of them are weighted different
because a country can excel in one section but falters in the others.
Remember some key countries:

So what do you notice from the table?

Well if you were not a dingbat, you would have noticed that MEDCs tend to top the charts. This
is due to their international relations being better than the rest, or alternatively, they are a
megacity.
Comparing this to LEDCs, like a washed up boy band doing a comeback tour, they are very low
on the charts. This is due to them being less affluent and or simply being small countries with
less resources.

85

Patterns of the KOF

Generally countries which are lower in population or smaller in size tend to be ranked better.
This is due to them requiring more imports and trade due to their limited amount of
resources, so they cannot be some pesky annoying country.
As a general trend, North American and European countries tend to be the forefront of the
globalisation race.
Due to them having:
HIgh economic growth coupled with their small population
High levels of connectivity
Highly politically influential
Difference in patterns for each type of KOF index:
Economic:
Long distance flows of goods
Capital & Services along with information & perspectives.
Social:
Spread of:
Ideas
Information
People
This category is also the weakest on the scale as it does not judge the HDI or
happiness index for example is hard to measure.
Political:
Diffusion of Government policies
TASK:
Okay so with this topic there's actually quite a bit of freedom with regard to case studies, choose your
own pretty much.
So, choose two countries, one MEDC and one LEDC located in different geographical regions. Youll see
the difference yourself.
Remember that the most globalised cities may not be high in KOF. This is due to the periphery being
poor. Despite the main bits being high developed, low development in places can lead to to this
demise.
Values and Limitations of the KOF index
Values

Limitations

Wide Range of factors

Too western of a bias

Country comparisons available

Favours small countries too much

Factor relationships

Not enough weight for economic factors

Up to Date

Hides variations within comparing countries.

Relatively accurate

86

Definitions:
Global Interaction
: Ways in which countries interact through SEEP (Social, Economic,
Environmental and Political) Factors.
Globalisation
: Growing independence of countries worldwide.
Transactions
: Interactions between two parties.
Interdependence
: Being mutually reliant.
Capital Flows
: Movement of money
Diffusion
: Spread of the globalisation
Core
: Centralised spaces that control
Periphery
: The outer edges or limits of an area
International Economy
: Across international borders
Global Economy
: Trades goods by MNCs (Multinational Corporations) via networks of
international trade
MNC
: Multinational Corporation. It generates or increases trade between countries
Transnational
: Interdependent trade

Theme 2: Changing Space - The Shrinking World

Time-Space Convergence and the Friction of Distance:
Time-Space Convergence
: Reductions in the time taken for ideas and people to travel.
The world can be said to be s
hrinking
because it takes
less time
to move people,
goods, and information across the planet.
Distance decay
describes the reduced connections between areas the further they are away
from each other. This has reduced because of improvements in transport and increased
interaction through ICT which have brought places closer together.
The
Frictional Decay of Distance
refers to how the further away something is, the less
interactions are between the things. It also refers to Distance Decay.
ICT
: Information and Communications Technology. These show how the world has shrunk
because of the digital divide. People can talk to each other across the world as if they were in
the same room without a problem.
Developments in Transport Technology
:
Increased speed and efficiency
Decreased cost of development
egs: steam engine, commercial jet aircraft, ocean freighters, containerization.
Communications technology
have helped shrink the world through: the development of
satellite technology and optical fiber cables. These both have a very large carrying capacity,
very quick information transmission time, and very high signal strength. With this, people have
the power to collect, transfer, and transmit information more rapidly than before.
Globalization
has increased spatial differentiation by creating disparities in spatial
differentiation.
Core
areas are shrinking while
peripheral
areas have only recently started
benefitting from greater global accessibility. Core areas are the most accessible while
peripheral are the least.

