Morphemes, Allomorphs and Syllables in English and Turkish

[Metni yazn]
MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS
and
SYLLABLES
in
TURKISH
and
ENGLISH
YKSEL GKNEL
2016
2201
6201
6
YGOKNEL@OUTLOOK.COM
MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

ENGLISH MORPHEMES
Note: In the following examples, the red morphemes show the verbs, the
purple morphemes show the adjectives and articles; the black morphemes
show nouns, the green morphemes show adverbs and prepositions, and
the blue morphemes show subjects and subject allomorphs.
All human beings in the world possess the same kind of brains. Therefore,
the function of their brains does not function differently from each other. All
of the languages spoken by people in the world have somewhat common
characteristics:
Free morphemes:
The first aim of using a language is to convey thought and meaning to
other people. People express what they think using meaningful language
units to other people. These meaningful units are called morphemes in
linguistics.
Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful units in linguistics.
There are two kinds of morphemes in languages: free morphemes and
bound morphemes.
Free morphemes are the morphemes that carry meanings by themselves.
They are the verb roots, such as go, run, eat, consult, follow; they
are the noun roots, such as table, house, garden, boy; they are the
adjective roots, such as easy, calm, brave, sudden, clever, and
willing. However, although the demonstrative adjectives or demonstrative pronouns, such as these, those, this, and that and adverbs
without ly suffixes, such as always, never, often, seldom, sometimes,
soon, now, again are free morphemes, they cannot be attached to derivational or inflectional suffixes like other free morphemes.
All verb roots, noun roots, and most adjective roots can be turned into
other forms by being attached to various derivational morphemes. Therefore, some free morphemes may be defined as productive free
morphemes, but some others that are not affixed by derivational morphemes may be defined as unproductive free morphemes.
Among the unproductive free morphemes, there are prepositions, such
as in, on, by, under, near, which are also free morphemes, but
they carry meaning only when they are used followed by their objects.
Therefore, they may be defined as unproductive free morphemes. Additionally, there are the articles, such as a, an, the, some, and any,
which are used before nouns to modify them are also unproductive free
morphemes. All conjunctions, such as and, but, so, or, as, be-

cause, until, before, etc, and pronouns I, you, he, she it, we,
they are all unproductive free morphemes. Although all these words are
called free morphemes, they cannot be attached to any derivational or inflectional morphemes. Only productive noun, verb, and adjective free morphemes can be attached to derivational or inflectional morphemes.
Bound morphemes:
Bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes, infixes or suffixes). These
bound morphemes carry meanings only when they are attached to free productive morphemes. They are divided into two main parts according to
their functions. Some of them change the meaning and the part of speech of
a free productive morpheme when they are attached to them, which are
named as derivational morphemes; the other kind does not change the
meanings of the free productive morphemes, but they only add grammetical senses to free productive morphemes; they do not change the
meanings of the free productive morphemes.
As the demonstrative adjectives or pronouns, the prepositions, and the
articles are not productive free morphemes, they are not affixed by any
inflectional or derivational morphemes.
Some common derivational morphemes are as follows:
Nouns:
Productive nouns may be attached by ful and less derivational morphemes to produce adjectives:
beauti-ful, care-ful, pain-ful, wonder-ful, use-ful, help-ful, color-ful,
harm ful, joy-ful, fear-ful, power-ful, skil-ful, plenty-ful, shame-ful
child-less, sense-less, home-less, care-less, use-less, hope-less, mercy-less, harm-less, end-less, heart-less, pain-less, shame-less, sleepless
Some nouns may be attached by able derivational morpheme to produce adjectives:
comfort-able, profit-able, market-able
Some nouns may be attached by the suffix hood to produce other
nouns:
child-hood, boy-hood, man-hood, mother-hood

Some verbs may be attached by ment derivational morpheme to produce nouns:
agree-ment, argue-ment, develop-ment, commit-ment, govern-ment.
move-ment
Some verbs may be attached by sion, tion morphemes to produce
nouns:
education, discussion, action, duration, solution, repetition, connection, reception, interruption, description, collection, deception, etc.
Some verbs may be attached by the derivational allomorphs able,
ible to produce adjectives:
eat-able, understand-able, read-able, predict-able, reason-able, unthink-able, wash-able, avail-able, depend-able, reliable, avoid-able,
count-able
sensible, irresistible, reducible, convertible, digestible
Some verbs may be attached by the er derivational morpheme to
produce nouns:
drive-er, paint-er, speak-er, box-er, teach-er, writ-er, train-er, walk-er,
read-er, conduct-er, kill-er, do-er
Some verbs may be attached by the able derivational morpheme to
produce adjectives:
eat-able, drink-able, read-able, wash-able, understand-able, convertable
Some nouns may be attached by the ful derivational morpheme to
produce adjectives:
beauty-ful, care-ful, wonder-ful, pain-ful, use-ful, meaning-ful, harm-ful,
dread-ful, thank-ful, mercy-ful, doubt-ful
Some adjectives may be attached to the en derivational morpheme to
produce verbs:
wide-en, ripe-en, sharp-en, short-en, dark-en
Some nouns may be attached to the ize derivational morpheme to
produce verbs:

memory memorize, apology apologize, summery summarize
Some adjectives may be attached to the ness derivational morpheme
to produce nouns:
bright-ness, happy-ness, lonely-ness, sad-ness, hard-ness
Some adjectives may be attached to ify derivational morpheme to
produce verbs:
clearify, purify, specify
Some nouns may be attached to ize derivational allomorphs to produce verbs: apology apologize, memory memorize, victim
victimize
Some adjectives may be attached to ize derivational morphemes to
produce verbs:
local-ize, real-ize, mobil-ize, vocal-ize, sivil-ize
Some adjectives may be attached by ly derivational morphemes to
produce adverbs:
happy-ly, glad-ly, sad-ly, thankful-ly, perfect-ly, high-ly, slow-ly, sudden-ly, prompt-ly, angry-ly, quiet-ly, loud-ly, soft-ly, beautiful-ly, graceful-ly, generous-ly, general-ly, certain-ly, hungry-ly, necessary-ly,
sharp-ly, rough-ly, smooth-ly, separate-ly, bad-ly, dangerous-ly, boldly, sudden-ly, automatical-ly, normal-ly, short-ly, wrong-ly, breathlessly, proud-ly, great-ly, correct-ly, careful-ly, partial-ly, quick-ly
Some prefixes turn words into negative forms. They do not change the
lexical meanings of the words. They are as follows:
a, dis, il, im, in, ir, non, un
Example words:
apolitical, atheist, asexual
disagree, discomfort, dismount
illegal, illiterate, illogical, illegible
impossible, imperfect, immoral, immobile, impolite
inaccurate, inorganic, ineligible, insane, indecent, incredible
irrational, irresponsible, irregular, irresistible
uncomfortable, unnecessary, unimportant, uncountable, unable,
nonsense, nonfiction, nonessent

Inflectional morphemes:
Inflectional morphemes are bound morphemes (suffixes) that alter the
grammatical state of nouns, verbs, and adjectives. There are eight inflectional morphemes that express tense, number, gender, case, and
aspect.
Nouns:
Plural allomorphs: s(book-s, dog-s, monkey-s); es (box-es, churches) Possessive morpheme: s (Jacks, boys, teachers)
Adjectives:
Comparison morpheme: er (swift-er, short-er, calm-er, hard-er)
Superlative morpheme: est (short-est, swift-est, calm-est, bold-est)
Verbs:
Third person singular allomorphs: s and es: (walk-s, run-s, sleep-s)
(go-es, do-es)
Past tense and past participle morpheme ed (work-ed, open-ed, started, clean-ed)
Present participle morpheme ing: go-ing, sleep-ing, do-ing, work-ing
Note: English words are divided into syllables as in other languages,
but their syllabication rules are very complicated. Therefore, when you
syllable them you should consult an English dictionary.
TURKISH FREE and BOUND MORPHEMES
Although Turkish free morphemes are like English free morphemes,
nearly all English unproductive free morphemes, such as the prepositions in, on, at from, to, without, etc. are all expressed with
bound allomorphs attached to free morphemes in Turkish. For instance:
English: Jack is at school. (At is a preposition, and at school is a
prepositional phrase)
Turkish: Jack okul-da. (Da is a bound morpheme that has four allomorphs: (de, da, te, ta).
The allomorphs of a morpheme are any one of the different phonological representations of a morpheme that follows the Turkish vowel

and consonant harmony sequences. All Turkish free morphemes and
bound allomorphs fallow the vowel sequences below:
TURKISH VOWEL HARMONY SEQUENCE
A Turkish speaker follows two certain harmony chains to produce a vowel
harmony sequence:
1. The hard vowel harmony chain. 2. The thin vowel harmony chain.
1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain is o u a
2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain is e i
In both chains, the first vowels /o/ and // never repeat themselves. The
other vowels can be repeated as many times as necessary. The arrow ()
points to the vowel that should follow the previous one. The arrows (),
pointing to both directions, show that /i/ may follow /e/, or /e/ may follow /i/.
In the hard vowel harmony chain, /a/ and // do the same. Furthermore, besides the arrows, the letters r are put under repeatable vowels to complete our diagrams:
1. The hard (back) vowel harmony chain:
ur ar r
2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain:
r er ir
As one could see, the two diagrams look exactly like one another. All the
words in the Turkish language follow either the first or the second harmony
sequences. The words borrowed from other languages do not follow these
sequences as expected, but the suffixes that attach to them follow the vowels of the last syllables of such words. Consequently, one could build up
meaningless vowel chains made up of only vowels following the two vowel
chains:
o*u*u*a**a*, o*a**a, **e*e*i, *e*i*e, "***", "o*a"
For instance:
kom*u*ya (o*u*a); kom*u*lar*dan (o*u*a*a); ge*le*cek*ler (e*e*e*e);
o*lu*tur*duk*la*r*mz*dan (o*u*u*u*a***a); u*nu*ta*lm (u*u*a*);
o*ku*la (o*u*a); ten*ce*re*ye (e*e*e*e); ka*a*ma*ya*cak (a*a*a*a*a)
One could make up Turkish meaningless vowel chains as many as one
wishes using the vowel chains above. I advise those who are interested in
learning Turkish to make up meaningless vowel chains like the chains
above, they should repeat them loudly again and again. If they do so, they

can memorize the Turkish vowel harmony sequences easily and soundly as
they learn a piece of music. When they repeat them, they may even feel and
sound as if they were speaking Turkish.
As it has already been stated, borrowed words do not follow the vowel harmony sequences, but the last syllables of such words attach to suffixes in
accordance with the vowel and consonant harmony rules:
patates-ler-i (pa*ta*tes*le*ri) the potatoes; televizyon-u
(te*le*viz*yo*nu) the television; mandalina-/y/ (man*da*li*
na*y) the tangerine; sigara-/y/ (si*ga*ra*y) the cigarette.
The /y/ phonemes used above are glides (semivowels) (consonants) inserted between two vowels to help them pass the voice from one vowel to the
following one smoothly and harmoniously. They do not carry meaning.
One more thing to add to the explanation above is that the words that are
formed of two separate words do not follow the above vowel harmony sequences, For instance:
kahverengi (kahve + rengi) brown; buzdolab (buz + dolab) refrigerator; bilgisayar (bilgi + sayar) computer; tavanaras (tavan + aras)
attic.
Besides the vowel harmony rules above, there are three more essential
vowel rules to consider:
1.The verbs ending with vowels drop these vowels when they attach to
the allomorphs of [.YOR]. These vowels are double underlined. Besides the
double underlined vowels, there are some consonants that are single underlined which show that they detach from their syllables and attach to the
first vowels of the following allomorphs to produce new syllables:
bekle-i.yor (bek*li*yor); bala-.yor (ba*l*yor); anla-.yor (an*l*yor);
gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor); oku-u.yor (o*ku*yor); atla-.yor (at*l*yor)
ye-i.yor (yi*yor); gzle-.yor (gz*l*yor); gizle-i.yor (giz*li*yor)
gel-i.yor-um (ge*li*yo*rum); yz-.yor-uz (y*z*yo*ruz); i-er-im
(i*e*rim); yaz-a.cak-m (ya*za*ca*m); yakalan-a.cak-z (ya*ka*la*na*ca*z); gl-er-im (g*le*rim); kork-ar-z (kor*ka*rz)
2.When the last syllables of the nouns (including the infinitives), the verbs,
and the inflectional morphemes end with vowels, and the first vowels of the
following allomorphs start with the same vowels, these two vowels combine
and verbalize as single vowels. For example, when the last vowel of the
word anne and the first vowel of the allomorph em happen to be arti-

culated together, they combine and verbalize as a single vowel: anneem (an*nem). For instance:
anne-en (an*nen); tarla-am (tar*lam); araba-an.z (a*ra*ba*nz);
kafa-an (ka*fan); git-ti-in (git*tin); bekle-di-ik (bek*le*dik); gl-dk (gl*dk); yakala-d-m (ya*ka*la*dm); git-me-em (git*mem);
al-ma-am (a*l*mam); temizle-en-mek (te*miz*len*mek); Dinle-er
mi-sin? (din*ler / mi*sin); ol-sa-am (ol*sam), bil-se-em (bil*sem)
If the last vowel of a word and the first vowel of an allomorph happen to be
different, these two vowels are generally linked by the /y/ glides:
oku-ma-/y/z (o*ku*ma*yz); gel-me-/y/iz (gel*me*yiz);
(ta*va*y), salata-/y/ (sa*la*ta*y), uyku-/y/a (uy*ku*ya).
tava-/y/
How should we choose which allomorph we must use to attach to a free morpheme?
The de bound morpheme has four allomorphs de, da, te, ta. You cannot
choose any one of them you like. You have to choose the allomorph that can
follow the last vowel of a free morpheme following the vowel and consonant
harmony rules of the Turksh sound system. These allomrphs are generally
used to produce subject complements, therefore they are underlined brown.
Consider the following:
Jack ev-de. (ev-de is an adverbial subject complement.)
Jack is at home. (at home is an adverbial subject complement.)
Jack okul-da. (okul-da is an adverbial subject complement.)
Jack is at school. (at school is an adverbial subject complement.)
Elmalar sepet-te,
The apples are in the basket.
Jack butfak- ta.
Jack is in the kitchen.
If you check the Turkish vowel harmony sequences, you can see that they
are following the vowel and consonant harmony rules given in the diagrams
having straight and curved arrows above:
ev-de e-e, okul-da u-a, sepet-te e-e, mutfak-ta a-a
The bound allomorphs that are attached to free morphemes:
The Turkish bound allomorphs and their English corresponding articles and
prepositions are as follows:

i, , , u = the
sepet-i = the basket, tavan- = the rabbit, gz- = the eye, okul-u = the
school, adam- = the man; top-u = the ball, ku-u = the bird
When the following Turkish bound allomorphs are attached to nouns, they
produce adverbials, but when some English prepostions are used before
nouns they produce adverbial phrases. Consider the following:
e, a. ye, ya = to, at
ev-e = to the house, pencere-ye = to the window, ngiltere-ye = to
England, market-e = to the market, Londra-ya = to London, Adam-a
bard. = He shouted at the man. Biz-e baktlar. They looked at us.
de, da, te, ta = in, on, at
ev-de = in the house, okul-da = at school, sepet-te = in the bas-ket,
uak-ta = on the plane, stanbul-da = in stanbul, bahe-de = in the
garden, Onun ba dert-te = He is in trouble.
den, dan, ten, tan = from, through, out of
market-ten = from the market, okul-dan = from school, sepet-ten = out
of the basket, bakkal-dan = from the grocer, Tren tnel-den ge-i.yor =
The train is passing through the tunnel, Pencere-den sark-ma = Dont
lean out of the window. Jack anahtar deliin-den bakyor. Jack is looking through the key hole.
le, la ile = with, by, on
Jack-le ders alyor. He is studying with Jack. Otobs-le gittik = We
went by bus. At-la seyahat ediyorlar = They are traveling on hors-back.
Glk-le tad. He carried with difficulty.
As you can see above, some English prepositions are expressed by allomorphs attached to nouns in Turkish.
TURKISH DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ENGLISH
EQUIVALENTS
Derivational morphemes (suffixes) are bound morphemes that change the
lexical meaning or the part of speech of a word used in a sentence:
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE OTHER NOUNS
[C] allomorphs: [ci, c, c, cu, i, , , u]
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When the nouns ending with vocals (vowels or voiced consonants) are attached to the morpheme [C], the /i/ vowel in this morpheme changes into /i,
, , u/ in accordance with the vowel harmony rules. However, if a noun ends
with an unvoiced consonant, the /c/ voiced consonants also change into the
// unvoiced consonants in agreement with the consonant harmony rules:
peynir-ci (cheese seller), posta-c (postman), zm-c (grapes seller), turu-cu (pickles seller), sepet-i (basket maker), balk- (fisherman), st-
(milkman), ok-u (archer), a- (cook), kale-ci (goal-keeper), kahve-ci (coffee seller), saat-i (watch repairer or seller), mobilya-c (furniture seller), kaak- (smuggler), musluk-u (plumber), yaban-c (foreigner), iek-i (florist), yol-cu (traveler), sanat- (artist), gz-c (watch, watchman), sz-c
(spokesman), politika-c (politician), milliyet-i (nationalist), di-i (den-tist),
kira-c (tenant), ark-c (singer), brek-i (someone who sells pies), boyac (painter), demir-ci (blacksmith), halter-ci (weight lifter).
[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk]
meyve-lik (a bowl where fruit is kept), kitap-lk (bookcase), gz-lk (eye
glasses), odun-luk (a place where firewood is kept), az-lk (cigarette
holder), kulak-lk (headphones), aydan-lk (tea pot), mezar-lk (graveyard), eker-lik (a bowl in which candies are kept), okevli-lik (polygamy),
tuz-luk (saltshaker), ocuk-luk (childhood), maskara-lk (farce, foolery),
soytar-lk (clowning), dost-luk (friendship), dman-lk (enmity), gece-lik
(pajamas, nightgown), n-lk (apron), gven-lik (safety), anne-lik (motherhood), evlat-lk (adopted child), kahraman-lk (heroism).
[CLK] allomorphs: [cilik, clk, clk, culuk, ilik, lk, lk, uluk]
av-clk (hunting), meyve-cilik (selling fruit), n-clk (leadership), yol-culuk (traveling), a-lk (cooking), fal-clk (fortune telling), tefe-cilik (usury),
iek-ilik (selling flowers), ifi-lik (farming), hava-clk (aviation), balk-lk
(fishing), kaak-lk (smuggling), p-lk (scavenge)
[CK] allomorphs: [cik, ck, ck, cuk, ik, k, k, uk] (diminutive)
ev-cik (small house), kap-ck (small door), kpr-ck (small bridge), kutucuk (small box), eek-ik (small donkey), aa-k (small tree), kadn-ck
(little woman), tosun-cuk (big and healthy newborn baby).
[CAIZ] allomorphs: [ceiz, caz, eiz, az] (innocence)
kedi-ceiz (innocent cat), kz-caz (innocent girl), hayvan-caz (innocent
animal), kpek-eiz (innocent dog), ku-az (innocent bird).
[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca, e, a]
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ngiliz-ce (English), Alman-ca (German), Trk-e (Turkish), Rus-a (Russian), spanyol-ca (Spanish), Japon-ca (Japanese), in-ce (Chinese), Arapa (Arabic), Fransz-ca (French), talyan-ca (Italian), Rum-ca (Greek).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES
[CL] allomorphs: [cil, cl, cl, cul, il, l, l, ul]
ev-cil (domestic), insan-cl (humane), ben-cil (selfish), ot-ul (herbivorous)
[L] allomorphs: [li, l, l, lu]
ev-li (married), ocuk-lu (with children), emsiye-li (with an umbrella), bahe-li ev (house with a garden), iyah ceket-li adam (the man in a black
coat), krmz-l kadn (the woman in red), grg-l (having good manners,
polite), iek-li aa (a tree in blossom), yamur-lu (rainy), kar-l (snowy),
sis-li (foggy, misty), gne-li (sunny), bulut-lu (cloudy), tuz-lu (salty), at-l
(man on horseback), istek-li (willing), becerik-li (skillful), amur-lu (muddy),
hesap-l (economical), sayg-l (respectful), su-lu (criminal), hata:-l
(faulty), tat-l (sweet), mayo-lu (in a bathing suit), st-l (with milk, milky),
paha-l (expensive), ta kafa-l (stone headed), Adana-l (from Adana),
srek-li (continuous), hiddet-li (outrageous), kl-l (hairy), bilin-li (intentional, conscious), zarar-l (harmful), tehlike-li (dangerous), phe-li (suspicious, suspect), yer-li (native), iki bacak-l (two legged), kanat-l (winged),
kayg-l (anxious), umut-lu (hopeful), gerek-li (necessary), yetenek-li (talented), bam-l (addicted, dependent), silah-l (armed), renk-li (colored),
kr-l (profitable), zehir-li (poisonous), denge-li (balanced), nee-li (joyful),
kusur-lu (faulty), grlt-l (noisy), deer-li (precious), gerek-li (necessary), dnce-li (thoughtful), yrek-li (brave), ayrnt-l (detailed, in detail),
sorum-lu (responsible), mantk-l (rational), g-l (strong), rt-l (covered), his-li (sensitive), hrs-l (ambitious), hz-l (fast), tertip-li (tidy), tuz-lu
(salty), buz-lu (icy), amur-lu (muddy), kir-li (dirty), pasak-l (untidy), korku-lu (frightening, scary), hak-l (right, fair), kast-l (intentional), hesap-l
(economical), meme-li (mammal), tecrbe-li, deneyim-li (experienced),
falso-lu (erroneous), kasvet-li (gloomy, doleful), kuku-lu (dubious, suspicious), onur-lu, gurur-lu (proud), dayank-l (durable), dikkat-li (careful), becerik-li (skillful), yama-l (patchy), dokunak-l (pungent), grev-li
(on duty), yarar-l (useful), karar-l (firm, determined), grkem-li (magnificent), atafat-l (pompous), akl-l (intelligent), rahmet-li (deceased), ya-l
(aged) dert-li (in trouble, miserable), eker-li (sweet), su-lu (saucy), faydal (useful), gizem-li (mysterious), korku-lu (frightening, horrifying), duygu-lu
(emotional, sensitive), heyecan-l (exciting, nervous), tertip-li (tidy), ileri
gr-l (foreseeing), huzur-lu (peaceful), keyif-li (cheerful), yetki-li (authorized), balant-l (related, agglutinative), boya-l (painted), cila-l (ci*l:*l) (finished, varnished), cilt-li (hardback), yay-l (with springs), ayrnt-l
(detailed, in detail), l-l (restrained), g-l (strong), tr-l tr-l (all
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sorts of), besbel-li (obvious), isabet-li (i*sa:*bet*li) (right, to the purpose),
geer-li (valid), baar-l (successful), inan-l (believer), diren-li (resistive), kant-l (proven, supported by evidence), yn-l (woollen), pamuk-lu
(cotton), ate-li (fiery, zealous), izgi-li (lined, striped), yldz-l (starry, starlit), boya-l (painted), kyma-l brek (mince pie), gne-li (sunny), toz-lu
(dusty), aa-l (wooded), iek-li (flowered), desen-li (patterned, figured),
yaldz-l (gilded), ss-l (ornamented), kymet-li (precious, valuable), kuyruk-lu (tailed), zahmet-li (difficult, hard), temkin-li (cautious).
[SZ] allomorphs: [siz, sz, sz, suz]
korku-suz (fearless), istek-siz (unwilling), yamur-suz (rainless), aa-sz
(treeless), defo-suz (flawless), uyku-suz (sleepless), bilin-siz (unconscious),
karar-sz (hesitant), sorum-suz (irresponsible), dikkat-siz (careless), amasz (aimless), kalp-siz (heartless), yrek-siz (timid), nee-siz (ne*e*siz)
(sad), mit-siz, umut-suz (desperate, hopeless), taban-sz (timid), sayg-sz
(disrespectful), mantk-sz (irrational), temel-siz (unsound, baseless), renksiz (colorless), gerek-siz (unnecessary), bam-sz (independent), perva:-sz
(reckless), kafa-sz (stupid), sevgi-siz (loveless), terbiye-siz (impolite, rude),
grg-sz (impolite), becerik-siz (incompe-tent), imkn-sz (impossible), deer-siz (worthless), ses-siz (silent), eker-siz (without sugar), gerek-siz (unnecessary), dnce-siz (thoughtless), sorum-suz (irresponsible), mesnetsiz (baseless), tasa-sz (carefree), ahlk-sz (immoral), yz-sz (impudent),
huy-suz (perverse), akl-sz (foolish), dayanak-sz (baseless), dayank-sz
(not durable), duygu-suz (senseless), kusur-suz (faultless), ta:lih-siz (unfortunate), kymet-siz (worthless), tehlike-siz (safe), tat-sz (tasteless), hayasz (shameless, impudent), tertip-siz (untidy), yarar-sz (useless), tutar-sz.
(inconsistent), ama-sz (aimless), deer-siz (worthless), zarar-sz (harmless), koku-suz (odorless), neden-siz (causeless), acma-sz (merciless),
taraf-sz (impar-tial), yetenek-siz (incompetent), su-suz (innocent), dengesiz (unbal-anced), keyif-siz (low-spirited), kayg-sz (indifferent), tasa-sz
(carefree), deneyim-siz (inexperienced), kuku-suz (without doubt), uygunsuz (inappropriate), surat-sz (sour faced), denge-siz (unbalanced), kontrolsuz (uncontrolled), kymet-siz (worthless), anlam-sz (insignificant, nonsense), eitim-siz (uneducated), bilgi-siz (ignorant), inan-sz (faithless),
huzur-suz (fidgety), annes-siz (motherless), leke-siz (stainless), kayg-sz
(without anxiety), denge-siz (unbalanced), uyum-suz (unharmonious).
[SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal]
bilim-sel (scientific), evren-sel (universal), deney-sel (experimental, empirical), yzey-sel (superficial), duygu-sal (emotional, sensational), sanat-sal
(artistic), yap-sal (structural), gelenek-sel (traditional), dn-sel (mental),
tarih-sel (historical), tarih (historic), kavram-sal (conceptual), kimya-sal (chemical), fizik-sel (physical), ant-sal (monumental), yaam-sal (vital), din-sel
(religious), ulus-sal (u*lu*sal) (national), evre-sel (environmental), kalt-sal
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(hereditary), onur-sal (honorary), bitki-sel (herbal), hayvan-sal (zoological), tarm-sal (agricultural), us-sal (us*sal) (mental, rational), tanr-sal
(divine, celestial), yrnge-sel (orbital), kurum-sal (institutional, corporate),
kamu-sal (public), kre-sel (global, spherical), kr-sal (rural), rgt-sel (organizational), toplum-sal (social, common), belge-sel (documental), kurgu-sal
(fictional), ruh-sal (psychological), beden-sel (corporal), birey-sel (individual), alg-sal (perceptual), say-sal (numerical, digital), simge-sel (symbolic).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE NOUNS
[LK] allomorphs: [lik, lk, lk, luk] (iyi-lik = iyilik), (scak-lk= scaklk)
iyi-lik (favor), scak-lk (temperature), zgr-lk (freedom), uzun-luk (length),
geni-lik (width), gzel-lik (beauty), irkin-lik (ugliness), drst-lk (honesty),
aptal-lk (stupidity), sessiz-lik (silence), evli-lik (marriage), baya-lk (meanness), iyimser-lik (optimism), ktmser-lik (pessimism), uak-lk (servitude),
yalnz-lk (loneliness), misafirsever-lik (hospitality), kahraman-lk (heroism),
vatansever-lik (patriotism), kaba-lk (rudeness), duygusal-lk (sensitivity),
dost-luk (frienship), kepaze-lik (scandal), ret-ken-lik (productivity), kresellik (globalism), aalk kompleksi (inferiority complex), arsz-lk (impudence), geveze-lik (chattering), dncesiz-lik (inconsiderateness), mutsuzluk (unhappiness), a-lk (hunger, starvation), g-lk (difficulty), saydam-lk
(transparency), utanga-lk (shyness), uzak-lk (distance), yakn-lk (closeness, sympathy), kstah-lk (insolence), kurak-lk (drought), rkek-lik (shyness), sersem-lik (dizziness), hovarda-lk (debauchery), alkan-lk (addiction), yksek-lik (height), derin-lik (depth), krmz-lk (redness), kt-lk
(wickedness, evil), kurnaz-lk (craftiness), drst-lk (honesty), karamsar-lk
(moodiness), kolay-lk(ease, facility), tembel-lik (lazyness), kira-lk ((to let,
for hire) zel-lik (speciality), zgn-lk (originality, genuineness), kararsz-lk
(hesitation, uncertainty, instability, inconsistency), bol-luk (abundance),
srekli-lik (continuity), kararl-lk (determination), avare-lik (a:*va:*re*lik) (idleness), yzeysel-lik (shallowness, superficiality), kt-lk (famine), sarkn-t-lk
(molestation), kibar-lk (kindness, politeness), dayankl-lk (durability), boluk (emptiness), yok-luk (poverty, absence, nonexistence), yal-lk (agedness), sorumlu-luk (responsibility), sorumsuz-luk (irresponsibility), gayretkelik (zeal), vurdumduymaz-lk (callousness), tutarsz-lk (inconsistency), delilik (madness), bilgisiz-lik (cahil-lik) (ignorance), benzer-lik (resemblance),
karamsar-lk (moodiness), gzel-lik (beauty), kzgn-lk (anger), bak-lk
(immunity), dman-lk (enmity, hostility), budala-lk, ahmak-lk (stupidity,
idiocy).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS THAT PRODUCE NOUNS
In agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound system, the last
consonants of the last syllables of the verbs detach from their syllables, and
14

attach to the first vowels of the following derivational allomorphs while forming new syllables. These consonants are single underlined.
[] allomorphs: [i, , , u] (diz-i = dizi), (yaz- = yaz)
diz-i (di*zi) (string, chain, serial, sequence ), yaz- (ya*z) (script, text), l(l*) (measurement, size), ko-u (ko*u) (run), duy-u (du*yu) (sense),
gez-i (ge*zi) (trip), a- (a*) (angle), yap- (ya*p) (building), tak- (ta*k)
(jewelry, jewels), drt- (dr*t) (stimulus), tart- (tar*t) (scales), art- (ar*t)
(plus), baar- (ba*a*r) (success), kork-u (kor*ku) (fear), sor-u (so*ru)
(question), rt- (r*t) (any cloth covering), at- (a*t) (framework), yet-i
(ye*ti) (mental power, faculty), yat- (ya*t) (overnight stay), l- (*l),
(corpse), gm- (g*m) (treasure), kok-u (ko-ku) (scent, smell, aroma,
perfume), bl- (b*l) (slash mark), dinlet-i (concert), gldr- (comedy)
do-u (do*u) (east), bat- (ba*t) (west), arp- (cross, times), bl- (b*l)
[M] allomorphs: [im, m, m, um, em, am]
se-im (se*im) (election), al-m (a*lm) (purchase), l-m (*lm) (death),
yk-m (y*km) (disaster, demolition), yut-um (yu*dum) (gulp), ek-im (e*kim)
(October), ak-m (a*km) (current), ret-im (*re*tim) (production), geli-im
(ge*li*im) (improvement), kar-m (ka*r*m) (mixture), dn-m (d*n*m) (transformation), ek-im (e*kim) (attraction), geril-im (ge*ri*lim) (tension), tasar-m (ta*sa*rm) (plan, design), kavra-am (kav-*ram) (concept),
denkle-em (denk*lem) (equation), ekle-em (ek*lem) (joint), tket-im (t*ke*tim) (consumption), yakla-m (yak*la*m) (approach), benze-im (ben*ze*im) (similarity, resemblance), ileti-im (i*le*ti*im) (communication), bili-im
(bi*li*im) (informatics), de/y/-im (de*yim) (expression, idiom), say-m (sa*ym) (census), giy-im (gi*yim) (clothing), z-m (*zm) (solution), ky-m
(k*ym) (massacre), al-m (a**lm) (expansion), yatr-m (ya*t*rm) (investment), al-m, sat-m (a*lm, sa*tm) (buying and selling, trade, commerce), giy-im (gi*yim) (attire), salk-m (sal*-km) (bunch), bir salkm zm (a
bunch of grapes), uy-um (u*yum) (ac-cordance). dn-em (d*nem) (period),
yaa-am (ya*am) (life), anla-am (an*lam) (meaning), devin-im (de*vi*nim)
(movement), dene-/y/im (de*ne*-yim) (experience), gzle-em (gz*lem) (observation), syle-em (sy*lem) (expression), ge-im (ge*im) (living), iz-im
(i*zim) (drawing, design), al-m (a*lm) (feint), al-m (a*lm) (purchase),
sr-m (sale), yatr-m (ya*t*rm) (investment), yalt-m (ya*l*tm) (insulation).
When the identical vowels written in bold face follow one another, they combine and are pronounced as single vowels; and the single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to the first vowels of the following allomorphs in agreement with the oral sequence of the Turkish sound
system.
15

[K] allomorphs: [ik, k, k, uk, ek, ak]
del-ik (de*lik) (hole), art-k (ar*tk) (left over), ksr-k (k*s*rk)
(cough), tkr-k (t*k*rk) (spit, saliva), aksr-k (ak*s*rk) (sneeze)
bula-k (bu*la*k) (dirty dishes), kayna-ak (kay*nak) (source, spring, ori-gin), belle-ek (bel*lek) (memory), tara-ak (ta*rak) (comb), yama-ak (ya*mak) (apprentice), de-ek (d*ek) (mattress), kapa-ak (ka*pak) (lid), eik (e*ik) (threshold), dene-ek (de*nek) (experimental subject, object, or
animal), tekerle-ek (te*ker*lek) (wheel), kay-k (ka*yk) (boat), bat-k (ba*tk) (submerged), iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), atla-ak (at*lak) (crack).
[EK] allomorphs: [ek, ak]
Tapn-ak (ta*p*nak) (temple), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski), sa-ak (sa*ak)
(fringe), u-ak (u*ak) (airplane), yat-ak (ya*tak) (bed), ka-ak (ka*ak)
(escaped), dayan-ak (da*ya*nak) (support), kes-ek (ke*sek) (a lump of
earth), l-ek (l*ek) (scale), ben-ek (be*nek) (spot), dn-ek (d*nek)
(someone whom you cannot trust, incredulous), yan-ak (ya*nak) (cheek),
dzen-ek (d*ze*nek) (mechanism), geve-ek (loose), kayna-ak (source).
[G] allomorphs: [gi, g, g, gu, ki, k, k, ku]
sev-gi (love, affection); al-g (music instrument); sr-g (bolt); sor-gu (interrogation); bas-k (pressure); as-k (hanger); r-g (knitting); gr-g (good
manners); dol-gu (filling); ver-gi (tax); et-ki (impression); sar-g (ban-dage);
ser-gi (exhibition); ez-gi (melody); say-g (respect); yanl-g (mis-take); vurgu (accent, stress); kur-gu (abstract thought, speculation); yer-gi (satire);
der-gi (periodical, magazine); yar-g (judgment); yaz-g (fate, destiny); ol-gu
(fact); duy-gu (sensation); i-ki (alcoholic beverage, drink); at-k (scarf); et-ki
(impression, stimulus); kat-k (aid, help, additive); gr-g (ex-perience, good
manners); kork-ku (fright) (The double underlined "k" drops.); yet-ki (authority); co-ku (excitement); tep-ki (response, rea-ction); al-g (perception);
sal-g (secretion); kes-ki (chisel); tut-ku (ambi-tion, passion); sez-gi (intuition); iz-gi (line); diz-gi (composition, string); bit-ki (plant); bul-gu (discovery,
finding).
[E] allomorphs: [e, a]
sr-e (s*re) (process, procedure), tk-a (t*ka) (plug, wag, stoppage),
deme-e (de*me) (statement), sark-a (sar*ka) (pendulum), ayr-a (ay*ra) (bracket).
[EY] allomorphs: [ey, ay]
dene-ey (de*ney) (experiment), yap-ay (ya*pay) (artificial), ol-ay (o*lay)
(event), d-ey (d*ey) (vertical), yat-ay (ya*tay) (horizontal), yz-ey (y*zey) (surface), uza-ay (u*zay) (space).
16

[C] allomorphs: [ici, c, c, ucu]
dinle-/y/ici (din*le*yi*ci) (listener), sat-c (sa*t*c) (seller), yz-c (y*z*c) (swimmer), ko-ucu (ko*u*cu) (runner), bl-c (b*l*c) (separatist), tara-/y/c (ta*ra*y*c) (scanner), al-c (a*l*c) (receiver), bak-c
(ba*k*c) (companion), bebek bakcs (baby sitter), tut-ucu (tu*tu*cu)
(conservative), kal-c (ka*l*c) (lasting, durable) (adj), yaz-c (ya*z*c)
(printer), doyur-ucu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfactory) (adj), inandr-c (i*nan*d*r*c) (persuasive) (adj), ldr-c (l*d*r*c) (adj) (deadly, fatal).
If a verb ends with vowel, and the allomorph starts with a different vowel, the /y/ glide is inserted between these vowels by the oral sequence.
[ECEK] allomorphs: [ecek, acak]
sil-ecek (si*le*cek) (wiper), gel-ecek (ge*le*cek) (future), a-acak (a*a*cak) (opener), ek-ecek (e*ke*cek) (shoehorn), yak-acak (ya*ka*cak)
(fuel).
All the Turkish syllabications are showed in parenthesis.
[MEK] allomorphs: [mek, mak]
ye-mek (meal), ak-mak (lighter), ek-mek (bread), kay-mak (cream)
[ME] allomorphs: [me, ma]
dondur-ma (ice cream), dol-ma (green peppers, eggplants or marrows
stuffed with mince, rice, etc.), kavur-ma (fried pieces of meat), hala-ma
(boiled meat), dene-me (essay), dv-me (tattoo), as-ma (vine), kaz-ma
(pickax), aydnlan-ma (enlightenment). ky-ma (ky*ma) (minced meat), inme (in*me) (stroke), bas-ma (bas*ma) (printed cloth), yz-me (yz*me)
kes-ik (ke*sik) (cut), k-k (*kk) (dislocated joint), yar-k (ya*rk) (slash),
iz-ik (i*zik) (scratch), r-k (*rk) (decay), sar-k (sa*rk) (turban), kazk (ka*zk) (stake, unreasonably expensive), yrt-k (yr*tk) (tear), del-ik
(de*lik) (hole) ele-ek (e*lek) (sieve), ada-ak (a*dak) (oblation), kay-ak (ka*yak) (ski)
.
[CE] allomorphs: [ce, ca]
dn-ce (d*n*ce) (thought), elen-ce (e*len*ce) (entertainment), bilme-ce (bil*me*ce) (riddle, word puzzle), dzme-ce (dz*me*ce) (lie, fake),
ekme-ce (ek*me*ce) (drawer), glme-ce (gl*me*ce) (comedy).
17