87

Type of Transport

Advantages

Disadvantages

Sea

Cheap over long distances

No cost in building transport
routes
Good for bulky/low cost
products
Costs are spread over large
area
Containerisation is efficient
Refrigerated containers are
cool

Slower than air travel

Some countries may be
landlocked
Ships are expensive
Many ships creates long waiting
times
Oil prices are expensive for
ships
Some
routes have to be made:
Panama and Suez
Unnatural dredging of some
harbors
Pirates
Lost cargo
Smuggling of products

Air

Fast over long distances

No traffic
High value, perishable goods
Landlocked countries

Noise and visual pollution

High cost of flying and airports
Only small loads carried
Risks due to weather

Extension and Density of Networks:

Network
: An arrangement of connections (points, lines, and spaces)
Patterns of
Internet
and
Mobile
connectivity:
Everything has been increasing everywhere
2009: 2 mobile phone subscriptions for every 3 people.
Landlines have fallen from 19.5% to 17.89%
Largest users of mobile phones are: USA, W. Europe, China & Japan.
Phone usage in emerging nations has increased eg. India and China
Kenya and
Chad
have reasonably high cellphone usage despite limited ICT.
Less amounts of traffic between Africa, S. Asia, S. America.
High amounts of internet traffic between USA, Europe, and Eastern Asia.
High activity in W. Europe, N. America, and E. Asia. (MEDCs)
Reasons for these patterns:
Increased population size
Migration flows
Language
Increase in global wealth (more research and innovation)
Higher quality in global education
Cheaper cost of technology

88

The Digital Divide:

What is it?
It is the inequality in the ICT network and infrastructure and distribution of IT
knowledge, skills and resources vital to accessing online services
Disparities exist within the world with regards to different countries
75% of internet users come from rich countries, which is only 14% of the world's
population
Thailand for example, 90% of the internet users live in urban areas
Ethiopia: 86% of internet users are male
The also exist in high internet usage countries.
As a general trend the internet users in MEDCs are
white, male middle class
citizens.
The internet providers have also been slowly increasing their cost of their
services which is limiting the amount of people having access.
Civil Society
: The arena of collective action by independent organizations or groups based on
shared interests, purposes, and values. Non-government groups or private individuals.
ICT helps civil societies to raise global awareness, mobilize support, and help them gain
information to spread their message.
CASE STUDY: ICT Profiles of
Chad
and Canada
Chad
; LEDC in Central Africa. Population: 11.4 million.
29,900 landlines
4.2 million mobile lines (2002)
2,300 k internet users (2012)
1 state TV station
10 private radio stations.
Canada; MEDC in North America. Population: 36.8 million.
18.2 million landlines (2012)
23 million mobile lines (2009)
25 million internet users (2000)
700+ radio stations
1456 TV stations
36.8 million population

89

SAMPLE IB QUESTIONS FOR YOU TO TRY:

1.
2.

Explain how Global Interactions can be measured (10 Marks)

Examine the effects of the development of communications upon international interactions. (15
Marks)

Answers:

90

91

Theme 3: Economic Intervals and Flows

Types of Financial Flows:
Loans
Types:
Project loans
Engineering services loans
Financial intermediary loans
Structural adjustment loans (SALs)
Commodity loans
Sector programme loans (SPLs)
General Pattern:
MEDC to LEDC
Case study: Japan loans to Indonesia
Agricultural systems were improved, through the funding of water
management systems
Projects such as road improvements were financed
Debt Repayment
External Debt: Refers to the part of a countrys debt that is owed to creditors outside of
the country.
Problem for poorer countries as they may have borrowed more than they can pay back
International debt has increased due to:
Political Corruption
Oil crises leading to an increased amount of borrowing
Increased military spending
Poor financial planning
Development Aid
Main donors: North America, Europe, Oz, NZ and Japan
Main recipients: Sub-Saharan Africa, Eastern Europe, Russia and South East Asia
Many countries whom are richer tend to write off the debt of poor nations resulting in
a lowering in the amount of aid given.
Benefits of the aid: Able to create new infrastructure
Negative of the aid: Have to eventually become closely related to the donor nation
(partnership) which may result in a risk of exploitation.
Remittances
This is money sent back to the home countries of foreign labourers.
$121,483 million was sent in 2008 around the world
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)
An investment owned by an investor from another country in which the investor has full
control of the purchased investment.
The amount of FDI has increased steadily:
2000: $1.411 trillion
2006: $1.506 trillion
Main flows are: MEDC and MEDC. This is due to both of them being rich enough.