[NT] allomorphs: [inti, nt, nt, untu, enti, ant]
ak-nt (a*kn*t) (current), al-nt (a*ln*t) (quotation), bala-ant (ba*-lan*t)
(connection, link), bekle-enti (bek*len*ti) (expectation), bula-ant (bu*lan*t)
(qualm), bul-untu (bu*lun*tu), (antique), arp-nt (ar*pn*t) (palpitation),
k-nt (*kn*t) (bulge) k-nt (*kn*t) (collapse), dk-nt (d*kn*t) (rubbish, rash), ekle-enti (ek*len*ti) (addition), es-inti (e*sin*ti) (breeze),
gez-inti (ge*zin*ti) (tour, walk), gir-inti (gi*rin*ti) (dent), gr-nt (g*rn*t)
(image), il-inti (i*lin*ti) (relation), kal-nt (ka*ln*t) (remnant), ka-nt (ka*n*t) (itching), kaz-nt (ka*zn*t) (scrapings), kes-inti (ke*sin*ti) (subtraction, stoppage, interruption), kr-nt (k*rn*t) (crumb), kur-untu (ku*-run*tu)
(unfounded suspicion), rastla-ant (ras*lan*t) (coincidence), salla-ant (sal*lan*t) (quake), sk-nt (s*kn*t) (boredom), sz-nt (s*zn*t) (leak-age),
tak-nt (ta*kn*t) (fixation, obsession), syle-enti (sy*len*ti) (rumor), toplaant (top*lan*t) (meeting), sapla-ant(sap*lan*t) (obsession), bala-ant
(ba*lan*t) (connection, link).
[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]
ak- (a*k) (fluency), al- ver-i (a*l / ve*ri) (shopping), anla-/y/
(an*la*y) (understanding, sympathy), bak- (ba*k) (look, looking) , at-
(a*t), (gunfire, throw, round), bekle-/y/i (bek*le*yi) (waiting), benze/y/i (ben*ze*yi) (resemblance), bul-u (bu*lu) (discovery), k- (*k)
(exit, outlet), k- (*k) (collapse, fall), davran- (dav*ra*n) (behavior), diren-i (di*re*ni) (resistance, disobedience), diril-i (di*ri*li) (resurrection, revival), dizil-i (di*zi*li) (sequence), dokun-u (do*ku*nu)
(touch), dn- (d*n) (return), dur-u (du*ru) (position), d- (d*) (decline, downfall), gel-i (ge*li) (arrival, coming), gir-i (gi*ri)
(entry, entrance), git-i (gi*di) (going, departure), grn- (g*r*n)
(appearance), gr- (g*r) (view, opinion), gr- bir-lik-i (g*r /
bir*li*i) (agreement, consensus), haykr- (hay*k*r) (scream), ka-
(ka*) (escape), kapan- (ka*pa*n) (closing, closure), kurtul-u (kur*tu*lu) (liberation), kurul-u (ku*ru*lu) (foundation), sat- (sa*t) (sale),
sr- (s*r) (drive, driving), tken-i (t*ke*ni) (exhaustion), yakar-
(ya*ka*r) (appeal), yalvar- (yal*va*r) (beseeching), yksel-i (yk*se*li) (rise, growth), yr-/y/ (y*r*y) (walk).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO VERBS THAT PRODUCE ADJECTIVES
[C] allomorphs: [ici, c, c, ucu]
del-ici (de*li*ci) (piercing), kal-c (ka*l*c) (lasting), sars-c (sar*s*c)
(shocking), yarat-c (ya*ra*t*c) (creative), bula-c (bu*la**c) (contagious), art-c (a*r*t*c) (confusing), yak-c (ya*k*c) (burning),
t-c (**t*c) (grinding), tazele-/y/ici (ta*ze*le*yi*ci) (refreshing), itici (i*ti*ci) (repulsive), aldat-c (al*da*t*c) (deceptive), z-c (*z*c)
18

(saddening),
doyur-ucu (do*yu*ru*cu) (satisfying), ge-ici
(ge*i*ci)
(temporary), ez-ici ounluk (overwhelming majority), sk-c (s*k*c)
(boring), yk-c (y*k*c) (destructive, devastating), koru-/y/ucu (ko*ru*yu*cu) (protective), kr-c (k*r*c) (injurious, unkind), yan-c (ya*n*c)
(inflammable), z-c (*z*c) (painful)
.
a-k (a*k) (open), kr-k (k*rk) (broken), bat-k (ba*tk) (sunken), g-k
(g*k) (collapsed), del-ik (de*lik) (pierced, hole), ez-ik (e*zik) (mashed),
e-ik (e*ik) (bent), r-k (*rk) (decayed), art-k (ar*tk) (left over), kak (ka*k) (silly), atla-ak (at*lak) (crack), ka-ak (ka*ak) (escaped) ek-ik
(e*kik) (slanting), k-k (*kk) (dislocated), rk-ek (r*kek) (timid, shy),
kork-ak (kor*kak) (coward(ly), geve-ek (gev*ek) (loose).
Note: The last syllables are stressed.
[KN] allomorphs: [gin, gn, gn, gun, kin, kn, kn, kun]
se-kin (se*kin) (exclusive, choice), kes-kin (sharp), a-kn (astonished),
ili-kin (concerning, connected), sus-kun (silent), pi-kin (well done, impudent), et-kin (functional), ger-gin (tight), az-gn (fierce), dz-gn (smooth), olgun (ripe, mature), sol-gun (faded), yay-gn (common), bit-kin (discouraged, depressed, exhausted), yor-gun (tired), bas-kn (unexpected attack
(noun), dominant), ks-kn (offended), ge-kin (overripe), dur-gun (stagnant), dol-gun (plump), z-gn (original), say-gn (honorable), yay-gn (common, widespread), kz-gn (angry), bez-gin (wretched), uy-gun (suitable,
convenient), z-gn (sorry), et-kin (effective), yat-kn (inclined to do).
[ER] allomorphs: [er, ar]
al-ar saat (a*lar) (alarm clock), ak-ar su (running water), gl-er yz
(smiling face), ko-ar adm (running pace), uyu-ur gez-er (sleep walker).
[EN] allomorphs: [en, an]
ko-an (ko*an) (running), sol-an (so*lan) (fading), al-an (a*l*an)
(working), yr-/y/en (y*r*yen) (walking), konu-an (ko*nu*an) (talking),
dilimle-/y/en (di*lim*le*yen) (slicing), kes-en (ke*sen) (cutting), p-en
(*p*en) (kissing), bekle-/y/en (bek*le*yen) (waiting), art-an (ar*tan)
(increasing), geli-en (ge*li*en) (developing), dn-en (d*nen) (turning,
circling), glmse-/y/en (g*lm*se*yen) (smiling), bala-/y/an (ba*la*yan)
(tying, connecting), bitme-/y/en (bit*me*yen) (unending).
Note: The morpheme above and its allomorphs are also used in transforming simple sentences into modifier + noun compounds. Therefore, they are
also inflectional suffixes.
19

[M] allomorphs: [mi, m, m, mu]
sol-mu (faded), dei-mi (changed), kar-m (mixed), beyazla-m
(whitened), balan-m (tied, connected), ertelen-mi (postponed), kzartlm (fried), tasarlan-m (planned), ykan-m (washed), gelitiril-mi (improved), dm-len-mi (knotted), aydnlan-m (enlightened), zorlan-m
(forced), boan-m (divorced), unutul-mu (forgotten), rl-m (knitted),
kzar-m (fried, reddened), retil-mi (produced), bayl-m, (fainted), unutulma-m (unforgotten), kayna-m (boiled), don-mu (fro-zen), geli-mi (developed), dei-mi (modified), koku-mu (foul).
Note: The allomorphs of the morpheme [MI] are stressed. This morpheme
is also used as an inflectional morpheme.
[SEL] allomorphs: [sel, sal]
gr-sel (visual), uy-sal (complaisant), dn-sel (mental), iit-sel (audial)
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO NOUNS THAT PRODUCE VERBS
[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]
el-le (el*le) (touch), ba-la (ba*la) (tie), ba-la (ba*la) (bein, start), tekerle (te*ker*le) (roll), gz-le (gz*le) (observe), kutu-la (ku*tu*la) (put in boxes), damga-la (dam*ga*la) (stamp), tuz-la (tuz*la) (salt), leke-le (le*ke*-le)
(stain), tekme-le (tek*me*le) (kick), srg-le (sr*g*le) (bolt), dzen-le (d*zen*le) (arrange), ya-la (ya*la) (lubricate, oil), ta-la (ta*la) (throw
stones), yel-le (yel*le) (fan), denge-le (den*ge*le) (balance), sergi-le (ser*gi*le) (exhibit), ba-la (forgive), su-la (water), kak-la (spoon into greedily), kazk-la (cheat), yarg-la (judge), kalbur-la (sift), ila-la (apply pesticide),
ak-la (acquit), kstek-le (hamper), bes-le (feed), alg-la (perceive), fra-la
(brush up), orta-la (centre), ezber-le (memorize), uygu-la (apply), ar-la
(show hospitality), av-la (hunt), ba-la (tie, connect), su-la (condemn), yol-la
(send), ate-le (fire), belge-le (certify), kilit-le (lock), ter-le (perspire), imdikle (pinch), gz-le (observe), fi-le (blacklist someone), i-le (work), aba-la
(strive). ek-le (add), yk-le (load), iz-le (follow), giz-le (hide), ezber-le (memorize), mhr-le (seal), yarg-la (judge), sra-la (put in order), gr-le (thunder, roll), n-la (ring), ot-la (graze), kol-la (watch, protect), sol-la (overtake),
oy-la (vote), omuz-la (shoulder), hiza-la (hi*za:*la) (align), para-la (tear up),
gaga-la (peck), dz-le (flatten), giz-le (hide).
MORPHEMES ATTACHED TO ADJECTIVES THAT PRODUCE VERBS
[R] allomorphs: [ir, r, er, ar]
deli-ir (de*lir) (consnants (get mad), sar-ar (sa*rar) (turn yellow), kara-ar
(ka*rar)
20

(blacken, darken, or get dark), mor-ar (mo*rar) (get, turn purple).
[LE] allomorphs: [le, la]
gzel-le (get beautiful), sk-la (get oftener, get tighter), ar-la (get heavier), sar-la (get deaf), derin-le (deepen, get deeper), kaba-la (get
ruder), yeil-le, yeil-len (turn green). Some adjectives like krmz may
be either krmz-la or kzar (get or turn red). Ksa becomes ksal (get
shorter). Uzun becomes uza (get longer).
Examples: Gnler ksalyor. Days are getting shorter. Gnler uzuyor. (*not
uzayor) Days are getting longer.
In Turkish, make something + adjective "Make it shorter." is expressed in
an adjective + morpheme mixture which is too long to analyze in detail.
Some examples may explain them easily:
Uzun uzat (u*zat) Onu uzat. (Make it longer.); ksa ksalt (k*salt)
Onu ksalt. (Make it shorter.); byk byt (b*yt) Onu byt. (Make
it larger.); Kk klt (k*lt) Onu klt. (Make it smaller.); kara
karart (ka*rart) Onu karart. (Make it darker.); derin derinletir (de*rin*le*tir) Onu derinletir. (Make it deeper.)
I made him work, I had him work, I had the work done and I got him to
do the work types of sentences will be explained in the following chapters.
INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES AND THEIR ALLOMORPHS
Inflectional morphemes and their allomorphs are the suffixes in Turkish attached to nouns, pronouns, nominal phrases, verbs, and verb frames
signalling change in such grammatical functions as tense, voice, mood,
person, number, etc.
The inflectional morphemes that are attached to nouns, pronouns, and
nominal phrases are the following:
[] allomorphs: [i, , , u]
1.These allomorphs are attached to pronouns, common nouns, proper
nouns, and nominal phrases when they are used as definite objects:
O ben-i gr-d. O sen-i gr-d. O o-/n/u gr-d. O biz-i gr-d.
def obj
def obj
def obj
def obj
O siz-i gr-d. O o/n/-lar- gr-d.

def obj
def obj
In English: He saw me. He saw you. He saw him. He saw us. He saw them.
obj
obj
obj
21
obj
obj

Note: The single underlined consonants at the ends of the pronouns "ben-i",
"sen-i", "biz-i", "siz-i", "o/n/-lar-" detach from their syllables and attach to the
first vowels of the following morphemes in speech, such as (be*ni), (se*ni),
(bi*zi), (si*zi), (on*la*r). The /n/ consonant in (o*/n/u) is a glide produced by
the oral system of the Turkish language to maintain the harmonic balance
between the o-u vowels. They do not carry meaning.
The proper nouns in Turkish, contrary to English, have to be attached by
one of the "i, , , u" allomorphs in accordance with the Turkish vowel harmony rules when they are used as objects:
Ahmet Aye-/y/i gr-d. Fatma Hasan- bul-du. retmen Ahmet-i yakala-d.
def object
def object
def object
In English: Ahmet saw Aye. Fatma found Hasan. The teacher caught Ahmet.
def object
def object
def obj
Note: The /y/ meaningless glide, which is a product of the Turkish sound
system, is inserted between two vowels to provide a harmonious linkage.
As a general rule, when a definite noun, pronoun, or a nominal phrase is
used in the object position in a sentence, one of the [i, , , u] allomorphs is
compulsorily attached to them. If the common nouns are not definite, they
may be preceded by some indefinite modifiers as the ones in English:
Ahmet Hasan- grd. Ahmet ben-i grd. Ahmet tavan- grd.
definite obj
definite obj
definite obj
Ahmet saw Hasan.
Ahmet saw me.
Ahmet saw the rabbit.
definite obj
definite obj
definite obj
Ahmet (bir) araba ald. Ahmet kitap okuyor. Ahmet is reading a book.
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
Ahmet bought a car.
Ahmet is reading a book.
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
Ahmet kitap okumaz. Ahmet does not read books.
any book
any books
indefinite obj
indefinite obj
Inflectional plural morphemes that are attached to nouns:
Turkish plural allomorphs are ler, lar.
English plural allomorphs are s, es.
sepet-ler = basket-s, araba-lar = car-s, kz-lar = girl-s, kural-lar = rule-s,
engel-ler = obstacle-s, resim-ler = picture-s, kitap-lar = book-s, kutu-lar
= box-es, saat-ler = watch-es, kilise-ler = church-es, arzu-lar = wish-es,
pck-ler = kiss-es. The plural allomorphs are not seperated in
normal writing.
22

Turkish possessive + noun allomorphs
Nouns that end in consonants:
Allomorphs: [in, n, n, un]
sepet-in, at-n, gz-n, tuz-un.
(se*pe*tin), (a*tn), (g*zn), (tu*zun)
In the words above, the single underlined consonants detach from their
nouns, and attach to the [in, n, n, un] allomorphs when they are turned
into syllables in speech:
Nouns that end in vowels:
Allomorphs: [/n/in, /n/n, /n/n, /n/un]
dere-/n/in, oda-/n/n, t-/n/n, ordu-/n/un.
The /n/ consonants above are glides that are put between two vowels to
maintain a harmonious link between these two vowels. They are produced
by the Turkish sound system, and they are meaningless. When the words
above are turned into syllable sequences, they become as follows:
(de*re*nin), (o*da*nn), (*t*nn), (or*du*nun)
Turkish possessive pronouns:
Turkish possessive pronouns are quite different from English possessive
pronouns. Turkish possessive pronouns are rule governed, whereas English possessive pronouns are irregular. For instance:
ben-im = my, sen-in = your, o-/n/un = his, her, its, biz-im = our, siz-in =
your, onlar-n = their
In Turkish, possessive pronouns start with personal pronouns, such as
ben, sen, o, biz, siz, onlar, and they are attached by possessive
allomorphs, such as im, in, /n/un, im, in, n, respectively.
The single underlined consonants above detach from their pronouns, and
attach to the possessive allomorphs. When these possessive pronouns are
changed into syllable sequences, they become as follows:
(be*nim), (se*nin), (o*nun), (bi*zim), (si*zin), (on*la*rn)
Possessive pronouns are modifiers (adjectives) when they modify the following nouns in English and Turkish. In English, a noun follows the possessive pronoun, such as, my book, your friend, her brother, his girlfriend, its tail, our teacher and their house. These two words together
produce noun phrases.
23

Such Turkish nominal phrases are different from the English ones. In Turkish, the modified nouns must be suffixed by compulsory possessive allomorphs, such as:
ben-im okul-um = my school, sen-in gzler-in = your eyes, o-/n/un ev-i = his
house, biz-im ev-i.miz = our house, onlar-n retmen-i = their teacher
When these nominal phrases are turned into syllable sequences, they are
uttered as follows:
(be*nim / o*ku*lum), (se*nin / gz*le*rin), (o*nun / e*vi), (bi*zim / e*vi*miz),
(on*la*rn / *ret*me*ni)
If you follow the underlined consonants and detach them from the pronouns,
and attach them to the possessive allomorphs, you can produce the syllable
sequences written between the parentheses above.
As the possessive allomorphs attached to the pronouns and nouns have
the same meanings, only the nouns having the same meanings can be used
in sentences. Such as, instead of saying ben-im okul-um you can say
only okul-um because okul-um means ben-im okul-um. Therefore:
okul-um = my school, gzler-in = your eyes, ev-i = his or her house, evi.miz = our house, evler-i = their houses, arkadalar-.mz = our friends.
Subject allomorphs in Turkish sentences:
Likewise, there may be two subjects in Turkish sentences. One of them
may be in the beginning of a sentence as a subject pronoun, the other one
must be attached to the main verb as a subject allomorph. The meanings
of these subjects are the same. If a speaker or writer wants to emphasize
the subject of a sentence, he may use a subject pronoun in the beginning
of a sentence as well as a compulsory subject allomorph attached to the
main verb at the end of the same sentence. In short, using subject allomorphs are compulsory, but using subject pronouns are optional.
Consider the following example sentences:
Ben dn futbol oyna-d-m. = I played football yesterday.
(Ben is a subject pronoun; m is a subject allomorph.)
In the sentence above, the vowel of d and the vowel of m are
identical vowels. Therefore they combine and verbalize as a single vowel :
(oy*na*dm)
Dn futbol oyna-d-m. = I played football yesterday.
24

As it is seen in the sentence above, although the subject pronoun Ben is
not used, the English corresponding sentence is the same. Consider the following sentences:
al-yor-um. = I am working. al-yor-sun. = You are working. alyor. = He, she, it is working. al-yor-uz. = We are working. alyor-lar. = They are working.
In Turkish sentences, when a main verb is not suffixed by a compulsory
subject allomorph, this shows us that the sentence is the third person
singular.
In English, sentences are divided into two main parts; subject and predicate.
A subject is a nominal that a predicate gives information about. For instance:
I am going to Ankara by bus tomorrow.
In Turkish, there are two alternative sentences to express the English sentence above:
Ben yarn otobs-le Ankara-ya gidiyor-um.
As you see there are two subjects in the sentence above; ben and um.
Ben is a subject pronoun; um is a subject allomorph.
Yarn otobs-le Ankara-ya gidiyor-um.
However, in the sentence above, there is only the um subject allomorph,
which means the pronoun ben. In Turkish, if someone wants to emphasize
the pronoun ben. he may use it in the beginning of a sentence as well as
the um subject allomorph in the end of the sentence attached to the main
verb. If he does not want to emphasize the pronoun ben, he can only use
the subject allomorph um in his sentence. In other words, using subject
allomorphs in all Turkish sentences is compulsory, but using a subject
pronoun is optional.
When we consider the rule above, we can say that the subject allomorphs
are unavoidable parts of verbal phrases. One can build up a sentence only
in one word in Turkish.
Bekle-iyor-um (bek*li*yo*rum) is one word in Turkish, and its subject is in
the end. However, I am waiting has three words in English.
As a result, the subject of a sentence may be both in the beginning and in
the end of a sentence, or one should use only a subject allomorph in the
end of sentence.
25

There may be adverbs and adjectives in sentences. These words support
sentences with optional information. As the aim of this article is to give information about verbal phrases, we generally ignore adjectives and adverbs in
our sentences to concentrate on verbal phrases. The verbal phrases are the
most complicated parts of Turkish sentences.
Subject allomorphs used in Turkish sentences:
Simple present tense subject allomorphs; positive:
(Ben):
(Sen):
(O):
(Biz):
(Siz):
(Onlar):
[im, m, m, um] = I
[sin, sn, sn, sun] = you
[] allomorphs = he, she, it
[iz, z, z, uz] = we
[siniz, snz, snz, sunuz] = you
[] or [ler, lar] = they
gel-ir-im = I come, al-r-m = I buy, gr-r-m = I see, otur-ur-um = I sit