92

 Repatriation of profits
Profit
earned

in a
foreign
country

that

one

wishes

to
bring

into
the

b
orders
of
one's
own

country.
For

example,

ac
orporation
in
the
United

States

may

repatriate

the
profits

earned
by a F
rench
subsidiary

.
Repatriated
profit

may

be
subjected
to s
pecial
tax

rules.

Governments, World Trading Organisations and Financial Institutions

World Bank
Upto 1989, the World Bank mainly focused on the needs of the developing world and
the idea of a lending service to 3rd world countries.
After 1989, it focused on the achieving of the MDGs.
The World Bank is criticised for its free market reform policies which may not be
suitable for the country. It is also criticised for being run by a small group of rich nations
which may mean it may exploit the country for its own gain.
World Trade Organisation (WTO)
Deals with the rules of trade on a global or near-global level.
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
Created to stabilize international exchange rates
Loans are given out to spread income.
Criticised for support military dictators and increasing the taxes in countries which
cannot afford to pay
Labour Flows:
They are less mobile than capital flows because money moves fast, however labour is more
difficult to transport over borders.
Case Study:
Mexicans to the USA
(LEDC to MEDC)
Numerous Mexicans head to the USA (260,000 a year on average)
Job opportunities are much higher (can improve their lives significantly)
On a whole, it is much safer than Mexico to raise a family, with overall better public
facilities to help the family. Hospitals & Schools are significantly better.
They leave due to the high rates of crime in Mexico, drug use and corruption are also
common.
Many also go to learn new skills which they can then bring back home and help their
families further.
$16 billion in remittances sent home on average per year.
Vital for Mexican economy.

Illegal Immigration:
3 Million Illegal Mexicans in California ALONE.
2 Million Illegal Mexican Children in Schools nationwide. The children cost 20 to 25%
more expensive than an average child due to the fact that they do not speak English
fluently and require extra classes.
80% of migration is Illegal.
Has been occurring for generations.
The USA appeals to them due to the already, large, and well established Spanish
speaking populations in states such as Texas and California.
Whats the deal with them?:
Nation as a whole, benefits from the immigrants. As seen above with the Poles, the
Mexicans are willing to work in jobs which the average American may not want. Jobs
93

such as cleaners, housemaids in Hotels.

However, within a small urban area, there are no direct advantages. They are able to
take up jobs from the small LOCAL market.
On these 2 levels above, the taxes that are paid are less than the benefits.
On a Federal Level: More taxes than benefits for the Mexicans.

Seasonal Migration:
A common trait occurring is when immigrants come to the USA during specific times of
the year, usually in groups. They work extremely hard during this time and then head
back home for the remainder of the year, bringing the fruits of their labour with them.
International and Internal Migrations in terms of their Geographic Impacts:

94

Role of ICT in international outsourcing

Outsourcing and offshoring are words to describe how companies in MEDCs shift their work to
low wage countries to reduce costs and increase innovation
India began as a cheap source of good quality labour, English speaking labour.
Software companies are also attracted due to the English speaking ability, skilled labourers,
inter connectedness and a time zone advantage.
ICT made outsourcing like this possible.

95

Theme 4: Environmental Change

Agro-industrialization:
Using industrial techniques to produce, store and transport food or
agricultural
It has happened because:
Population growth
Increasing in order to handle the consumption
Made agriculture a rich industry
As it increases, it has an effect on the environment.
Water demand increases
Soil degradation increases
Pollution from chemicals increases
Loss of biodiversity
Higher productivity
Cheaper food with increasing costs
The Cotton Industry
Although it is only grown on
2.5% of the worlds agricultural land
, it consumes
16% of
all the insecticides
and
6.8% of all herbicides
used
worldwide
.
Heat, Light, and Water (
7 - 20,000 litres
) are needed to grow cotton.
Top Cotton exporters: USA, India, Uzbekistan.
Top Cotton importers: China, Pakistan, Turkey, Bangladesh, Indonesia.
Growing cotton
damages the environment
Leaching of pesticides into water sources
Reduction of biodiversity
Soil degradation
Advantages/Disadvantages of growing GM cotton:
Soft, sensual, sustainable
Has insecticide
Is herbicide resistant
Lower average yields
Pests are not always prevented
10x more costly (long term financial commitment)
Cotton exports represent a
transfer of virtual water
because a lot of water is needed to
grow cotton (7
- 20,000 liters
per kilo) so when a country exports cotton, it exports its
water. The same idea applies to flowers grown in Kenya.

96

 Cotton farming in Mali, or LEDCs, if different to cotton farming in USA:

Ideal conditions in Mali
Less pollution
Low production (little irrigation needed =
400/600 liters per kilo
)
100 million rural homes
depend on it for GDP
4-7%
of the GDP in Africa comes from cotton
High labor
Low chemical use
Not mechanized
Not subsidised like in the US
It is a major export crop in the region.
However, Mali faces some issues in cotton production:
Cotton is a water intensive crop
Sahel desertification
LEDC; less capital
Gender issues?
40%
female workers
Very low wages
How does globalization affect cotton? It makes Mali compete with other countries and
therefore must sell at the world price. Mali must become level and subsidise its crop. In
the US, cotton is subsidized, while in Western Africa it is not. They get cheated
compared to the US because they make less money for more work done.
Fair trade practices might assist Malis farmers in general because they
promote sustainable production, requires certification, gives empowerment to
workers, prevents subsidies, and gives access
Fair trade practices lead to improved management of the natural environment
by requiring it to be less detrimental.
Food Miles:
A measure of the distance food travels from its source to the consumer. This can
be in distance units or energy consumed.
Benefits of Increasing Food Miles

Problems with Increasing Food Miles

Increased variety of foods

All year availability
Increased market for farmers
Decreased food prices
Highlights environmental concerns
Factors in real cost, not actual

Dependency on crude oil

Unsustainable
Increased pollution
Loss of local fruit varieties
Homogenization of food stuffs

Effects of increased air travel on the natural environment:

Transport accounts for
25% of the worlds CO2
emissions (
Aviation - 13%)
It is raising at an
alarming rate
Contrails create ozone and this directly affects the environment because its already in
the upper atmosphere.

97

Relocation of Polluting Industries and Trans-boundary Pollution

MEDCs often export their waste and polluting industries to LEDCs.
LEDCs accept it because they have less robust green laws, less social supervision, less
effective governments. Pollution emissions are higher in LEDCs because of
environmental regulations and their enforcement are weaker - also, they need the
money.
In Mexico, Maquiladora is a low cost foreign owned assembly plant where
waste is often dumped illegally so air and water pollution results. There are
500,000 employed.
China pays for low-cost plastic waste to be processed there but its often
hazardous.

Transboundary Pollution
: Pollution that spreads across countries.
Case Study:
BP Oil Spill
. A British oil company rekt-ed the Gulf of Mexico in the
Deepwater horizon spill of 2010.
Natural
Consequences

Responses

Cultural

Nothing m8

New technologies developed

by BP and the government.
(The capping thingy)

4.9 million
barrels of oil spilt.
Animal disruption.
Birds wings
covered in oil, mammals
ingesting oil, sea turtles
covered in oil, coral bleaching,
17% of dolphins died
, turtles
were stranded 5
x faster than
normal
.
4200 miles
of coastline
affected.

Decline in tourist activity on the

gulf coast.
Decline in BP sales
10-40%.
Conflict between US/UK.
11 deaths
.

BP contained the oil on the

surface.
BP joined with the US military to
clean up.
$3.12 billio
n spent on cleanup
by BP.
87 days
to respond
successfully to this human
induced hazard.

Blowout preventer -
failed.
Top Kill - pumping junk and
mud to clog oil -
failed
Top Hats - on top of the
blowout preventer -
failed
.
Capping stack with three valves
-
worked!
Took ages to solve, 87 days.