When the underlined consonants detach from their verb roots and time allomorphs, and attach to the allomorphs following them, their syllable sequences become as follows:
(ge*li*rim), (a*l*rm) (g*r*rim) (o*tu*ru*rum)
gel-ir sin = you come, al-r-sn = you buy, gr-r-sn=you see, oku-ursun = you read.
When you follow the underlined syllables, you can produce the following
syllable sequences:
(ge*lir*sin) (a*lr*sn) (g*rr*sn) (o*kur*sun)
gel-ir = he comes, al-r = he buys, gr-r = he sees, oku-ur = he reads
When you follow the underlined consonants, you can produce the following
syllable sequences:
(ge*lir) (a*lr) (g*rr) (o*kur)
gel-ir-iz = we come, al-r-z = we buy, gr-r-z = we see, oku-ur-uz = we
read.
(ge*li*riz) (a*l*rz) (g*r*rz) (o*ku*ruz)
gel-ir-siniz = you come. al-r-snz =you buy, gr-r-snz = you see,
a-ar-snz = you open
(ge*lir*si*niz) (a*lr*s*nz) (g*rr*s*nz) (a*ar*s*nz)
26

gel-ir-ler = they come, al-r-lar = they buy, gr-r-ler = they see, a-arlar = they open.
Negative:
(Ben) [me-em, ma-am ], (Sen) [mez-sin, maz-sn],
(O) [mez, maz], (Biz) [me-yiz, ma-yz],
(Siz) [mez-siniz, maz-snz], (Onlar) [mez-ler, maz-lar]
gel-me-em, oku-ma-am, yz-me-em, al-ma-am, sat-ma-am
(gel*mem) (o*ku*mam) (yz*mem) (al*mam) (sat*mam)
gel-mez-sin, oku-maz-sn, yz-mez-sin, al-maz-sn, sat-maz-sn
(gel*mez*sin) (o*ku*maz*sn) (yz*mez*sin) (al*maz*sn) (sat*maz*sn)
gel-mez, oku-maz, yz-mez, al-maz, sat-maz, gr-mez, uyu-maz
(gel*mez) (o*ku*maz) (yz*mez) (al*maz) (sat*maz) (gr*mez) (u*yu*maz)
gel-me-yiz, oku-ma-yz, yz-me-yiz, sat-ma-yz, gr-me-yiz, anla-ma-yz
(gel*me*yiz) (o*ku*ma*yz) (yz*me*yiz) (sat*ma*yz) (gr*me*yiz)
gel-mez-siniz, oku-maz-snz, yz-mez-siniz, sat-maz-snz, al-maz-snz
(gel*mez*si*niz) (o*ku*maz*s*nz) (yz*mez*si*niz) (sat*maz*s*nz)
gel-mez-ler, oku-maz-lar, yz-mez-ler, ka-maz-lar, dokun-maz-lar
(gel*mez*ler) (o*ku*maz*lar) (yz*mez*ler) (ka*maz*lar) (do*kun*maz*lar)
In the examples above, the underlined identical vowels combine and become single vowels, such as e-e = e, a-a = a, and the underlined consonants detach from their allomorphs and attach to the following allomorphs.
So, they produce the syllable sequences between parentheses under the
examples.
Positive question:
(Ben) [mi-yim, m-ym, m-ym, mu-yum]
(Sen) [mi-sin, m-sn, m-sn, mu-sun]
(O)
[mi, m, m, mu]
(Biz) [mi-yiz, m-yz, m-yz, mu-yuz]
(Siz) [mi-siniz, m-snz, m-snz, mu-sunuz]
(Onlar) [ler mi, lar m]
In the examples above, the underlined consonants detach from their places
and attach to the following vowels as in the other examples. The green [mi,
m, m, mu] allomorphs are question allomorphs that are used in all interrogative sentences whose answers are yes or no in Turkish. There are no
27

question affixes or words in English to take the place of the Turkish question
allomorphs. In English, a positive or a negative sentence transforms into a
question form, such as You like pop music Do you like pop music?
Gel-ir mi-yim? = Do I come? Al-r m-ym? = Do I buy? ksr-r mym? = Do I cough? Uyu-ur mu-yum? = Do I sleep?
Gel-ir mi-sin? Al-r m-sn? ksr-r m-sn? Uyu-ur mu-sun?
Gel-ir mi? Al-r m? ksr-r m? Uyu-ur mu?
Gel-ir mi-yiz? Al-r m-yz? ksr-r m-yz? Uyu-ur mu-yuz?
Gel-ir mi-siniz? Al-r m-snz? ksr-r m-snz? Uyu-ur mu-sunuz?
Gel-ir-ler mi? Al-r-lar m? ksr-r-ler mi? Uyu-ur-lar m?
When you read the syllables in Turkish between the parentheses below, you
may feel as if an unknown symphony composer composed the Turkish
sound system. The syllables written in bold face letters below are the
stressed syllables.
(ge*lir / mi*yim) (a*lr / m*ym) (k*sr*r / m*ym) (u*yur / mu*yum)
The /y/ glides are put between i-i, -, - and u-u vowels to produce a harmonic link between the vowels.
Negative question:
In the following examples the negative allomorphs are red, the question allomorphs are green, and the subject allomorphs are blue:
(Ben)
(Sen)
(O)
(Biz)
(Siz)
(Onlar)
[mez mi-yim, maz m-ym]

[mez mi-sin, maz m-sn]
[mez mi, maz m]
[mez mi-yiz, maz m-yz]
[mez mi-siniz, maz m-snz]
[mez-ler mi, maz-lar m]
Gel-mez mi-yim? (Dont I come?), Al-maz m-sn? (Dont you buy?),

Bekle-mez mi? (Doesnt he wait?), Anla-maz m-yz? (Dont we understand?) (Sor-maz m-snz?), Dont you ask? Uyu-maz-lar m? (Dont
they sleep?)
Present continuous time and subject allomorphs;
The time morpheme attached to main? verbs in Turkish is [YOR] morpheme, which has four allomorphs: [iyor, yor, yor, uyor]. The subject
allomorphs attached to them are as follows:
28

(Ben) [um], (Sen) [sun], (O) [], (Biz) [uz], (Siz) [sunuz], (Onlar) [, or
lar]
Present continuous positive:
Gel-iyor-um. (I am coming), Gl-yor-sun. (You are laughing), Ala-yor.
(She is crying), Bekle-iyor-uz, (We are waiting), Anla-yor-sunuz. (You
understand), Bekle-iyor-lar. (They are waiting).
In the Turkish sentences above, the single underlined consonants detach
from their verb roots and attach the following vowels as usual; but there are
some double underlined vowels at the ends of verbs that are dropped by the
Turkish sound system. As a rule, all the double underlined vowels at the
ends of verbs drop these vowels when they are attached to [IYOR] allomorphs.
(ge*li*yo*rum) (g*l*yor*sun) but (a*l*yor) (bek*li*yo*ruz) (an*l*yor*su*nuz)
Present continuous negative:

The negative allomorphs used in this tense are [me , ma], which are attached to main verbs first, then the time allomorphs and subject allomorphs follow them.
Gel-me-iyor-um. (I am not coming), Anla-ma-yor-sun. (You dont understand), Uyu-ma-uyor. (He isnt sleeping), Bil-me-iyor-uz. (We dont
know), al-ma-yor-sunuz. (You arent working), Bekle-me-iyor-lar.
(They arent waiting).
The double underlined e and a vowels of the negative allomorphs drop,
and the single underlined consonants preceding the dropped vowels detach
and attach to the i, , , u vowels following them. When the sentences
above turn into syllable sequences they become as follows:
(gel*mi*yo*rum), (an*la*m*yor*sun), (u*yu*mu*yor), (bil*mi*yo*ruz) (a*l*m*yor*su*nuz), (bek*le*mi*yor*lar)
Present continuous positive question:
Ben-i sev-iyor mu-sun? (Do you love me?), Trke bil-iyor mu-sun? (Do
you know Turkish?), Uyu-uyor mu? (Is he sleeping?), Git-iyor mu-yuz?
(Are we going?), Bekle-iyor mu-sunuz? (Are you waiting?), Gel-iyor-lar
m? (Are they coming?)
(be*ni / se*vi*yor / mu*sun) (trk*e / bi*li*yor / mu*sun) (u*yu*yor / mu)
(gi*di*yor / mu*yuz), (bek*li*yor / mu*su*nuz) (ge*li*yor*lar / m)
29

Present continuous negative question:
Ben-i sev-me-iyor mu-sun? (Dont you love me?), Trke bil-me-iyor
mu-sun? (Dont you know Turkish?), Uyu-ma-uyor mu? (Isnt she
sleeping?) Git-me-iyor mu-yuz? (Arent we going?), Bekle-me-iyor musunuz? (Arent you waiting?) Gel-me-iyor-lar m? (Arent they coming?)
(be*ni / sev*mi*yor / mu*sun), (trk*e / bil*mi*yor / mu*sun), (u*yu*mu*yor /
mu) (git*mi*yor / mu*yuz), (bek*le*mi*yor / mu*su*nuz), (gel*mi*yor*lar / m)
Simple past tense subject allomorphs positive:
Simple past tense time allomorphs are as follows:
In the simple past tense, the time allomorphs [di, d, d, du, ti, t, t, tu]
are used with all persons. The subject allomorphs are as follows:
(Ben) [im, m, m, um]
(Sen) [in, n, n, un]
(O)
(Biz) [ik, k, k, uk]
(Siz) -- [iniz, nz, nz, unuz]
(Onlar) [ler or lar]
Bekle-di-im. (I waited), Anla-d-m. (I understood), Gr-d-m. (I saw),
Oku-du-um. (I read)
Bekle-di-in. (You waited), Anla-d-n. (You understood), Gr-d-n. (You
saw), Oku-du-un. (You read)
Bekle-di. (He waited), Anla-d. (He understood), Gr-d. (He saw), Okudu. (He read)
Bekle-di-ik. (We waited), Anla-d-k. (We understood), Gr-d-k. (We
saw), Oku-du-uk. (We read)
Bekle-di-iniz (You waited), Anla-d-nz. (You understood), Gr-d-nz.
(You saw), Oku-du-unuz. (You read)
Bekle-di-ler. (They waited), Anla-d-lar. (They understood), Gr-d-ler.
(They saw), Oku-du-lar. (They read)
All the identical vowels above that are single underlined combine and become single vowels. In the sentences bekle-di-iniz, anla-d-nz, and
the like, the i-i and - identical vowels combine. So, their syllable oral
sequences become as follows:
30

(bek*le*dim) (an*la*dm) (gr*dm) (o*ku*dum)
(bek*le*din) (an*la*dn) (gr*dn) (o*ku*dun)
(bek*le*di) (an*la*d) (gr*d) (o*ku*du)
(bek*le*dik) (an*la*dk) (gr*dk) (o*ku*duk)
(bek*le*di*niz) (an*la*d*nz) (gr*d*nz) (o*ku*du*nuz)
(bek*le*di*ler) (an*la*d*lar) (gr*d*ler) (o*ku*du*lar)
Simple past tense negative:
The negative allomorphs [me, ma] attach to the main verbs, and the others
follow them as in the positive form:
Bekle-me-di-im. (I didnt wait), Anla-ma-d-m. (I didnt understand),
Gr-me-di-im. (I didnt see), Oku-ma-d-m. (I didnt read)
Bekle-me-di-in. (You didnt wait), Anla-ma-d-n. (You didnt understand), Gr-me-di-in. (You didnt see), Oku-ma-d-n. (You didnt read)
Bekle-me-di. (He didnt wait), Anla-ma-d. (He didnt understand), Grme-di. (He didnt see), Oku-ma-d. (He didnt read)
Bekle-me-di-ik. (We didnt wait), Anla-ma-d-k. (We didnt understand),
Gr-me-di-ik. (We didnt see), Oku-ma-d-k. (We didnt read)
Bekle-me-di-iniz. (You didnt wait), Anla-ma-d-nz. (You didnt understand), Gr-me-di-iniz. (You didnt see), Oku-ma-d-nz. (You didnt
read)
Bekle-me-di-ler. (They didnt wait), Anla-ma-d-lar. (They didnt
understand) Gr-me-di-ler. (They didnt see), Oku-ma-d-lar. (They
didnt read)
All the identical vowels in the di-im, d-m, di-in, d-n, di-ik,
d-k, di-iniz, d-nz allomorphs combine..
The in.iz and n.z subject allomorphs, which mean you, are shaped by
two different allomorphs: the in, which means you and iz, which adds a
plural concept to in.
The oral sequences of the sentences above are as follows:
(bek*le*me*dim)
(bek*le*me*din)
(bek*le*me*di)
(bek*le*me*dik)
(an*la*ma*dm)
(an*la*ma*dn)
(an*la*ma*d)
(an*la*ma*dk)
31
(gr*me*dim)
(gr*me*din)
(gr*me*di)
(gr*me*dik)
(o*ku*ma*dm)
(o*ku*ma*dn)
(o*ku*ma*d)
(o*ku*ma*dk)

(bek*le*me*di*niz), (an*la*ma*d*nz) ( gr*me*di*niz) (o*ku*ma*d*nz)
(bek*le*me*di*ler) (an*la*ma*d*lar) (gr*me*di*ler) (o*ku*ma*d*kar)
Simple past tense positive question:
Bekle-di-im mi? (Did I wait?), Anla-d-m m? (Did I understand?),
Gr-d-m m? (Did I see?) Oku-du-um mu? (Did I read?)
Bekle-di-in mi? (Did you wait?), Anla-d-n m? (Did you understand?),
Gr-d-n m? (Did you see?), Oku-du-un mu? (Did you read?)
Bekle-di mi? (Did he wait?) Anla-d m? (Did he understand?),
Gr-d m? (Did he see?), Oku-du mu? (Did he read?)
Bekle-di-ik mi? (Did we wait?), Anla-d-k m? (Did we understand?),
Gr-d-k m? (Did we see?), Oku-du-uk mu? (Did we read?)
Bekle-di-iniz mi? (Did you wait?), Anla-d-nz m? (Did you understand?), Gr-d-nz m? (Did you see), Oku-du-unuz mu? (Did you
read?)
Bekle-di-ler mi? (Did they wait?), Anla-d-lar m? (Did they understand?),
Gr-d-ler mi? (Did they see?), Oku-du-lar m? (Did they read?)
If you follow the underlined letters, you can produce the following oral
syllable sequences:
(bek*le*dim / mi) (an*la*dm / m) (gr*dm / m) (o*ku*dum / mu)
(bek*le*din / mi) (an*la*dn / m) (gr*dn / m) (o*ku*dun / mu)
(bek*le*di / mi) (an*la*d / m) (gr*d / m) ( o*ku*du / mu)
(bek*le*dik / mi) (an*la*dk / m) (gr*dk / m) (o*ku*duk / mu)
(bek*le*di*niz / mi) (an*la*d*nz / m) ( gr*d*nz / m) (o*ku*du*nuz / mu)
(bek*le*di*ler / mi) (an*la*d*lar / m) (gr*d*ler / mi) (o*ku*du*lar / m)
If you follow the syllable sequences above, you can see that the stressed
syllables are the syllables before the mi. m, m, mu question allomorphs.
Simple past tense negative question subject allomorphs:
Bekle-me-di-im mi? (Didnt I wait?), Anla-ma-d-m m? (Didnt I understand?), Gr-me-di-im mi? (Didnt I see?), Oku-ma-d-m m? (Didnt I
read?)
Bekle-me-di-in mi? (Didnt you wait?), Anla-ma-d-n m? (Didnt you
understand?), Gr-me-di-in mi? (Didnt you see?), Oku-ma-d-n m?
(Didnt you read?)
32

Bekle-me-di mi? (Didnt he wait?), Anla-ma-d m? (Didnt he understand?), Gr-me-di mi? (Didnt he see?), Oku-ma-d m? (Didnt he
read?)
Bekle-me-di-ik mi? (Didnt we wait?), Anla-ma-d-k m? (Didnt we
understand?), Gr-me-di-ik mi? (Didnt we see?), Oku-ma-d-k m?
(Didnt we read?)
Bekle-me-di-iniz mi? (Didnt you wait?), Anla-ma-d-nz m? (Didnt you
understand?), G-me-di-iniz mi? (Didnt you see?), Oku-ma-d-nz m?
(Didnt you read?
Bekle-me-di-ler mi? (Didnt they wait?), Anla-ma-d-lar m? (Didnt they
understand?), Gr-me-di-ler mi? (Didnt they see?), Oku-ma-d-lar m?
(Didnt they read?)
If you follow the single underlines under the identical vowels you can produce the following oral syllable sequences below:
(bek*le*me*dim / mi) (an*la*ma*dm / m) (gr*me*dim / mi) (o*ku*ma*dm / m)
(bek*le*me*din / mi) (an*la*ma*dn / m) (gr*me*din / mi) (o*ku*ma*dn / m)
(bek*le me*di / mi) (an*la*ma*d / m) (gr*me*di / mi) (o*ku*ma*d / m)
(bek*le*me*dik / mi) (an*la*ma*dk / m) (gr*me*dik / mi) (o*ku*ma*dk / m)
(bek*le*me*di*niz / mi) (an*la*ma*d*nz / m) (gr*me*di*niz / mi) (o*ku*ma*d*nz / m)
If you notice, you can see that all the stressed syllables come before the
me, ma negative allomorphs.
Past continuous tense positive and their allomorphs:
In this tense, main verbs are followed by one of the iyor, yor, yor, uyor
continuous allomorphs as in the present continuous tense followed by a simple past tense du allomorph, and the verb phrase ends in a subject allomorph (Ben) um, (Sen) un, (O) , (Biz) uk, (Siz) unuz, (Onlar)
lar-di. The other allomorphs are not used in this tense because of the
YOR morpheme, whose yor second syllable never changes. Follow the
examples:
Gel-iyor-du-um. (I was coming), Gel-iyor-du-un. (You were coning).
Gel-iyor-du (He was coming), Gel-iyor-du-uk. (We were coming),
Gel-iyor-du-unuz. (You were coming), Gel-iyor-lar-d. (They were
coming)
The single underlined consonants detach from their syllables and attach to
the vowels following them, and the identical vowels combine and become
single vowels as in all sentences. You can formulate the syllable sequen-
33

ces yourselves. Therefore, the syllable sequences will not be given from this
point on. Follow the examples below:
al-yor-du-um. (I was working), Yr-yor-du-un. (You were walking),
Gl-yor-du. (She was laughing), Bekle-iyor-du-uk. (We were waiting), Soruyor-du-unuz. (You were asking), Oyna-uyor-lar-d. (They were playing)
Past continuous negative:
Uyu-ma-uyor-du-um. (I wasnt sleeping) ste-me-iyor-du-un. (You didnt
want), Bak-ma-yor-du. (She wasnt looking), ste-me-iyor-du-uk. (We didnt
want), Anla-ma-yor-du-unuz. (You didnt understand), Bekle-me-iyor-lar-d.
(They werent waiting)
As you see in some verbs above, simple past tense is used in English
instead of past continuous tense of the Turkish verbs.
Past continuous positive question:
al-yor muy-du-um? (Was I working?), Bekle-iyor muy-du-un? (Were you
waiting?), Dinle-iyor muy-du? (Was he listening?), Ko-uyor muy-du-uk?
(Were we running?), Uyu-uyor muy-du-unuz? (Were you sleeping?), Glyor muy-du-lar? (Were they laughing?)
In the sentences above, the last phonemes of the muy morphemes are
glides. The double underlined black vowels drop, and the single underlined
consonants before them detach and attach to the [YOR] allomorphs. The
syllable sequences are as follows:
(a*l**yor / muy*dum) (bek*li*yor / muy*dun) (din*li*yor / muy*du?
(ko*u*yor / muy*duk) (u*yu*yor / muy*du*nuz) (g*l*yor / muy*du*lar)
Although people pronounce and hear the syllable sequences, they understand the morphemes and allomorphs given in the example sentences
above because there are morphemes and allomorphs in our memory underlying in the syllable sequences.
Past continuous negative question:
al-ma-uyor muy-du-um? (Wasnt I working?), Bekle-me-iyor muy-du-un?
(Werent you waiting?), Dinle-me-iyor muy-du? (Wasnt she listening?), Koma-uyor muy-du-uk? (Werent we running?), Uyu-ma-uyor muy-du-unuz?
(Werent you sleeping?) Gl-me-yor-lar my-d? (Werent they laughing?)
If you follow the single underlined, double underlined and identical letters,
you can find the following syllable sequences:
34

(a*l*m*yor / muy*dum) (bek*le*mi*yor / muy*dun) (din*le*mi*yor / muy*du) (ko*mu*yor / muy*duk) (u*yu*mu*yor / muy*du*nuz) (gl*m*yor*lar /
my*d)
As it is seen, if the main verbs are multisyllabic, the stressed syllable is the
last syllable of the main verb. But if the main verbs are monosyllabic, they
are naturally the last syllables, so they are stressed.
Simple future tense positive:
The simple future concept allomorphs of this tense are ecek and acak
allomorphs. These time allomorphs are followed by the subject allomorphs
as usual; (Ben) im, m, (Sen) sin, sn, (O) , (Biz) iz, z, (Siz) siniz,
snz, (Onlar) ler, lar:
Gel-ecek-im. (ge*le*ce*im) (I will come), Gr-ecek-sin. (g*re*cek*sin)
(You will see), Sakla-/y/acak-sn. (sak*la*ya*cak*sn) (You will hide), Bulacak. (bu*la*cak) (He will find), Sor-acak-z. (so*ra*ca*z) (We will ask),
Gr-ecek-siniz. (g*re*cek*si*niz) (You will see), Anla-/y/acak-lar. (an*la*ya*cak*lar) (They will understand)
In the sentences above, the single underlined syllables detach from their
verb roots and attach to the following vowels, but the single underlined k
phonemes both detach from their allomorphs and change into the phonemes when they attach to the subject allomorphs.
Simple future tense negative:
The negative allomorphs are me and ma as usual:
Git-me-/y/ecek-im. (git*me*ye*ce*im) (I will not go), Sor-ma-/y/acak-sn.
(sor*ma*ya*cak*sn) (You will not ask), Cevap ver-me-/y/ecek. (ce*vap /
ver*me*ye*cek) (She will not answer), Gr-me-/y/ecek-iz. (gr*me*ye*ce*iz) (We will not see), Anla-ma-/y/acak-snz. (an*la*ma*ya*cak*s*nz) (You
will not understand), Unut-ma-/y/acak-lar. (u*nut*ma*ya*cak*lar) (They will
not forget)
Simple future positive question:
The question allomorphs of the simple future are mi, m, m, and
mu. The other allomorphs are the same:
Gel-ecek mi-/y/im? (ge*le*cek / mi*yim) (Will I come?), Otur-acak m-sn?
(o*tu*ra*cak / m*sn) (Will you sit?), ren-ecek mi? (*re*ne*cek / mi)
(Will she learn?), Sor-acak m-/y/z? (so*ra*cak / m*yz) (Will we ask?),
Bala-/y/acak m-snz? (ba*la*ya*cak / m*s*nz) (Will you start?), Duracak-lar m? (du*ra*cak*lar / m?) (Will they stop?)
35