Long time to recover:

years/decades

98

 What could have people done to avoid this hazard?

Greater awareness and reporting of the hazard event.
Companies fined for losses.
Greater environmental safeguards
Increasing Environmental Awareness
Civil Society:
An organization or movement that works in the area between the
household and private sector and the state to negotiate matters of public concern. eg.
Greenpeace.
Greenpeace
An international environmental organization (
40 countries
)
They have a confrontational approach.
They tackle issues such as waste disposal, deforestation, nuclear power, and
industrial pollution.
Goal: To ensure continuing ability of the earth to nurture life in all its
diversity
Main interests:
Stopping climate change
Preserving oceans
Saving ancient forests
Peace/Nuclear disarmament
Sustainable farming
Eliminating toxic chemicals
Homogenization of Landscapes:
The way in which urban landscapes are becoming more the
same in the way they look and operate. Due to:
Improvements in ICT
Cultural migration
Time/Space convergence
Desire of global brands
Higher global quality of life
Globalization of economic activity
The
evolution of uniform urban landscapes
refers to how the spread of wealth and
globalization means that cities follow the same pattern. This is seen by:
More wealth = more cars
Land is expensive so services are more efficient
Tall towers
Industrial estates/science parks.
Cities sprawl so
gentrification
and
redevelopment
occurs.

99

 Homogenization of Landscape in Dubai

2.2 million population that has been growing since the 1980s.
65% are South Asian.
It used to be a fishing town that is now used for oil.
Sports: Dubai hosts international events; Rugby 7s, Cricket.
Shopping: Dubai mall with 12,000 shops.
Global Branding: Nike, Gap, Starbucks
Tourism: Singapore Airlines, Qantas AIrlines
Housing: Suburb style developments, Burj
Khalifa
+ Palm Islands
Culture: Pork and Alcohol are now widespread, Western shops prevail, English is now
the main language, there are more religions prevalent.
Benefits of Homogenization: cities learn from each other and are able to solve problems faster.
Negatives: A loss of individual character and interest from cities, increasing urban stress.

100

Theme 5: Sociocultural Exchanges

Definitions:
Culture:
How we do things, shared meanings between people of the same community.
Cultural Diffusion:
Spreading ideas of a particular culture.
Cultural Imperialism:
Practice of promoting the culture, values or language of the country in
one that is not as developed as it is.
Global Culture:
The balancing of all of the worlds to be the same.
Westernization:
Western influence on other cultures which changes that particular country.
Hybridization:
Adoption of a foreign culture to create a new culture.
Consumer Culture:
A culture of consumerism driven by the consumer.
Emergence of a Global Culture
6 main
languages
in the world.
English, Mandarin, Spanish, Arabic, Russian and French are the UN recognised
languages .
Languages are slowly disappearing in the places around the world,
Inuktun in NorthWest Greenland
Languages are also evolving
Mandarin being made easier in 1955
Irish being completely different from the 1970s, revisions.

Religion
is something very important in the world, people take it extremely seriously.
Increasing use of it results in increased military strength and through European
imperialism, an increase in the amount of Christianity worldwide.
Music
is a key component in the spread of information worldwide, it allows for easier access to
online resources.
Industry is dominated by UK and USA, TNCs
World Music is becoming increasing popular, spreading more cultural influence
worldwide.
Consumer Culture
IKEA
1943 - Company begins in Sweden
1975 - 85% market in Scandinavia
1997 - Developed a website
1980/90s - Major World Growth
1990 - 26% market in Scandinavia
No stores in Africa/South America
Low income markets with few customers
Long distance - high costs
Outside of the EU, so lower sales.
Many stores in Europe
Low cost transport
Common market (trade boundaries/tariffs)
Large and wealthy market
Appreciation of design

101

 Manchester United
:
1990s - Success with Beckham to promote in Asia
1991 - 1st football club to join stock exchange
2002 - Nike sponsorship
2005 - Highest football club commercial income
Good attacking style with suitable players
Success in major competitions (EPL)
Marketing and branding
Meant that the media was much more involved in spreading the influence of
the club worldwide
Able to spread their merchandise worldwide
United shop in Singapore
64 million likes on Facebook
TNCs:
Transnational corporation
Essentially its a company operating in several countries.
Most of them come from China and the USA
They tend to produce energy goods, financial goods and telecommunications.
They operate in so many countries due to their access to markets coupled with the
outsourcing of their supply chain
Race for the bottom
Countries competing to attract TNCs by offering their workers for lower and lower
wages and or conditions.
The media can play a large role in globalization as it has
product placements in Movies/TV
Diaspora:
Scattering or dispersal of a community/culture around the world.
Irish, Philippines, Slave trade, Chinese, Indians
Urban Mosaic:
Urban spaces which have a variety of small/ separate neighbourhoods of
different ethnicities.
Ethnic Village:
A space with a concentration of shops, religious buildings that are unique to a
particular ethnic group.
In London:
Germans in Richmond
Brazilians in Bayswater
Bangladeshis in Tower Hamlets
London has such a large non-white population due to
Pull factors such as the city being an economic powerhouse, capital of the
British empire and full of familiar ethnic groups from around the world. The city
also offers a good education system, safer than their home nations and higher
chance of employment.
Push factors such as racial problems and a poor economy in their origin may
hamper the numbers.
Migrants help to bring in new culture into the area and they migrants stay together to from
special areas unique to them.
Their culture can suddenly be viewed as trendy or cool
Increases tourism back to the original country as people are curious
Interaction between the numerous ethnic groups also increase.

102

 Case Study: Cultural Diffusion in Tibet

Why?
1950: Chinese invaded
1959: Dalai Lama made 80,000 Tibetans leave to India.
2005: The Chinese-TIbet railway was completed
Increase Chinese military presence
Effects:
Positive:
Improvement to infrastructure to benefit the population
Increased employment
Better links with other ports of China
Military security is increased
Negative:
Loss of
Culture
Religion
Way of Life
Language
Influence
Power
Increase in Marginalization
Han Chinese getting better jobs
Cultural Imperialism:
Promoting the culture and values of one country onto another one
In general, culture has been watered down or diluted/ homogenized. Basically made the
same.
This has been done through
Languages have been made the same. With English dominating
Tourism changes, places change their practices to cater to visitors.
Balinese traditional performances shortened to allow more people to
see it in a day
Global brands such as Coke and Maccas get worldwide trust because theyre
from MEDCs.
Spreading the idea of democracy

103

Theme 6: Political Outcomes

Nation State
: A politically defined boundary showing a territory that is under the control of a
single government.
Nation:
A community of people with a common culture and homeland.
State:
An independent political unit with a political boundary accepted by other countries.
Globalization has broken down political borders by easing the transfer of money, ideas, and
goods between countries.
Sovereignty:
The ability to rule or have control over something.
TNCs
lead to loss of nation-state sovereignty because TNCs are the new country.
They have major influence by owning cheap land and labor (LEDCs) and global media
awareness. Countries dont have control over this. of global trade is only via TNCs.
Trading Bloc:
When groups of countries trade with
mostly
themselves.
ASEAN: South-East Asian nations. eg: Singapore, Thailand, etc.
NAFTA: USA, Mexico, Canada.
EU: European Union
MERCOSUR: South American countries.
NAFTA

USA

CANADA

MEXICO

Benefits

Large market access

Access to cheap labor
Low consumer prices

Larger
market access
Low consumer prices

Job growth (2000 US

owned factories along the
border)
Lower poverty
Higher income

Costs

US industries move to
Mexico, this leads to
unemployment.

Small firms closed from

competing with lower cost in
US companies.
Companies leave to USA for
cheaper labor and bigger
markets.