The /y/ semivowels are glides, which help the sound pass harmoniously
from one vowel to the other.
Simple future negative question:
Git-me-/y/ecek mi-/y/im? (git*me*ye*cek / mi*yim) (Will I not go?), Gel-me/y/ecek mi-sin? (gel*me*ye*cek / mi*sin) (Wont you come?), Bekle-me/y/ecek mi? (bek*le*me*ye*cek / mi) (Wont he wait?), Dinle-me-/y/ecek mi/y/iz? (din*le*me*ye*cek / mi*yiz) (Wont we listen?), Gel-me-/y/ecek misiniz? (gel*me*ye*cek / mi*si*niz), (Wont you come?). Ka-ma-/y/acak-lar
m? (ka*ma*ya*cak*-lar / m) (Wont they escape?)
Future continuous positive:
In this tense, the English main verb be is a linking verb followed by a present participle. This present participle verb-ing functions as an adjective in
this sentence, such as in singing birds. The information that the words
may give may be nouns or adjectives.
Similarly, in the Turkish corresponding sentence al-yor ol-acak-m
(a*l**yor / o*la*ca*m), alyor is an adjective as in mutlu ol-acakm:
al-yor ol-acak-m. (a*l**yor / o*la*ca*m) (I will be working); uyuuyor ol-acak-sn. (u*yu*yor / o*la*cak*sn) (You will be sleeping); Bekleiyor ol-acak. (bek*li*yor / o*la*cak) (She will be waiting); Yr-yor olacak-z. (y*r*yor / o*la*ca*z) (We will be walking); Gel-iyor ol-acaksnz. (ge*li*yor / o*la*cak*s*nz) (You will be coming); Dn-yor olacak-lar. (d**n*yor / o*la*cak*lar) (They will be thinking).
Future continuous negative:
Bekle-iyor ol-ma-/y/acak-m. (bek*li*yor / ol*ma*ya*ca*m) (I wont be
waiting); Uyu-uyor ol-ma-/y/acak-sn. (u*yu*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*sn) (You
wont be sleeping); al-yor ol-ma-/y/acak. (a*l**yor / ol*ma*ya*cak)
(He wont be working); Bala-yor ol-ma-/y/acak-z. (ba*l*yor / ol*ma*ya*ca*z) (We wont be starting); Dn-yor ol-ma-/y/a.cak-snz. (d**n*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*s*nz) (You wont be thinking): Yz-yor ol-ma/y/acak-lar. (y*z*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*lar) (They wont be swimming)
Future continuous positive question:
Bekle-iyor ol-acak m-/y/m? (bek*li*yor / o*la*cak / m*ym) (Will I be waiting?) al-yor ol-acak m-sn? (a*l**yor / o*la*cak / m*sn) (Will you
be working?); Otur-uyor ol-acak m? (o*tu*ru*yor / o*la*cak / m) (Will she
be sitting?); Yksel-iyor ol-acak m-/y/z? (yk*se*li*yor / o*la*cak / m*yz)
36

(Will we be rising?); Dinle-iyor ol-acak m-snz? (din*li*yor / o*la*-cak /
m*s*nz) (Will you be listening?); ren-iyor ol-acak-lar m? (*re*ni*yor
/ o*la*cak*lar / m) (Will they be learning?)
Future continuous negative question:
al-yor ol-ma-/y/acak m-/y/m? (a*l**yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / m*ym)
(Wont I be working?); -.yor ol-ma-/y/acak m-sn? (**yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / m*sn?) (Wont you be feeling cold?); Ev-i temizle-iyor ol-ma/y/acak m? (e*vi / te*miz*li*yor / ol*ma*ya*cak / m) (Wont she be cleaning
the house?); Futbol oyna-uyor ol-ma-/y/acak m-/y/z? (fut*bol / oy*nu*yor /
ol*ma*ya*cak / m*yz) (Wont we be playing football?); Ka-yor ol-ma/y/acak-lar m? (ka**yor / ol*ma*ya*cak*lar / m) (Wont they be escaping?)
Turkish simple past; English simple past or present perfect tenses:
Both simple past and present perfect tenses of the English language are
expressed in simple past tense in Turkish. For instance:
I have done my work. = Grev-im-i yap-t-m. (g*re*vi*mi / yap*tm)
I did my work yesterday. = Dn grev-im-i yap-t-m. (dn / g*re*vi*mi /
yap*tm)
As you see, both the English present perfect and simple past tenses are
expressed in Turkish in simple past tense.
Past perfect tense positive:
In past perfect tenses, there are two kinds of time allomorphs following the
main verbs attached to each other. The past perfect time allomorphs are
[mi, m, m, mu], and the simple past time allomorphs are [ti, t, t, tu].
The subject allomorphs that are attached to them are: (Ben) [im, m, m,
um], (Sen) [in, n, n, un], (O) [], (Biz) [ik, k, k, uk], (Siz) [iniz, nz, nz,
unuz], and (Onlar) are [ler, lar]:
Grev-im-i yap-m-t-m. (g*re*vi*mi / yap*m*tm) (I had done my work);
Ev-den k-m-t-n. (ev*den / k*m*tn) (You had left home); Bana glmse-mi-ti. (ba*na / g*lm*se*mi*ti) (She had smiled at me); Ev-e gelmi-ti-ik. (e*ve / gel*mi*tik) (We had come home); Biz-e sz ver-mi-ti-iniz.
(bi*ze / sz / ver*mi*ti*niz) (You had promised us); Pasta-/y/ ye-mi-ler-di.
(pas*ta*y / ye*mi*ler*di) (They had eaten the cake)
Past perfect tense negative:
37

Grev-im-i yap-ma-m-t-m. (g*re*vi*mi / yap*ma*m*tm) (I hadnt done
my work); dev-in-i bitir-me-mi-ti-in. (*de*vi*ni / bi*tir*me*mi*tin) (You
hadnt finished your homework); Uak in-me-mi-ti. (u*ak / in*me*mi*ti)
(The plane hadnt landed); Sen-i gr-me-mi-ti-ik. (se*ni / gr*me*mi*tik)
(We hadnt seen you); Biz-i anla-ma-m-t-nz. (bi*zi / an*la*ma*m*t*nz)
(You hadnt understood us); Yanllar- dzelt-me-mi-ler-di. (yan*l*la*r /
d*zelt*me*mi*ler*di) (They hadnt corrected the mistakes)
Past perfect tense positive question:
If someone uses a simple past tense positive question in Turkish in place of
a past perfect tense positive question, he sounds authoritative and bossy;
but if he uses a past perfect tense positive question, he sounds politer and
hesitant:
A father asks his son: Grev-in-i yap-t-n m?
(g*re*vi*ni / yap*t*n / m)
A polite person asks his boss: Grev-iniz-i bitir-mi mi/y/-di-iniz?
(g*re*vi*ni*zi / bi*tir*mi / miy*di*niz)
However, if someone says Okul-a gel-me-den nce ev odev-in-i yap-m
m/y/-d-n?, yap-m m/y/-d-n he expresses only a past perfect tense
meaning that an action had been done before another action.
These two different concepts given above without adverb clauses are
pressed in English in simple past tenses. When they are used without
verbial clauses or phrases in sentences, they carry different concepts,
when they are used followed by adverbial clauses or phrases, they only
press an action had been done before another action. Therefore, we
give examples that are used together with adverbial clauses:
Bura-/y/a gel-me-den nce eller-in-i yka-m m/y/-d-n?
(bu*ra*ya / gel*me*den / n*ce / el*le*ri*ni / y*ka*m / my*dn)
(Had you washed your hands before you came here?)
Oku-ma-dan nce teklif-i kabul et-mi-ler mi/y/-di?
(o*ku*ma*dan / n*ce / tek*li*fi / ka*bul / et*mi*ler / miy*di)
(Had they accepted the proposal before they read it?)
Tiyatro-/y/a git-me-den nce piyes-i oku-mu mu/y/-du-unuz?
(ti*yat*ro*ya / git*me*den / n*ce / pi*ye*si / o*ku*mu / muy*du*nuz)
(Had you read the play before you went to the theatre?)
Past perfect tense negative question:
38
exadbut
exwill

Sana syle-me-mi mi/y/-di-im? (sa*na / sy*le*me*mi / miy*dim) (Hadnt I
told you?); Soru-/y/u anla-ma-m m/y/-d-n? (so*ru*yu / an*la*ma*m /
my*dn) (Hadnt you understood the question?); Teklif-i kabul et-me-mi
mi/y/-di? (tek*li*fi / ka*bul / et*me*mi / miy*di) (Hadnt he accepted the proposal?); Onlar- bilgilendir-me-mi mi/y/di-ik? (on*la*r / bil*gi*len*dir*me*mi
/ miy*dik) (Hadnt we informed them?) -iniz-i bitir-me-mi mi/y/di-iniz?
(I*i*ni*zi / bi*tir*me*mi / miy*di*niz) (Hadnt you finished your work?),
Hatrla-ma-m-lar m/y/-d? (ha*tr*la*ma*m*lar / my*d) (Hadnt they
remembered?
In the example sentences above, the speaker may be either complaining
about something, or he may be asking whether an action had been done
before another action in the past or both.
Future perfect tense positive:
This tense expresses an action that will have been done before a certain
time in future. Although the English and Turkish sentence structures are
different from each other, they convey the same meaning. In the Turkish
sentence structure a linking verb is used, but the English sentence structure
uses an action verb. For instance:
Saat be-te i-im-i bitir-mi ol-acak-m.
(sa*at / be*te / i*i*mi / bi*tir*mi / o*la*ca*m)
(I will have finished my work at 5)
In the Turkish sentence above, a linking verb ol is used to link the adjective
bitir-mi to the subject allomorph [m]. However, in the corresponding
English sentence, an action verb finished is used without any linking verbs:
Saat be-ten nce makale-em-i tamamla-m ol-acak-m.
(sa*at / be*ten / n*ce / ma*ka*le*mi / ta*mam*la*m / o*la*ca*m)
(I will have completed my article by five.)
Ev-iniz-den ayrl-ma-dan nce paket-iniz-i al-m ol-acak-snz.
(e*vi*niz*den / ay*rl*ma*dan / n*ce / pa*ke*ti*ni*zi / al*m / o*la*cak*s*nz) (You will have received your package by the time you leave home.)
Sen ev-e var-ma-dan nce uyu-mu ol-acak-lar.
(sen / e*ve / var*ma*dan / n*ce / u*yu*mu / o*la*cak*lar)
(They will have fallen asleep by the time you arrive home.
Future perfect tense negative:
Sen gel-dik-in zaman daha i-im-i bitir-me-mi ol-acak-m.
(sen / gel*di*in / za*man / i*i*mi / da*ha / bi*tir*me*mi / o*la*ca*m)
(I wont have finished my work by the time you arrive.)
Future perfect tense positive question:
39

Ben gel-dik-im-de i-in-i bitir-mi ol-acak m-sn?
(ben / gel*di*im*de / i*i*ni / bi*tir*mi / o*la*cak / m*sn)
(Will you have finished your work by the time I arrive?)
PRESENT MODALS
While English modals are made of auxiliary verbs, Turkish modals are made
either of morphemes, or of words, or of both. They convey nearly the same
concepts as they do in English. Therefore, instead of giving detailed boring
explanations of the Turkish modals, we prefer giving English equivalents of
them, which we think, might be more useful. Moreover, the English sentences given as the equivalents of the Turkish modals can be considered
more satisfactory and precise than detailed English explanations of them,
which may lead to misunderstanding.
In the following sentences, the subjects and subject allomorphs are blue, the
verbs are red, the adverbials are green, the objects are black, and the brown
underlined words are subject complements.
(can) (may) [ebil, abil]
The [ebil, abil] allomorphs convey ability, possibility or permission as
can do in English. To form the Simple Present Tense concept of this
modal morpheme, one of its allomorphs "[ebil] or [abil]" is attached to a
main verb followed only by [ir] Simple Present Tense time allomorph. The
other Simple Present Tense allomorphs are not used after [ebil] or [abil]
allomorphs due to the vowel harmony rules. The time allomorphs are naturally followed by suitable personal suject allomorphs:
Yemek pi-ir-ebil-ir-im. (Ability)
(ye*mek / pi*i*re*bi*li*rim )
I can cook.
Bilgisayar-m- kullan-abil-ir-sin. (Permission)
(bil*gi*sa*ya*r*m / kul*la*na*bi*lir*sin )
You can (may) use my computer.
Baz soru-lar zor ol-abil-ir. (Possibility) (Zor is subject complement.)
(ba*z / so*ru*lar / zor / o*la*bi*lir )
Some questions may be difficult. (Difficult is subject complement.)
Siz-e yardm et-ebil-ir-iz. (Ability or possibility) (The /t/ changes into /d/.)
(si*ze / yar*dm / e*de*bi*li*riz )
We can help you.
Dar-/y/a k-abil-ir-sin. (Permission)
(d*a*r / *ka*bi*lir*sin )
You can go out.
40

To change the [ebil, abil] allomorphs into the negative concept, with the
first person singular ben and its plural form biz [eme, ama] are
used; and with the other subjects and in the interrogative forms [emez,
amaz] allomorphs are used. They convey the concepts of inability,
impossibility or prohibition:
Piyano al-ama-am. (Inability)
(pi*ya*no / a*la*mam ).
I cant play the piano.
Bu kk harfler-i gzlk-sz gr-eme-em. (Inability)
(bu / k*k / harf*le*ri / gz*lk*sz / g*re*mem ).
I cant see these small letters without glasses.
Bekle-/y/eme-em. (Impossibility or inability)
(bek*le*ye*mem )
I cant wait.
In the sentences above, the /y/ glide is put between the successive /e/ vowels.
Bu leke sabun-la temizlen-emez. (Impossibility) (Passive)
(bu / le*ke / sa*bun*la / te*miz*le*ne*mez )
This stain cant be cleaned with soap.
Bura-da bekle-/y/emez-sin. (Prohibition)
(bur*da / bek*le*ye*mez*sin )
You cant wait here.
Bakteriler plak gz-le grl-emez. (Impossibility) (Passive)
(bak*te*ri*ler / p*lak / gz*le / g*r*le*mez )
Germs cant be seen with the naked eye.
Yarn sen-i gr-eme-em. (Impossibility)
(ya*rn / se*ni / g*re*mem )
I cant see you tomorrow.
Ev-de ol-amaz. (Impossibility) (Ev-de is subject complement.)
(ev*de / o*la*maz)
He cant be at home.
ocuk-lar bahe-de oyna-uyor ol-amaz. (Impossibility)
(o*cuk*lar / bah*e*de / oy*nu*yor / o*la*maz )
The children cant be playing in the garden.
41

The same [ebil] modal concept can also be used with The Present Continuous [YOR] morpheme. In order to form this modal composition, [ebil] or
[abil] allomorphs are attached to main verbs followed by the [iyor] and the
personal subject allomorphs:
Kara tahta-/y/ gr-ebil-iyor-um. Tahta-/y/ gr-yor-um. (Ability)
(ka*ra / tah*ta*y / g*re*bi*li*yo*rum )
I can see the blackboard.
The Simple Present Tense of this modal form does not express ability. If it
is used, it expresses possibility:
Sen-i yarn gr-ebil-ir-im.
(se*ni / ya*rn / g*re*bi*li*rim )
I can see you tomorrow. (Possibility)
Kenar-a ekil-ir-se-en karatahta-/y/ gr-ebil-ir-im. (Possibility)
(ke*na*ra / e*ki*lir*sen~ / ka*ra*tah*ta*y / g*re*bi*li*rim )
If you move aside, I can see the blackboard.
In the negative forms of The Present Continuous modal tenses, the [eme] or
[ama] negative making allomorphs are used followed by the [iyor, yor]
progressive allomorphs, and naturally suitable subject allomorphs are attached to them:
Sen-i anla-/y/ama-yor-um. (The double underlined vowels drop.)
(se*ni / an*la*ya*m*yo*rum )
I cant understand you.
The /y/ glide is placed between the successive /a/ vowels. (Inability) (Seni
anlayamam is impossible here. It can be used in conditional sentences):
Daha yksek ses-le konu-maz-sa-an sen-i anla-/y/ama-am.
(da*ha / yk*sek / ses*le / ko*nu*maz*san / se*ni / an*la*ya*mam )
I can't understand you unless you speak louder.
Sen-i iit-eme-iyor-um.
(se*ni / i*i*te*mi*yo*rum )
I cant hear you.
(The double underlined /e/ drops as it is in imdi zaman.) (Inability)
Bekle-/y/eme-iyor-um.
(bek*le*ye*mi*yo*rum )
I cant wait. (Inability)
42

Bekle-/y/me-em.
(bek*le*ye*mem )
I cant wait. It is impossible for me to wait. (Impossibility)
Sen-i gr-eme-iyor-um. (Inability)
(se*ni / g*re*mi*yo*rum )
I cant see you.
Syle-dik-ler-in anlal-ma-yor. (Passive)
(sy*le*dik*le*rin / an*la*l*m*yor )
What you are saying isn't understood.
The [ebil, abil] modal allomorphs followed by the allomorphs of the morpheme [YOR] are used attached to verbs in question forms, and finally
mu-/y/um?, mu-sun?, mu?, mu-/y/uz?, mu-sunuz?, lar m?, etc are
separately added:
Gzlk-sz televizyon seyret-ebil-iyor mu-sunuz?
(gz*lk*sz / te*le*viz*yon / sey*re*de*bi*li yor / mu*su*nuz )
Can you watch television without glasses?
(The /t/ changes into /d/.) (Ability)
When the intention of request is involved, The Simple Present Tense allomorphs of [R] are used after [ebil or abil] allomorphs, and finally, mi/yim?, mi-sin?, mi?, mi-/y/iz?, mi-siniz?, ler mi? question
allomorphs are separately said or written.
Bana yardm et-ebil-ir mi-siniz? (Yardm et = help)
(ba*na / yar*dm / e*de*bi*lir / mi*si*niz )
Can you help me? (Request)
Siz-e yardm et-ebil-ir mi-/y/im?
(si*ze / yar*dm / e*de*bi*lir / mi*yim )
Can I help you? (Request)
Ben-i gr-mek iin yarn bro-um-a gel-ebil-ir mi-siniz)? (Request)
(be*ni / gr*mek / i*in / ya*rn / b*ro*ma / ge*le*bi*lir / mi*si*niz )
Can (could) you come to my office to see me tomorrow?
The Turkish equivalents of wh question words of English can also be
used with [ebil], [abil] allomorphs:
Bu soru-/y/a kim cevap ver-ebil-ir? (Cevap ver = answer)
(bu / so*ru*ya / kim / ce*vap / ve*re*bi*lir )
Who can answer this question? (Ability)
43