Low wage mentality;

people dont expect much.
US and Canada surplus
dumping makes costs low
and puts local firms out of
business.
Low income farmers are
unemployed
Child workers, unsafe
Toxic material dumping

Trading blocs lead to a loss of sovereignty because they stop governments from controlling the
flow of goods (or people), this reduces the ability to govern.
Regionalism:
When countries within a region favor each other and exclude others. Globalization
is different because it breaks down these barriers. Trading blocs on the other hand, encourage
regionalism by placing tariffs/quotas on goods and subsidies. There are quality regulations that
are difficult for other countries to adhere to.

104

 Responses to Loss of Sovereignty: Nationalism:

A political movement that a nation has the right to an independent political future.
Palestinians who want a separate Palestine
Kurds from Turkey/Iran/Iraq who want a separate Kurdistan
Basques who want out of Spain
The EU is tricky, it shows
globalization, regionalism, AND nationalism
.
It shows globalization by opening its borders to money, goods (without tariffs),
information, and ideas.
It shows regionalism by protecting members at the expense of other countries. eg.
immigration, imports, and the same currency and identity in some countries.
It shows nationalism because some countries have significant minorities that want more
control, for example Scotland from the UK and Basque from Spain.
Nationalism in Turkey
:
Nationalism is seen in violence (murder) towards people who want diversity, national
day parades, clothing, religion, and those who have pride in their historic achievements
(eg. the Ataturk).
Nationalism has made Turkey less tolerant and more divided. This has lowered their
chances for joining the EU. They are less likely to meet the EU criteria due to their
intolerance, gender inequality. The divide between the liberal and the conservative has
led to political unrest.
Responses to Loss of Sovereignty: Anti - Globalization Movements:
TNCs can exploit low wage countries, sell cheaply, theres unfair trade for local
companies.
Globalization spreads ideas and money that dont help countries achieve their own
goals.
Globalization destroys indigenous communities, culture, etc.
People in LEDCs care less about globalization because if MEDCs open up their markets to
goods, LEDCs have a labor/cost advantage and sometimes even a land/resource advantage.
This is only going to happen if MEDCs allow LEDCs to sell to MEDCs but this would mean more
unemployment for MEDCs.
Targets such as Starbucks and McDonalds are highly visible symbols of American imperialism
and are easy to protest against. The World Trade Organization (WTO) and International
Monetary Fund (IMF) are more powerful which make TNC operations more likely.
Globalization is linked to many problems:
Gender Oppression
: Globalization favors the powerful- those who have access to more
ICT and education.
Oppressed Indigenous Groups
: Globalization encourages homogenization which
means that it is hard to retain local culture.
Destruction of Nature and Agriculture
: Globalization rewards industrial agriculture and
cheap transport encourages global trade at the cost of higher carbon emissions and
energy use which destroy the environment.

105

 Responses to Loss of Sovereignty: Controlling Migration

There have been 4 key trends in migration:
It is more global in terms of origin and destination.
It is accelerating, in terms of people.
It is more differentiated, there is a variety to people and reasons.
There are more women moving.
It is easier to control the flow of labor than the flow of capital because borders can somewhat
control people but it is harder to stop the transfer of capital.
People enter the USA illegally in a variety of ways:
Entering legally and overstaying
Faking marriages
Faking papers
Border crossing
People do so because of higher wages, employment opportunities, family links in the US and
crime, low wages, unemployment, and political unrest in Mexico.
USA has the largest absolute number of foreign-born people: 38.8 million.
Australia and Switzerland have the largest relative number of foreign-born people: 25% of pop.
Native born workers in the USA are generally professionals or administratives.
Foreign born workers in the USA are generally in the service industry or factory jobs.
A country would want to limit the amount of in-migration because of higher unemployment
rates, the cost of education/healthcare of immigrants, and the potential dangers of cultural
integration.

106

Theme 7: Glocalisation
Glocalisation:
Adaption of a product/service to a specific culture or locality.
McDonalds
:
This massive fast food chain is the perfect example of glocalization. This is because
whenever they go to a new destination in the world, they tend to a
dapt the the menu in order to
suit the needs of that particular area
. They also will help in acquiring produce from the locals
community.
Similarly, more companies have adapted their products to suit the local area.
TNCs employ local people
Attempts to increase the amount of involvement with the business
Increases the interaction between the company and the local suppliers in
LEDCs
TNCs can also lower the costs of producing goods in the area
The effect of glocalization is more likely to occur in MEDCs rather than LEDCs. This is because:
MEDCs are more willing to outsource their labour to LEDCs rather than keep the jobs in
the particular country. The role of ICTs is also more rampant in MEDCs meaning that the
people there are wealthier.
A rich person in a MEDC will not be affected as much, however, if someone lives in a
rural area or alternatively is extremely impoverished, their lives will be drastically
changed and be negatively affected.
Glocalization occurs in areas where there is strong local cultures and where people have the
ability to resist change. MEDCs will also protest against the role of TNCs.
People still want to it to occur, this is due to:
Employment of local people
Locals get more involved in the business
Interaction with local suppliers increase (in LEDCs)
TNCs can also lower production costs
However, globalisation has flaws which are highlighted at times.
It makes the rich richer and the powerful, even more powerful.
Homogeneous landscapes (same) increase
Amount of out migration and westernization also increases.
Adoption:
Using a product or an idea from somewhere else
Adaption:
Changing the produce or idea to suit local preferences
Rejection:
Deciding not to adopt or adapt an idea or product.

107

 Table: This table shows the benefits and costs of globalisation on products.
Local

Global

Benefits

Better market access

and sales
Fresher food
Reduced air
miles/emissions
Benefits to local
economy including
multiplier effect for
suppliers.

Cheaper food
All types of products
available all year
round.
Local economy can
provide specialised
amounts of a
product.

Costs

High transport costs

means that the input
cost is higher
Higher quality means
the profits may go
down.
Local produce soon
becomes too
expensive
Local farming may
need subsidies.

Increased air miles

Higher costs of
inputs (such as
fertilisers)
Higher initial cost is
passed onto the
consumer meaning
an increase in prices.
Local
Farmers can
go bust and
are
vulnerable to
change in
demand.

Wal-Mart:
When they moved to China, they adapted many of their products to suit the market
there. They began to use more local-sourced food and get a lot of their supplies from local
produce.
Good Example of Globalisation because
they use local goods/supplies and they also
adapted to suit local needs.
Bad Example of Globalisation because
the profit from the sales are sent back to the
USA and not kept in the country, also the westernization branding of the company can
be viewed as negative.
Civil Society:
Independent organisations or groups acting on shared interests, purpose or
values.
Anti-Globalisation groups:
Globalisation is not good for many people and places in the world
and its effects need to be regulated and modified.
NGO:
Non-Governmental Organisation
Fair Trade Network
Oxfam
Amnesty International
Medecins Sans Frontieres

108

 Case Study:
Shell in Nigeria
Shell, a large oil company is a large TNC.
Shell along with national governments worldwide have taken control of the Nigerian Oil
FIelds and are using the large profits to help themselves and not the local community.
Key Facts:
80% of the oil is exported
2 million barrels are produced per day
$100 million was spent on the environment by Shell.
60% of the oil spills in Nigeria are due to sabotage
Local Views:
Increased environmental degradation
Oil wells destroy lakes
Economic benefits are not seen by the local people
Locals have no influence on decisions occurring on their land
Ogoni (traditional people) way of life is threatened and destroyed
TNC Views:
Shell does not contribute to local economy
Oil needed to pay for Nigerias development
Local people only make things worse when they destroy the fields or kidnap
Shell employees
Case Study:
Uncontacted tribes in the Amazon
4000 to 6000 uncontacted people in the Amazon
In about 50 tribes
Policy of no-contact is enforced
Hunting and Gathering are the two main ways in which they survive
Near Peru/Brazil Border
Isolation as a policy:
Pros:
No debt, foreign disease or materialism
Sustainable society with low levels of pollution.
Cons:
Small gene pool
Conflicts with other tribes common
Lack of modern medicine
No formal education
Globalisation is affecting these group of people through illegal miners or loggers. They
will use guns on them, fighting bows and arrows.

Congratulations,
HL Geography is now done.
Memorise all of this and
youll get a 7.
109