Nere-de le yemek-i ye-/y/ebil-ir-iz? (Possibility)
(ne*re*de / *le / ye*me*i / yi*ye*bi*li*riz)
Where can we have lunch? (*"Nerede le yemei yiyebiliyoruz?" is not
possible in Turkish.)
Nasl baar-abil-ir-im?
(na *sl / ba*a*ra*bi*li*rim)
How can I succeed?
must = [meli, mal]
This morpheme has two allomorphs; [meli] and [mal], which can be attached to verb roots, stems or frames followed by personal subject allomorphs. When it is used with the verb "be, it conveys the concepts of
certainty or probability, but when it is used with action verbs like go,
write, do, help, etc., it implies obligation imposed by the speaker:
Snavlar-da baar-l ol-mak iin daha ok al-mal-sn.
(s*nav*lar*da / ba*a*r*l / ol*mak / i*in / ok / a*l*ma*l*sn )
You must study harder to succeed in the examinations.
(Strong advice or obligation imposed by the speaker)
Anne-en-e ev iler-i/n/-de yardm et-meli-sin.
(an*ne*ne / ev / i*le*rin*de / yar*dm / et*me*li*sin )
You must help your mother with the housework.
(Obligation imposed by the speaker or strong advice)
Ev dev-im-i bitir-mek iin ge vakte kadar otur-mal-/y/m. (Liaison)
(e*v*de*vi*mi / bi*tir*mek / i*in / ge / vak*te / ka*dar / o*tur*ma*l*/y/m)
I must sit up late to finish my homework. (Internal obligation)
Srcler trafik kurallar--/n/a uy-mal-dr. (Obligation)
(s*r*c*ler / tra*fik / ku*ral*la*r*na / uy*ma*l*dr )
Drivers must obey the traffic rules.
Yorgun ol-mal-sn. All subject complements are underlined brown.
(yor*gun / ol*ma*l*sn )
You must be tired. (I am sure you are tired.)
Sabah-leyin erken kalkl-mal.
(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kal*kl*ma*l )
It is necessary to get up early in the morning. (Passive shaped
intransitive)
nem-li evrak-lar kasa-da saklan-mal.
(*nem*li / ev*rak*lar / ka*sa*da / sak*lan*ma*l )
Important documents must be kept in a safe. (It is necessary to keep)
44

Anne-en fkeli ol-mal. (I am sure she is angry.)
(an*nen / f*ke*li / ol*ma*l )
Your mother must be angry. (Very probability or certainty)
Matematik skc ol-mal. (I am sure it is boring.)
(ma*te*ma*tik / s*k*c / ol*ma*l )
Mathematics must be boring.
The negative form of [meli, mal] is [me-meli, ma-mal] (must not),
which conveys the concept of prohibition:
Ben-im-le byle konu-ma-mal-sn. (Benimle byle konu-amaz-sn.)
(be*nim*le / by*le / ko*nu*ma*ma*l*sn )
You mustnt (cant) talk to me like that. (Prohibition)
Kz karde-in-in dev yap-ma-/s/-/n/ engelle-me-meli-sin.
(kz / kar*de*i*nin / *dev / yap*ma*s*n / en*gel*le*me*me*li*sin )
You mustnt prevent your sister from do-ing her homework. (Prohibition)
Bir renci televizyon izle-/y/erek zaman--/n/ boa harca-ma-mal-dr.
(bir / *ren*ci / te*le*viz*yon / iz*le*ye*rek / za*ma:*n*n / bo*a / har*ca*ma*ma*l*dr ) A student mustnt waste time watching television.
Another negative form of [ol-mal] (must be) is ol-amaz (cant be).This
form is used with the verbs *be in sentences. Consider the following:
Oul-um sinema-da ol-amaz; okul-da ol-mal.
(o*lum / si*ne*ma*da / o*la*maz / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l )
My son cant be at the cinema; he must be at school. (Impossibility;
certainty)
Matematik ilgin ol-amaz; skc ol-mal.
(ma*te*ma*tik / il*gin / o*la*maz / s*k*c / ol*ma*l )
Mathematics cant be interesting; it must be boring. (Impossibility; certainty)
Mehmet hasta ol-amaz; rol yap-yor ol-mal.
(meh*met / has*ta / o*la*maz / rol / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l )
Mehmet cant be ill; he must be pretending. (Impossibility; certainty)
Jack ders al-yor ol-amaz, futbol oyna-uyor ol-mal.
(jack / ders / a*l**yor / o*la*maz) (fut*bol / oy*nu*yor / ol*ma*l )
Jack cant be studying; he must be playing football.
Karde-in ciddi ol-amaz; aka yap-yor ol-mal.
(kar*de*in / cid*di: / o*la*maz / a*ka / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l )
Your brother cant be serious; he must be joking.
45

Bu hediye ben-im iin ol-amaz; siz-in iin ol-mal.
(bu / he*di*ye / be*nim / i*in / o*la*maz / si*zin / i*in / ol*ma*l )
This present cant be for me; it must be for you.
Cidd ol-amaz. Rol yap-yor ol-amaz m?
(cid*d: / o*la*maz / rol / ya*p*yor / o*la*maz / m )
He cant be serious. Can't he be pretending?
Bu portre gerek ol-amaz; kopya ol-mal.
(bu / por*tre / ger*ek / o*la*maz / kop*ya / ol*ma*l )
This portrait cant be genuine; it must be a reproduction.
This modal form expresses obligation imposed by an external authority
or circumstances. (Have or has to = zorunda)
-e git-mek iin her sabah saat alt-da kalk-mak zorunda-/y/m.
(i*e / git*mek / i*in / her / sa*bah / sa*at / al*t*da / kalk*mak / zo*run*da*ym ) I have to get up at six oclock every morning to go to work.
(The /y/ glide is inserted between /a/ and // vowels.) (External obligation)
Patron-la konu-urken dikkatli ol-mak zorunda-sn.
(pat*ron*la / ko*nu*ur*ken / dik*kat*li / ol*mak / zo*run*da*sn )
You have to be careful when you are talking to the boss. (External obligation) (The black underlined words are infinitives.)
Bu yaz dikkat-le yazl-mak zorunda.
(bu / ya*z / dik*kat*le / ya*zl*mak / zo*run*da )
This text has to be written carefully.
(Passive; external obligation)
Oda-am- tertiple-mek zorunda-/y/m.
(o*da*m / ter*tip*le*mek / zo*run*da*ym )
I have to tidy my room.
(External obligation)
Bu cmleler-i ren-mek zorunda m-/y/m?
(bu / cm*le*le*ri / *ren*mek / zo*run*da / m*ym )
Do I have to learn these sentences?
neednt or dont (doesn't) have to
Lack of necessity neednt or dont (doesnt) have to is expressed in
Turkish with a negative making allomorph "[me, or ma]" attached to a verb
root, stem or a frame such as, git-me, yaz-ma, satn al-ma, al-ma,
"te-mizle-en-me", and then one of the [ebil, or abil] allomorphs is attached to
the preceding [me, ma] negation allomorphs. After the [ebil or abil] allo-
46

morphs, the simple present tense allomorph [ir] is used, and finally
personal subject allomorphs are added:
Okul-a git-me-/y/ebil-ir-im.
(o*ku*la / git*me*ye*bi*li*rim )
I neednt (dont have to) go to school. (Lack of necessity)
imdi bala-ma-/y/abil-ir-iz.
(im*di / ba*la*ma*ya*bi*li*riz )
We neednt (dont have to) start now. (Lack of necessity)
Sabah-leyin erken kalk-ma-/y/abil-ir-im.
(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*ma*ya*bi*li*rim )
I neednt get up early in the morning. (Lack of necessity)
Bugn bro temizlen-me-/y/ebil-ir.
(bu / gn / b*ro / te*miz*len*me*ye*bi*lir )
The office neednt be cleaned today. (Passive)
Git-me-/y/ebil-ir-iz.
(git*me*ye*bi*li*riz)
We neednt go.
Gitmesem de olur, balamasak da olur, kalkmasam da olur,
"kalkmama gerek yok", "gelmene gerek yok" expressions can also
be used as alternatives to the sentences above:
Sabah-leyin erken kalk-ma-sa-am da ol-ur.
(sa*bah*le*yin / er*ken / kalk*ma*sam / da / o*lur )
I needn't get up early in the morning. (Lack of necessity)
When a question is asked with [meli, mal], the answer to this question may
be as follows:
Konser-e git-meli mi-/y/im? Git-me-se-en de ol-ur. Git-me-/y/ebil-ir-sin.
Must I go to the concert? No, you neednt."
should or ought to
(Gerek-ir) (Advice)
In order to compose this modal concept, one of the personal possessive
allomorphs is attached to the owned part of a noun + infinitive compound. In the second parts of this compound, the second type of infinitives
are used, which are made by attaching [me, or ma] allomorphs to verb roots,
stems or frames, such as: git-me, bekle-me, bekle-en-me, satn al-
47

ma, satn al-n-ma, ezberle-me, ezber-len-me, spr-l-me,
etc.
The personal possessive allomorphs attached to the infinitive parts of the
noun + infinitive compounds are in the following list:
(ben-im) [em, am]
(bekle-me-em) ( ko-ma-am)
(sen-in)
[en, an]
(bekle-me-en) (ko-ma-an)
(o-/n/un) [/s/i, /s/]
(bekle-me-si) (ko-ma-s)
(biz-im)
[emiz, amz]
(bekle-me-emiz) (ko-ma-amz)
(siz-in)
[eniz, anz]
(bekle-me-eniz) (ko-ma-anz)
(onlar-n) [/s/i, /s/] or [leri, lar] (bekle-me-si) (ko-ma-s)
In short, bekle-me-em means ben-im bekle-me-em because the em
attached to bekle-me means ben-m. Therefore, the possessive pronoun
ben-im is generally ignored.
Finally, after the above possessive pronoun + infinitive compounds
gerek-ir verb is used as a separate word:
Daha ok al-ma-an gerek-ir. (Turkish and English sentence structures
are different.) (da*ha / ok / a*l*man / ge*re*kir )
You should (ought to) study harder. (Advice)
Sen-in al-ma-an is a adjective + infinitive compound, and daha ok
is an adverial.
renciler-in yeni kelimeler-i ezberle-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice)
(noun compound) subect
verb
The students should memorize the new words.
(The /s/ glide is used between /e/ and /i/.)
Baba-an-n t--/n/ iyi dn-me-en gerek-ir.
(ba*ba*nn / **d*n / i*yi / d*n*men / ge*re*kir )
You should think well about your fathers advice.
Snav sonular--/n/n beklen-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Passive)
(s*nav / so*nu*la*r*nn / bek*len*me*si / ge*re*kir )
The examination results should be waited.
To make a negative advice, the [me] or [ma] negative making allomorphs
are inserted between verb roots, stems or frames and the [me, ma] infinitive making allomorphs:
ok para harca-ma-ma-an gerek-ir. (Advice)
(ok / pa*ra / har*ca*ma*man l ge*re*kir)
You shouldnt spend much money.
48

Bir baba-/n/n ocuk-lar--/n/ ihml et-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice)
(bir / ba*ba*nn / o*cuk*la*r*n / ih*ma:l / et*me*me*si / ge*re*kir )
A father shouldnt neglect his children.
Vergi de-me-/n/in ertelen-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir. (Advice) (Passive)
(ver*gi / *de*me*nin / er*te*len*me*me*si / ge*re*kir )
Pay-ing tax shouldnt be postponed. (Passive)
In the senentence above, the /n/ glide is used between the first "e, i", and
the /s/ glide is used between the last "e and i".
May and can are both expressed in [ebil, abil] allomorphs in Turkish.
Therefore, they can be used with the question tag mi in questions. Compare the following sentences:
Haber doru ol-abil-ir.
(ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir )
The news may (can) be true.
Haber doru ol-abil-ir mi?
(ha*ber / do*ru / o*la*bi*lir / mi )
Can the news be true? (May is not used in English in question forms.)
ocuk-lar ev-de ol-abil-ir.
(o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir )
The children may (can) be at home.
ocuklar ev-de ol-abil-ir mi?
(o*cuk*lar / ev*de / o*la*bi*lir / mi )
Can the children be at home?
Hakl ol-abil-ir-sin.
(hak*l / o*la*bi*lir*sin )
You may (can) be right.
Hakl ol-amaz m-/y/m?
(hak*l / o*la*maz / mi*yim )
Can't I be right?
Bekle-iyor ol-amaz-lar m?
(bek*li*yor / o*la*maz*lar / m)
Can't they be waiting?
Tercme yanl ol-abil-ir.
(ter*c*me / yan*l / o*la*bi*lir )
The translation may be incorrect.
49

PAST MODALS
Could
Could expresses ability in the past. To express the same concept in
Turkish, main verb-[ebil, abil]-[iyor]-[du]-[pers] verb composition should
be used:
Yedi ya-m-da/y/-ken yz-ebil-iyor-du-um.
(ye*di / ya*m*day*ken / y*ze*bi*li*yor*dum )
I could swim when I was seven years old. (Ability in the past)
Ahmet okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-abil-iyor-du.
(ah*met / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce / o*ku*yup / ya*za*bi*li*yor*du )
Ahmet could read and write before he went to school.
The negative form of this modal verb is verb-[eme, ama]-[YOR]-[du][pers], which expresses both the negative of "could" and "was able to":
Ben okul-a git-me-den nce oku-/y/up yaz-ama-yor-du-um.
(ben / o*ku*la / git*me*den / n*ce / o*ku*yup / ya*za*m*yor*dum )
I couldn't read and write before I went to school.
-im-i bitir-eme-di-im.
(i*i*mi / bi*ti*re*me*dim)
I couldn't finish my work.
(I wasn't able to finish my work.)
Yeni ders-i anla-/y/abil-di-in mi?
(ye*ni / der*si / an*la*ya*bil*din / mi)
Were you able to understand the new lesson? (Could is not used.)
Glkler-i a-abil-di-iniz mi?
(g*lk*le*ri / a*a*bil*di*niz / mi )
Were you able to overcome the difficulties?
Tasar-/y/ bitir-ebil-di-iniz mi?
(ta*sa*r*y / bi*ti*re*bil*di*niz / mi )
Were you able to finish the project?
was (were) able to (verb- [me-/y/i, ma-/y/] baar-d-m)
When a past success is implied, the verb baar is used in Turkish in
place of the was able to, the succeeded in, or the managed to
expressions of the English language:
50

Snav-da iyi bir not al-ma-/y/ baar-d-m.
(s*nav*da / i*yi / bir / not / al*ma*y / ba*ar*dm)
I was able to get a good grade in the examination.
(I succeeded in getting a good grade.) (I managed to get a good grade.)
Bizim takm, misafir takm- yen-me-/y/i baar-d.
(bi*zim / ta*km~ / mi*sa:*fir / ta*k*m / yen*me*yi / ba*ar*d )
Our team succeeded in beat-ing the visiting team.
(The /y/ glide is inserted between /e/ and /i/.)
-in-i bitir-me-/y/i baar-d-n m? or -in-i bitir-ebil-di-in mi?
(i*i*ni / bi*ti*re*bil*din / mi )
Were you able to complete your work?
(The /y/ glide is used between [me] and [i].)
As an alternative to the above sentence types, [verb-[ebil, abil]-[di]-[pers]
verb composition could be used:
En son-u/n/-da (en nihayet) i-im-i bitir-ebil-di-im.
(en / so*nun*da / i*i*mi / bi*ti*re*bil*dim )
I was able to finish my work at last.
verb-[eme, ama]-[di, d]-[pers] verb composition can be used in place of
"couldn't, wasn't able to or didn't succeed in":
Ma- kazan-ama-d-k.
(ma* / ka*za*na*ma*dk )
We couldn't win the match.
Bu problem-i z-eme-di-im.
(bu / prob*le*mi / *ze*me*dim )
I couldnt solve this problem.
As could is used in English conditional clauses, so verb-[EBIL]-[ir]-di-[pers]
verb composition is used in Turkish conditional sentences:
Yeter-ince vakit-im ol-sa sana imdi yardm et-ebil-ir-di-im.
(ye*te*rin*ce / vak*tim / ol*sa / im*di / sa*na / yar*dm / e*de*bi*lir*dim~)
If I had enough time, I could help you now.
(The /t/ in et changes into the voiced /d/.)
Hava daha iyi ol-sa piknik-e git-ebil-ir-di-ik.
(ha*va / da*ha / i*yi / ol*sa / pik*ni*e / gi*de*bi*lir*dik~)
We could go for a picnic if the weather were (was) better.
51

Would or could (Polite request)
verb-[R]-[M]/y/-[D]-[pers] verb composition is used to express a polite request in Turkish:
In this verb composition, V symbolizes a verb root, a verb stem or a
verb frame. [R] is a morpheme that includes all the allomorphs of the
Simple Present Tense [ir, r, r, ur, er, ar]. [M] includes all interrogative
allomorphs [mi, m, m, mu]. [D] represents the simple past tense
allomorphs [di, d, d, du]; and [pers] symbolizes all the personal subject allomorphs. Consider the following sentences:
Bir saniye ben-i dinle-er mi/y/-di-iniz?
(bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler / miy*di*niz )
Would you listen to me for a second?
In fact, this sort of request is the second part of a conditional sentence:
Rica et-se-em, bir saniye ben-i dinle-er mi/y/-di-iniz?
(ri*ca: / et*sem / bir / sa:*ni*ye / be*ni / din*ler / miy*di*niz )
Would you listen to me for a second if I asked?
Ben-im-le bir fincan ay i-er mi/y/-di-iniz? (miy*di*niz)
Would you have a cup of tea with me?
Bavul-um-u ta-ma-am-a yardm et-er mi/y/-di-iniz?
(ba*vu*lu*mu / ta**ma*ma / yar*dm / e*der / miy*di*niz )
Would you help me to carry my suitcase?
In the last example above, the /t/ in et changes into /d/, and the /y/ glide is
inserted between [mi] and [di].
If someone wishes to be politer, he can add the [EBL] and [R] morphemes
to the verb composition above:
Ben-i bir saniye dinle-/y/ebil-ir mi/y/-di-iniz?
(be*ni / bir / sa:*ni*ye / din*le*ye*bi*lir / miy*di*niz )
Could you listen to me for a second please?
The [R] Simple Present, and [D] Simple Past Tense morphemes are also
used together in Turkish conditional sentences:
Bura-da ol-sa biz-e yardm et-er-di.
(bur*da / ol*sa / bi*ze / yar*dm / e*der*di )
If he were here, he would help us.
(The /t/ changes into the /d/ voiced consonant.)
52

Sen-in yer-in-de ol-sa-am bu eski araba-/y/ sat-ar-d-m. (Advice)
(se*nin / ye*rin*de / ol*sam / bu / es*ki / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tar*dm )
If I were you, I would sell this old car.
retmen sen-i gr-se/y/-di kz-ar-d.
(*ret*men / se*ni / gr*sey*di / k*zar*d )
If the teacher saw you, he would get angry.
PERFECT MODALS
must have verb - [mi, m, m, mu] + [ol-mal]-[pers]
This perfect modal verb composition conveys a past concept of certainty.
Consider the following:
Grev-i-/n/i bitir-mi ol-mal. (Bitirmi is subject complement in Turkish.)
(g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi / ol*ma*l )
He must have finished his duty. (I am sure he has finished it.)
Ev-den ayrl-m ol-mal.
(ev*den / ay*rl*m*ol*ma*l )
He must have left home. (I am sure he has left home.)
Uak in-mi ol-mal. (Liaison)
(u*ak / in*mi*ol*ma*l )
The plane must have landed. (I am sure it has landed. )
Ben-i anla-m ol-mal-sn. (Liaison)
(be*ni / an*la*m*ol*ma*l*sn )
You must have understood me.
(I am sure you (have) understood me.)
O-/n/u bir yer-de gr-m ol-mal-/y/m. (Liaison)
(o*nu / bir / yer*de / gr*m*ol*ma*l*ym )
I must have seen her somewhere.
(I am sure I saw her somewhere.)
Both certainty and possibility concepts can also be conveyed by verb-[M][DR] verb composition:
Grev-i-/n/i bitir-mi-tir.
(g*re*vi*ni / bi*tir*mi*tir )
He must (may) have finished his duty.
Ev-den ayrl-m-tr.
(ev*den / ay*rl*m*tr )
He must (may) have left home.
53

Haber-i duy-mu mu-dur?
(ha*be*ri / duy*mu / mu*dur )
Is he likely to have heard the news?
Haber-i duy-ma-m-tr.
(ha*be*ri / duy*ma*m*tr )
He cant (couldnt) have heard the news.
Haber duyul-ma-m-tr. (Passive)
(ha*ber / du*yul*ma*m*tr )
The news may not have been heard.
Bu saat-te yat-m-tr bile.
(bu / sa*at*te / yat*m*tr / bi*le )
He must have already gone to bed at this hour.
Yamur dur-mu mu-dur?
(ya*mur / dur*mu / mu*dur )
Is it likely to have stopped rain-ing?
The same verb composition may be used in conditional sentences, as well:
Paris-e git-ti/y/-se, Eyfel Kulesi-/n/i gr-m-tr.
(pa*ri*se / git*tiy*se / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / gr*m*tr )
If he went to Paris, he must have seen the Eiffel Tower.
Bir yanllk yap-t/y/-sa zr dile-mi-tir.
(bir / yan*l*lk / yap*ty*sa / *zr / di*le*mi*tir )
If he made a mistake, he must have apologized.
Note: git-ti/y/-se means if he went, but git-se/y/-di means if he
had gone:
Paris-e git-se/y/-di Eyfel Kulesi-/n/i gr-r-d.
(pa*ri*se / git*sey*di / ey*fel / ku*le*si*ni / g*rr*d )
If he had gone to Paris, he would have seen the Eiffel Tower.
(He didnt go, and he didnt see.)
Yeter-ince al-sa/y/-d kt bir not al-maz-d.
(ye*te*rin*ce / a*l*say*d / k*t / bir / not / al*maz*d )
If he had studied hard enough, he wouldnt have got a poor mark.
(He didnt study, so he got a poor mark.)
Oyun-u seyret-se/y/-di-in holan-r-d-n.
(o*yu*nu / sey*ret*sey*din / ho*la*nr*dn)
If you had watched the play, you would have enjoyed it.
54

cant have verb- [mi, m, m, mu] + ol - [ama(z)]- [pers]
The verb chain above is used to form a verb composition to convey past impossibility. In doing this, with the first person ben and with the first person
plural biz the ama negating allomorphs are used. However, for the remaining subjects and in interrogative sentences the amaz negating allomorphs are used:
Gr-m ol-ama-am. (gr*m / o*la*mam )
Gr-m ol-amaz-sn. (gr*m / o*la*maz*sn )
Gr-m ol-amaz. (gr*m / o*la*maz )
Gr-m ol-ama-/y/z. (gr*m / o*la*ma*yz )
Gr-m ol-amaz-snz. (gr*m / o*la*maz*s*nz )
Gr-m ol-amaz-lar. (gr*m / o*la*maz*lar )
Example sentences:
O-/n/u yanl anla-m ol-ama-am.
o*nu / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*mam )
(o*nu / yan*l*an*la*m*o*la*mam ) (Liason)
I can't (couldnt) have misunderstood it.
Sen-i yanl anla-m ol-amaz m?
(se*ni / yan*l / an*la*m / o*la*maz / m )
Cant he have misunderstood you?
Sen-i iit-mi ol-amaz.
(se*ni / i*it*mi / o*la*maz )
(se*ni / i*it*mi*o*la*maz ) (Liaison)
He cant (couldnt) have heard you
Lastik-i patla-m ol-amaz.
(las*ti*i / pat*la*m / o*la*maz )
He cant (couldnt) have had a flat tire.
Tm soru-lar-a cevap ver-mi ol-amaz-sn.
(tm / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*mi / o*la*maz*sn )
You cant (couldnt) have answered all the questions.
Fenerbahe yenil-mi ol-amaz m?
(fe*ner*bah*e / ye*nil*mi / o*la*maz / m )
Cant Fenervahe have been beaten?
55

should have (ought to have) noun + infinitive + gerek-ir-di
This perfect modal composition is used to express a past obligation or
expectation that was not carried out:
(Sen-in) ev dev-in-i yap-ma-an gerek-ir-di.
noun + infinitive compound (subject)
(ev / *de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di )

That you had done your homework was necessary.
(You should have done your homework.) (But you didnt.)
Bu araba-/y/ satn al-mak iin daha ok para biriktir-me-en gerek-ir-di.
(bu / a*ra*ba*y / sa*tn / al*mak / i*in / da*ha / ok / pa*ra / bi*rik*tir*men /
ge*re*kir*di)
You should have saved more money to buy this car. (But you didnt.)
Snav-da daha dikkat-li ol-ma-am gerek-ir-di.
(s*nav*da / da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*mam / ge*re*kir*di )
I should have been more careful in the examination. (But I wasnt.)
Dn bana telefon et-me-en gerek-mez mi/y/-di?
(dn / ba*na / te*le*fon / et*men / ge*rek*mez / miy*di )
Shouldn't you have telephoned me yesterday?
dev-in-i yap-ma-an gerek-mez mi/y/-di?
(*de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*rek*mez / miy*di )
Shouldn't you have done your homework?
(You haven't done your homework. Why?)
To change the above modal composition into the negative form, the [me]
or [ma] negative making allomorphs are put after the verb roots, stems or
frames, and then the [me] or [ma] infinitive allomorphs follow them preceding the personal subject allomorphs:
Ekmek al-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di.
noun + infinitive compound
(ek*mek / al*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di )
You shouldnt (neednt) have bought bread. (But you did.) (Advice)
Kz karde-in-e bar-ma-ma-an gerek-ir-di.
(kz / kar*de*i*ne / ba*r*ma*man / ge*re*kir*di )
You shouldnt have shouted at your sister. (But you did.) (Advice)
Yalan syle-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di.
(o*nun / ya*lan / sy*le*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di )
He shouldnt have told a lie. (But he did.)
56

Mehmet-in snav-da kopya ek-me-me-/s/i gerek-ir-di.
(meh*me*din / s*nav*da / kop*ya / ek*me*me*si / ge*re*kir*di )
Mehmet shouldnt have cheated in the examination. (But he did.)
may have verb - [mi, m, m, mu] + ol-abil-ir-[pers]
This modal form adds possibility to verb roots, stems and frames:
Dar-/y/a k-m ol-abil-ir. (The brown underlined words are subject
allomorphs.)
(d*a*r / k*m / o*la*bi*lir )
He may have gone out. (Perhaps he has gone out.)
Dar-/y/a k-m-tr.
(d*a*r / k*m*tr )
He must have gone out. (I am sure he has gone out.)
Otobs- kar-m ol-abil-ir.
(o*to*b*s / ka*r*m / o*la*bi*lir )
He may have missed the bus. (I am sure he has missed it.)
Otobs- kar-m ol-abil-ir mi?
(o*to*b*s / ka*r*m / o*la*bi*lir / mi )
Is it likely to have missed the bus?
Sen-i yanl anla-m ol-abil-ir.
(se*ni / yan*l*an*la*m*o*la*bi*lir ) (Liaison)
She may have misunderstood you. (Perhaps she misunderstood you.)
Bro temizlen-mi ol-abil-ir.
(b*ro / te*miz*len*mi / o*la*bi*lir )
The office may have been cleaned. (Perhaps it has been cleaned.)
Haber-i iit-mi ol-abil-ir-ler mi?
(ha*be*ri / i*it*mi / o*la*bi*lir*ler / mi )
Are they likely to have heard the news?
Vazo-/y/u kedi kr-m ol-abil-ir mi?
(va*zo*yu / ke*di / kr*m / o*la*bi*lir / mi )
Is the cat likely to have broken the vase?
Bir anlama-/y/a var-m ol-abil-ir-ler.
(bir / an*la*ma*ya / var*m / o*la*bi*lir*ler )
They may have reached an agreement.
57

might have verb- [ebil, abil]-[ir]-[di]-[pers]
Kaza geir-ebil-ir-di-ik.
(ka*za: / ge*i*re*bi*lir*dik )
We might have had an accident. (It was probable, but we didnt.)
Pencere-/y/i kr-abil-ir-di-in.
(pen*ce*re*yi / k*ra*bi*lir*din )
You might have broken the window.
(It was probable, but you didnt.)
Ma kaybet-il-ebil-ir-di. (It was probable, but it wasnt lost.)
(ma / kay*be*di*le*bi*lir*di )
The match might have been lost.
(The /t/ changes into /d/.) (Passive)
n-n-de-ki araba-/y/a arp-abil-ir-di-in.
(*nn*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / ar*pa*bi*lir*din )
You might have hit the car in front of you. (But you didn't hit it.)
n-n-de-ki araba-/y/a carp-ma-/y/abil-ir-di-in.
(*nn*de*ki / a*ra*ba*ya / arp*ma*ya*bi*lir*din )
You might not have hit the car in front of you. (But you hit it.)
neednt have noun + infinitive-[e, a] + gerek yok-tu
This modal composition is used to express absence of obligation or necessity. The noun compounds used in the following sentences are showed
between inverted commas.
Aye-/n/in acele et-me-/s/i-/n/e gerek yok-tu.
noun + infinitive comp - [e] (adverbial)
(ay*e*nin / a*ce*le / et*me*si*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu )
Aye neednt have hurried. (But she did.)
Btn soru-lar-a cevap ver-me-en-e gerek yok-tu.
(b*tn / so*ru*la*ra / ce*vap / ver*me*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu )
You neednt have answered all the questions. (But you did.)
Ma- ertele-me-ler-i-/n/e gerek yok-tu.
(ma* / er*te*le*me*le*ri*ne / ge*rek / yok*tu )
They neednt have postponed the match. (But they did.)
iekler-i sula-ma-anz-a gerek yoktu.
(i*ek*le*ri / su*la*ma*n*za / ge*rek / yok*tu )
You neednt have watered the flowers. (But you did.)
58

ift ayakkab al-ma-an-a gerek yoktu.
( / ift / a*yak*ka*b / al*ma*na / ge*rek / yok*tu )
You needn't have bought three pairs of shoes.
Note: git-me-se de olurdu, sula-ma-sa-lar da olurdu sentence types can
also be used as alternatives to the sentences above. The noun compounds
in the sentences above and below are all showed between inverted commas. The consecutive vowels combine and verbalize as single vowels:
didnt need to noun + infinitive-[e, a] + gerek kal-ma-d
This modal form is used to express unfulfilled necessity in the past:
Uzun zaman bekle-me-em-e gerek kal-ma-d.
noun + infinitive comp -[e] (adverbial)
(u*zun / za*man / bek*le*me*me / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
It was not necessary for me to wait for a long time.
I didn need to wait for a long time.
Okul-a yr-/y/erek git-me-emiz-e gerek kal-ma-d.
(o*ku*la / y*r*ye*rek / git*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
We didnt need to walk to school.
iek-ler-in sulan-ma-/s/-/n/a gerek kal-ma-d.
(i*ek*le*rin / su*lan*ma*s*na / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
The flowers didnt need to be watered. (Passive infinitive)
Bir araba kirala-ma-amz-a gerek kal-ma-d.
(bir / a*ra*ba / ki*ra:*la*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
We didnt need to hire a car.
Toplant yap-ma-amz-a gerek kal-ma-d.
(top*lan*t / yap*ma*m*za / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
We didnt need to hold a meeting.
Yardm iste-me-emiz-e gerek kal-ma-d.
(yar*dm / is*te*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
We didnt need to ask for help.
Bekle-me-emiz-e gerek kal-ma-d.
(bek*le*me*mi*ze / ge*rek / kal*ma*d )
We didnt need to wait.
59

LINKING VERBS IN ENGLISH AND TURKISH
Linking verbs are the verbs that carry information about the subject describing who, what, how, and where the subject is, was, can be, etc. The following are all linking verbs: is, are, was, were, has been, have been, will be,
had been, must be, may be, etc. The information that the linking verbs carry
to the subjects are called subject complements.
Present positive:
The subject allomorphs used with present be (am, is, are) are as follows:
(ben): [im, m, m, um]; (sen): [sin, sn, sn, sun]; (o): []; (biz): [iz, z, z,
uz]; (siz): [siniz, snz, snz, sunuz]; (onlar): [() or (ler, lar)]
The subject complements that give information about the subjects may be
nouns, pronouns, adjectives or prepositional phrases. They are as
follows:
Nouns: retmen-im (*ret*me*nim) I am a teacher. Doktor-sun (dok*tor*sun) You are a doctor. O bir doktor (dok*tor). She is a doctor. Biz doktor-uz
(dok*to*ruz) We are doctors. Siz bir retmen-siniz (siz / *ret*men*si*niz)
You are a teacher. Onlar asker (on*lar / as*ker) They are soldiers.
(No time allomorphs are used when the linking verbs are present in Turkish.)
Adjectives: Tembel-im (tem*be*lim) I am lazy. alkan-sn (a*l*kan*sn)
You are hardworking. O mutlu(dur) (o / mut*lu). She is happy. yi-/y/iz (i*yi*yiz) We are all right. Yorgun-sunuz (yor*gun*su*nuz) You are tired. Onlar
isteksiz. They are unwilling.
Postpositional adverbial phrases: The Turkish place allomorphs [de, da,
te, ta] are expressed in English in the prepositions of in, at, on, behind, in front of such as, ev-de, okul-da, sokak-ta, rnek-te, burada, alt-n-da, yan-n-da, n-n-de, arka-/s/n-da, st-n-de yaknn-da.
These Turkish adverbials may be used either as subject complements or
prepositional phrases. For instance; the boys are playing in the garden; In
the harden is a prepositional phrase. However, The boys are in the garden, in
the garden is a subject complement.
ev-de (at home); okul-da (at school, in school); masa-da (on the table, at the
table); kap-da (at the door); kutu-da (in the box); bahe-de (in the garden);
hastane-de (in hospital, in the hospital); uak-ta (on the plane), kap-/n/n
n-/n/-de (in front of the door).
60

The other [e, a] and [den, dan, ten, tan] allomorphs, which turn nouns into
adverbials, are not used with the linking verbs be; they are used together
with action verbs like go, come, wait, sleep, jump, etc.
When the subject complements above end with vowels, they are linked to
the personal subject allomorphs by the /y/ glides:
Postac kap-da. The postman is at the door. Onlar imdi uak-ta. They are
on the plane now. Ben kap-da-/y/m. I am at the door. Sen okul-da-sn. You
are at school. O mutfak-ta. She is in the kitchen. Biz hakl-/y/z. We are right.
iek-ler vazo-da. The flowers are in the vase.
The [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes are also used attached to n, arka,
yan, st, kar, sol, sa, alt, bitiik nouns, such as n-e, arka/y/a, yan-a, st-e, kar-/y/a, yukar-/y/a, n-de, arka-da, yan-da,
alt-ta, st-te, kar-da, sa-da, sol-da, bitiik-te, n-den, arkadan, yan-dan, st-ten, kar-dan, sa-dan, yakn-dan.
These words are all nouns when they are without suffixes; if they were not,
the [E], [DE] and [DEN] morphemes would not be attached to them. When
they are together with these suffixes, they function either as adverbials, or
when the [de, da, te, ta] allomorphs are used with the verbs be they are
used as subject complements in sentences.
Consequently, as these words are all nouns, they are also used in noun
compounds like the simple noun compounds, such as oda-/n/n kap-/s/;
perde-/n/in arka-/s/; ayna-/n/n n-; vazo-/n/un yan-; yatak-n alt-
(ya*ta*n / al*t); bakkal-n bitiik-i (bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*i); koltuk-un sa-
(kol*tu*un / sa*); bakkal-n kar-/s/; ev-in arka-/s/.
When the [de, da] allomorphs are attached to the noun compounds above,
they take the /n/ glides attached to the noun compounds to maintain a harmonious link between the noun compounds and the [de, da] allomorphs.
The noun compounds attached to the [de, da] allomorphs function as subject
complements when be verbs are used. The brown underlined parts are all
subject complements whether they are adjectives, nouns or prepositional
phrases. All the subject complements below are underlined brown:
Kedi perde-/n/in arka-/s//n/-da. (per*de*nin / ar*ka*s)
subj noun compound - /n/da
(subj complement) predicate)
ke*di / per*de*nin / ar*ka*sn*da ).
The cat is behind the curtain. (behind the garden is subject complement.)
61

Gzlk-ler-im ayna-/n/n n-/n/-de. (ay*na*nn / *n)
(gz*lk*le*rim / ay*na*nn / *nn*de )
My glasses are in front of the mirror. (The im, m, m, um, em, am
Turkish possessive subject allomorphs all mean ben-im: my.)
Terlikler-in karyola-/n/n alt-/n/-da.
(ter*lik*le*rin / kar*yo*la*nn / al*tn*da )
Your slippers are under the bed. (The in, n, n, un, en, an allomorphs
mean sen-in: your.)
Ben-im ev-im bakkal-n bitiik-i/n/-de. (bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*i)
(be*nim / e*vim / bak*ka*ln / bi*ti*i*in*de )
My house is next to the grocer.
Sen-in dkkn-n bakkal-n kar-/s//n/-da. (bak*ka*ln / kar**s)
(se*nin / dk*k*nn / bak*ka*ln / kar**sn*da )
Your shop is opposite the grocer.
stasyon sol-da.
(is*tas*yon / sol*da )
The station is on the left.
stasyon bakkal-n sol-u/n/-da. (bak*ka*ln / so*lu)
(is*tas*yon / bak*ka*ln / so*lun*da )
The station is on the left of the grocer.
Kar-m ev-de.
(ka*rm / ev*de )
My wife is at home.
Postane-/n/in n-/n/-de-/y/im. (The im means ben: I.)
(ben / pos*ta:*ne*nin / *nn*de*yim )
I am in front of the post office.
In the sentences above, there are no time morphemes attached to the words
arka-/s//n/-da, n-/n/-de, kar-/s//n/-da, ev-de, etc. The absence of
these time morphemes in the sentences above the zero morphemes imply that the time is present.
Present negative:
To change the positive be linking verbs into negative forms, the negative
making adverb deil is used after a subject complement, such as:
Mutlu deil-im.
(mut*lu / de*i*lim)
I am not happy.
62

stekli deil-siniz. (is*tek*li / de*il*si*niz)
You are not willing. (The siniz, snz, snz, sunuz personal subject allomorphs all mean siz: you.)
Yakkl deil-sin. (The sin, sn, sn, sun subject allomorphs all mean
singular sen: you)
/ya*k*k*l / de*il*sin)
You are not handsome.
Ev-de deil-ler. (The ler, lar subject allomorphs mean onlar: they.)
(ev*de / de*il*ler)
They are not at home.
Baba-am ev-de deil.
(ba*bam / ev*de / de*il)
My father is not at home.
Present positive question:
To turn the positive linking verbs into the positive question forms, the [mi,
m] interrogative allomorphs are attached to the personal subject
allomorphs, which are used followed by the subject complements:
Deli mi-/y/im?
(de*li / mi*yim)
Am I crazy?
Ev-de mi-sin?
(ev*de / mi*sin)
Are you at home?
Fatma-/n/n gz-ler-i mavi mi?
(fat*ma*nn / gz*le*ri / ma*vi / mi)
Are Fatmas eyes blue?
Dikkatsiz mi-/y/iz? (The iz, z, z, uz subject allomorphs mean biz: we.)
(dik*kat*siz / mi*yiz)
Are we careless?
Hazr m-snz?
(ha*zr / m*s*nz)
Are you ready?
yi-ler mi?
(i*yi*ler / mi)
Are they all right?
63

Present negative question:
To turn a positive linking verb form into a negative linking verb form, the negative making adverb deil is used after the subject complement:
alkan deil mi-/y/im?
(a*l*kan / de*il / mi*yim)
Am I not hardworking?
Sorumlu deil mi-siniz?
(so*rum*lu / de*il / mi*si*niz)
Arent you responsible?
Anne-en ev-de deil mi?
(an*nen / ev*de / de*il / mi)
Isnt your mother at home?
steksiz degil-ler mi?
(is*tek*siz / de*il*ler / mi)
Arent they unwilling?
Hazr deil mi-/y/iz?
(ha*zr / de*il / mi*yiz)
Arent we ready?
Gzel deil mi-/y/im?
(g*zel / de*il / mi*yim)
Am I not beautiful?
Question words used with the linking verbs:
Nere-de-siniz? Ev-de-/y/im. (One word)
(ne*re*de*si*niz)
Where are you? I am at home.
Nasl-snz? yi-/y/im.
(na*sl*s*nz)
How are you? I am quite well.
Niin hazr deil-/s/in?
(ni*in / ha*zr / de*il*sin)
Why arent you ready?
Kim-sin? (Ben) Ahmet-im.
(kim*sin)
Who are you? I am Ahmet.
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Nerede-/y/iz? stanbul-da-/y/z.
(ne*re*de*yiz)
Where are we? We are in stanbul.
English does not have enough suffxes or prefixes to turn all adjectives into
verbs. Therefore, this deficiency is fulfilled by some linking verbs such as
get, grow, look, turn, smell, sound, become, which are followed by nouns
or adjectives (subject complements).
As some Turkish adjectives can be turned into verbs by attaching some suffixes to adjectives, some English linking verbs are not used in Turkish.
Therefore, verbs are used instead. In the following examples, you can see
how Turkish adjectives or nouns turn into verbs by attaching some suffixes
to them:
Gzel gzel-le, yal ya-lan, soguk sou, uzun uza, ksa
ksal, yorgun yorul, hazr hazr-lan, sar sarar, sinirli sinir-len,
scak sn, phe phe-len, sakin sakin-le, krmz kzar, g
g-le, koku kok, sar sarar.
Example sentences:
Herkes yalan-r. (Yalan is an intransitive verb which means grow old.)
(her*kes / ya*la*nr)
Everybody grows old. (Grow is a linking verb, old is an adjective.)
Hava sou-uyor. (Sou is an intransitive verb which means get cold)
(ha*va / so*u*yor)
It is getting colder. (Get is a linking verb, cold is an adjective.)
Yorgun grn-yor-sun. (Grn is a reflexive verb, yorgun is an adverb)
(yor*gun / g*r*n*yor*sun)
You look tired. (Look is a linking verb; tired is an adjective.)
Yaprak-lar sonbahar-da sarar-r. (Sarar means turn yellow.)
(yap*rak*lar / son*ba*har*da / sa*ra*rr)
Leaves turn yellow in the autumn.
orba nefis kok-uyor. (Kok is an intransitive verb; nefis is an adverb.)
(o*ba / ne*fis / ko*ku*yor)
The soup smells delicious. (Smell is a linking verb; delicious is an adjective.)
renci-ler sessiz kal-d-lar. (Kal is an intransitive verb; sessiz is an adverb.)
(*ren*ci*ler / ses*siz / kal*d*lar)
The students remained silent. (Remain is a linking verb; silent is an adj)
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Kendim-i iyi hisset-iyor-um. (Hisset is a transitive verb; iyi is an adverb.)
(ken*di*mi / i*yi / his*se*di*yo*rum)
I feel good. (Feel is a linking verb; good is an adjective.)
Aptallk et-iyor-sun. (Et is a transitive verb; aptallk is its indefinite object.)
(ap*tal*lk / e*di*yor*sun)
You are being foolish. (Are being is a linking verb; foolish is an adjective.)
-d/y/-se-en ceket-in-i giy. ( is intransitive; it means feel cold)
(**dy*sen / ce*ke*ti*ni / giy)
If you feel cold, put your coat on. (Feel is a linking verb; cold is an adj,)
Fatma gn-den gn-e gzel-le-iyor. (Gzel-le means get beautiful.)
(fat*ma / gn*den / g*ne / g*zel*le*i*yor)
Fatma is getting more beautiful day by day.
Bu yumurtalar pis kok-uyor. Pis is an adverb because kok is an action verb.
(bu / yu*mur*ta*lar / pis / ko*ku*yor)
These eggs smell nasty. (Smell is a linking verb.)
Proje-en ilgin grn-yor. (lgin is used as an adverb in Turkish.)
(pro*jen / il*gin / g*r*n*yor)
Your project seems (sounds) interesting.
Note: Nearly all adjectives in Turkish can be used as adverbs without
changing their forms. For instance:
O iyi bir kz-dr. (Adjective) She is a good girl. (Adjective)
O iyi yz-er. (Adverb) She swims well. (Adverb)
Bu yava bir araba-dr. (Adjective) This is a slow car. (Adjective)
Bu araba yava gider. (Adverb) This car goes slowly. (Adverb)
O gzel bir kz-dr. (Adjective) She is a beautiful girl. (Adjective)
O gzel ark syler. (Adverb) She sings beautifully. (Adverb)
SIMPLE PAST LINKING VERBS

The simple past tense allomorphs of the verb be are [di, d, d, du, ti, t,
t, tu], which are attached to the personal subject allomorphs below:
(ben) [im, m, m, um], (sen) [in, n, n, un], (o) [], (biz) [ik, k, k, uk], (siz)
[iniz, nz, nz, unuz], (onlar) [ler, lar]
Positive:
Ev-de/y/-di-im. (One word)
(ev*dey*dim)
I was at home. (Four words)
66

Hazr-d-nz. (One word)
(ha*zr*d*nz)
You were ready. (Three words)
Mutlu/y/-du-uk.
(mut*luy*duk)
We were happy.
Sarho-tu-lar.
(sar*ho*tu*lar)
They were drunk.
renci-ler neeli/y/-di.
(*ren*ci*ler / ne*e*liy*di)
The students were cheerful.
Araba-am kap-/n/n n-/n/-de/y/-di.
(a*ra*bam / ka*p*nn / *nn*dey*di)
My car was in front of the door.
Negative:
To turn a positive linking verb into a negative statement, the negative
making adverb deil is used after the subject complement, which is attached to past time and personal subject allomorphs:
Yorgun deil-di-im.
(yor*gun / de*il*dim)
I was not tired. (I wasnt tired.)
Sorumlu deil-di-iniz.
(so*rum*lu / de*il*di*niz)
You were not responsible. (You werent responsible.)
Ev-de deil-ler-di.
(ev*de / de*il*ler*di)
They were not at home. (They werent at home.)
Megul deil-di-ik.
(me*gul / de*il*dik)
We were not busy. (We werent busy.)
Positive question:
To turn a positive linking verb into a positive question form, one of the [mi,
67

m, m, mu] question allomorphs is attached to time and personal allomorphs separately:
Dn okul-da m/y/-d-n?
(dn / o*kul*da / my*dn)
Were you at school yesterday?
Miting kalabalk m/y/-d?
(mi*ting / ka*la*ba*lk / my*d)
Was the meeting crowded?
Yorgun mu/y/-du-unuz?
(yor*gun / muy*du*nuz)
Were you tired?
Sorular zor mu/y/-du?
(so*ru*lar / zor / muy*du)
Were the questions difficult?
Negative question:
In negative question forms, the negative making adverb deil follows the
subject complement as they are in the following examples:
Dn okul-da deil mi/y/-di-in?
(dn / o*kul*da / de*il / miy*din)
Were you not at school yesterday? (Werent you at school?)
Masal ilgin deil mi/y/-di?
(ma*sal / il*gin / de*il / miy*di)
Wasnt the story interesting?
renci-ler ren-mek iin istekli deil mi/y/-di-ler?
(*ren*ci*ler / *ren*mek / i*in / is*tek*li / de*il / miy*di*ler)
Werent the students eager to learn?
Hazr deil mi/y/-di-iniz?
(ha*zr / de*il / miy*di*niz)
Weret you ready?
Have been, has been, had been, will be
Kz karde-im on yl-dr retmen.
(kz / kar*de*im / on / yl*dr / *ret*men)
My sister has been a teacher for ten years.
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Hava gn-dr ok souk.
(ha*va / / gn*dr / ok / so*uk)
It has been very cold for three days.
Oul-um yaknda doctor ol-acak.
(o*lum / ya*kn*da / dok*tor / o*la*cak)
My son will be a doctor soon.
Modal Verbs with Liking Verbs
Modal verbs can be used both with action verbs and liking verbs in English
and Turkish. We will show only the modal verbs that are used with linking
verbs in the following example sentences.
Present modals positive:
ol-[abil-ir]-[personal subject allomorph] = can be or may be
Turkish modal verbs are used followed by subject complements attached
by one of the personal subject allomorphs: (ben) [im], (sen) [sin], (o) [],
(biz) [iz], (siz) [siniz], [onlar) [ler]:
Yorgun ol-abil-ir-im. (Possibility)
(yor*gun / o*la*bi*li*rim)
I may be tired.
Sorumlu ol-abil-ir-sin.
(so*rum*lu / o*la*bi*lir*sin)
You may be responsible.
Jack bahe-de ol-abil-ir.
(jack / bah*e*de / o*la*bi*lir)
Jack may be in the garden.
Megul ol-abil-ir-iz.
(me*gul / o*la*bi*li*riz)
We may be busy.
steksiz ol-abil-ir-siniz.
(is*tek*siz / o*la*bi*lir*si*niz)
You may be unwilling.
Turist ol-abil-ir-ler.
(tu*rist / o*la*bi*lir*ler)
They may be tourists.
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Negative:
ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-[personal subject allomorph] = may not be
Ev-de ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-im.
(ev*de / ol*ma*ya*bi*li*rim)
I may not be at home.
Mutlu ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-sin.
(mut*lu / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*sin)
You may not be happy.
Ankara-da hava gneli ol-ma-/y/abil-ir.
(an*ka*ra*da / ha*va / g*ne*li / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir)
The weather may not be sunny in Ankara.
Okul-un n-/n/-de ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-iz.
(o*ku*lun / *nn*de / ol*ma*ya*bi*li*riz)
We may not be in front of the school.
Hakl ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-siniz.
(hak*l / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*si*niz)
You may not be right.
Holan-m ol-ma-/y/abil-ir-ler.
(ho*lan*m / ol*ma*ya*bi*lir*ler)
They may not be pleased.
Positive question:
Can is used in question forms in English in place of may:
Baarl ol-abil-ir mi-/y/im?
(ba*a*r*l / o*la*bi*lir / mi*yim)
Can I be successful?
Yarn bro-um-da ol-abil-ir mi-sin?
(ya*rn / b*rom*da / o*la*bi*lir / mi*sin)
Can you be in my office tomorrow?
Anne-en fkeli ol-abil-ir mi?
(an*nen / f*ke*li / o*la*bi*lir / mi)
Can your mother be angry?
Saat be-te hazr ol-abil-ir mi-/y/iz?
(sa*at / be*te / ha*zr / o*la*bi*lir / mi*yiz)
Can we be ready at five?
70

Dikkatli ol-abil-ir mi-siniz?
(dik*kat*li / o*la*bi*lir / mi*si*niz)
Can you be careful?
Birazdan hazr ol-abil-ir-ler mi?
(bi*raz*dan / ha*zr / o*la*bi*lir*ler / mi)
Can they be ready soon?
Negative question:
To turn the ol-abil-r modal form into negative, ol-amaz modal form is
used:
Hakl ol-amaz m-/y/m?
(hak*l / o*la*maz / m*ym)
Cant I be right?
Drst ol-amaz m-sn?
(d*rust / o*la*maz / m*sn)
Cant you be honest?
Jack futbol oynuyor ol-amaz m?
(jack / fut*bol / oy*nu*yor / o*la*maz / m)
Cant Jack be playing football?
Susuz ol-amaz m-/y/z?
(su*suz / o*la*maz / m*yz)
Cant we be innocent?
Dikkatli ol-amaz m-snz?
(dik*kat*li / o*la*maz / m*s*nz)
Cant you be careful?
Sabrl ol-amaz-lar m?
(sa*br*l / o*la*maz*lar / m)
Cant they be patient?
Ol-mal = must be
Positive:
To arrange a must be model form in Turkish, a subject complement + olmal-[subject allomorphs] verb phrase should be used, which expresses
either certainty or necessity or both. Here are some example sentences:
Hazr ol-mal-sn. (Certainty or necessity)
(ha*zr / ol*ma*l*sn)
You must be ready. (Certainty or necessity)
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The Turkish and English sentences above are ambiguous because they may
both mean I am certain that you are ready or It is necessary for you to be
ready.
O-/n/a inan-dk-m iin aptal ol-mal-/y/m. (Certainty)
(o*na / i*nan*d*m / i*in / ap*tal / ol*ma*l*ym)
I must be stupid to believe him. (I am sure that I am stupid.)
Sinirli ol-mal-sn. (Certainty)
(si*nir*li / ol*ma*l*sn)
You must be nervous. (I am sure that you are nervous.)
Baba-an dahi ol-mal. (Certainty)
(ba*ban / da*hi / ol*ma*l)
Your father must be genius. (I am sure your father is genius.)
Dikkatli ol-mal-/y/z. (Necessity)
(dik*kat*li / ol*ma*l*yz)
We must be careful. (It is necessary for us to be careful.)
Cesur ol-mal-snz.
(ce*sur / ol*ma*l*s*nz)
You must be brave. (I am sure you are brave, or I want you to be brave.)
Sabrsz ol-mal-lar. (Certainty)
(sa*br*sz / ol*ma*l*lar)
They must be impatient. (I am sure that they are impatient.)
Negative:
In the negative form, the negative making allomorph [ma] attaches to the
verb ol:
Sabrsz ol-ma-mal-/y/m. (Necessity)
(sa*br*sz / ol*ma*ma*l*ym)
I mustnt be impatient.
zgn ol-ma-mal-sn. (I want you not to be sorry.) (Necessity)
(z*gn / ol*ma*ma*l*sn)
You mustnt be sorry.
zl-me-meli-sin. (I advise you not to be sorry.) (Necessity)
(*zl*me*me*li*sin)
You mustnt feel sad.
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Tertipsiz ol-ma-mal. (Necessity)
(ter*tip*siz / ol*ma*ma*l)
He mustnt be untidy.
Dikkatsiz ol-ma-mal-/y/z. (Necessity)
(dik*kat*siz / ol*ma*ma*l*yz)
We mustnt be careless.
Kaytsz ol-ma-mal-snz. (Necessity)
(ka*yt*sz / ol*ma*ma*l*s*nz)
You mustnt be indifferent.
Ge kal-ma-mal-lar. (Necessity)
(ge / kal*ma*ma*l*lar)
They mustnt be late.
Positive question:
In question forms, the [m] interrogative allomorph attaches to the subject
allomorphs, and they follow the [ol-mal] verb together as a separate word:
Hazr ol-mal m-/y/m? (Is it necessary?)
(ha*zr / ol*ma*l / m*ym)
Must I be ready?
Sabah-leyin okul-da ol-mal m-sn? (Is it necessary?)
(sa*bah*le*yin / o*kul*da / ol*ma*l / m*sn)
Must you be at school in the morning?
Balklar kzar-m m ol-mal? (Is it necessary?)
(ba*lk*lar / k*zar*m / m / ol*ma*l)
Must the fish be fried?
Sabrl m ol-mal-/y/z? (Is it necessary?)
(sa*br*l / m / ol*ma*l*yz)
Must we be patient?
Kukulu ol-mal m-snz? (Is it necessary?)
(ku*ku*lu / ol*ma*l / m*s*nz)
Must you be doubtful
Uak-ta ol-mal-lar m? (Is it necessary?)
(u*ak*ta / ol*ma*l*lar / m)
Must they be on the plane?
73

Interrogative words used with linking verbs:
Question words can be put in the beginning of all interrogative sentences
using linking verbs in Turkish and English. Additionally, the modal verbs
change their places and they are put before the subjects in English. In
Turkish, the rest of the sentences are either in positive or negative form as
they are in the example sentences below:
Ne zaman hazr ol-mal-/y/z?
(ne / za*man / ha*zr / ol*ma*l*yz)
When must we be ready?
Nere-de ol-mal-lar?
(ne*re*de / ol*ma*l*lar)
Where must they be?
ol-ama(z) = cant be (Impossibility)
When the subject allomorphs attach to the ol-ama(z) modal verbs, they
change as follows:
For the first person singular ben and for the first person plural biz the
ama, eme negation allomorphs are used. However, for the rest of all
subjects and in interrogative sentences the emez or amaz negation
allomorphs are used.
(ben) ol-ama-am (o*la*mam), (sen) ol-amaz-sn (o*la*maz*sn), (o) ol-amaz
(o*la*maz), (biz) ol-ama-/y/z (o*la*ma*yz), (siz) ol-amaz-snz (o*la*maz*s*nz), (onlar) ol-amaz-lar (o*la*maz*lar).
(Ben) sen-siz ol-ama-am.
(sen*siz / o*la*mam)
I cant be without you.
Ciddi ol-amaz-sn; aka yap-yor ol-mal-sn.
(cid*di / o*la*maz*sn / a*ka / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l*sn)
You cant be serious; you must be joking.
Jack ders al-yor ol-amaz; futbol oyna-uyor ol-mal.
(jack / ders / a*li*i*yor / o*la*maz / a*ka / ya*p*yor / ol*ma*l)
Jack cant be studying; he must be playing football.
Hatal ol-ama-/y/z.
(ha*ta*l / o*la*ma*yz)
We cant be wrong.
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Sabrl ol-amaz-snz.
(sa*br*l / o*la*maz*s*nz)
You cant be patient.
steksiz ol-amaz-lar.
(is*tek*siz / o*la*maz*lar)
They cant be unwilling.
Question:
yi bir yzc ol-amaz m-/y/m?
(i*yi / bir / y*z*c / o*la*maz / m*ym)
Cant I be a good swimmer?
Yardmc ol-amaz m-snz?
(yar*dm*c / o*la*maz / m*s*nz)
Cant you be helpful?
Syle-dik-i doru ol-amaz m?
(sy*le*di*i / do*ru / o*la*maz / m)
Cant what he said be true?
Baarl ol-amaz m-/y/z?
(ba*a*r*l / o*la*maz / m*yz)
Cant we be successful?
Bro-da ol-amaz m-snz?
(b*ro* da / o*la*maz / m*s*nz)
Cant you be in the office?
Sorumsuz ol-amaz-lar m?
(so*rum*lu / o*la*maz*lar / m)
Cant they be irresponsible?
Perfect modals:
should have been
Although past modals are used with action verbs, they are not much used
with linking verbs. However, perfect modals may be used with linking verbs
as follows.
Positive:
Daha dikkatli ol-mal/y/-d-n.
subj compl
verb
subj
(da*ha / dik*kat*li / ol*ma*ly*dn)

You should have been more careful.
75

Saat sekiz-de okul-da ol-mal/y/-d-n.
(sa*at / se*kiz*de / o*kul*da / ol*ma*ly*dn)
You should have been at scool at eight.
Ge kal-abil-ir-di-in.
(ge / ka*la*bi*lir*din)
You might have been late.
Some sensory verbs are used in English as linking verbs:
Jack is looking tired.
Jack yorgun grn-yor.
In the Turkish sentence above, the verb gr (see) is used in place of the
verb look (bak), and the verb gr has turned into grn verb, which is
a reflexive verb in Turkish.
This cake smells delicious.
Bu kek lezzetli kokuyor.
The verb smell is both a linking and an action verb in English. For instance, in the sentence Jack is smelling the cake, the verb smell is an
action verb. However, in the sentence The cake smells delicious, the
verb smell is a linking verb.
Although the verb smell is both an action verb and a linking verb in English, there is a verb that is only used as a liking verb kok smell in Turkish,
and there is another action verb kokla (smell) in Turkish, too.
Jack is smelling the cake.
Jack pastay kokla-uyor. (kok*lu*yor)
This cake smells delicious. (Delicious is an adjective.)
Bu pasta lezzetli kok-uyor. (Lezzetli is an adverb.)
As a general rule in Turkish, when a verb ends with a vowel, this last vowel
drops, and the consonant preceding the vowel detaches from its syllable,
and attaches to the following vowel. In the verb kokla-uyor, the last vowel
of the verb root is a, which is double underlined, drops and the single underlined l detaches from its syllable and attaches to the vowel u to form
an oral sequence. In short, kokla-uyor becomes (kok*lu*yor) in speech.
Additionally, if a word ends with a consonant, this last consonant also detaches from its syllable and attaches to the first vowel of the following word
or allomorph. Therefore, in kok-uyor, the single underlined consonant k
detaches from its syllable and attaches to the following vowel u when the
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Turkish sound system produce an oral sequence. In short, kok-uyor
becomes (ko*ku*yor) in speech.
Although there are a limited number of adjectives that can turn into verbs by
attaching suffixes in English, most of the Turkish adjectives can be turned
into verbs by attaching several allomorphs to these adjectives. These verbs
are used in place of the linking verbs of the English language.
There are some linking verbs that are used both as linking verbs and action
verbs in English. These linking and action verbs and their Turkish equivalents are as follows:
Grow:
My uncle grows vegetables. (Action verb)
Amca-am sebze yetitir-iyor. (Action verb)
Everything is growing difficult. (Linking verb)
Herey gle-iyor. (Action verb)
Look:
Jack is looking at Mary. (Action verb)
Jack Mary-/y/e bak-yor. (Action verb)
Mary always looks beautiful. (Linking verb)
Mary hep gzel grn-r. (Gzel is an adverb.)
Turn:
The engine turns the wheels. (Action verb)
Motor tekerler-i dndr-r. (Action verb)
Leaves turn yellow in october. (Linking verb)
Yaprak-lar sonbahar-da sarar-r. (Action verb)
In place of the linking verb + adjective formation of the English language,
the verb forms of the adjectives are used in Turkish instead.
Most English linking verbs help to produce action concepts when they are
used together with adjectives. You can see a list of common Turkish linking verbs and their English equivalents in the following list:
77
ADJECTIVE
VERB
ADJECTIVE
VERB + ADJECTIVE
get (feel) hungry
become confused
cloud, get cloudy
get ugly
go crazy
increase in value
get deep, deepen
be careful
correct, fix
bend
turn sour
become (get) poor
get younger
come true
grow difficult
grow stronger
eabecome butiful
get ready
get wet
get better
become impolite
get crowded
get dark
worry, feel anxious
become (get) dirty
redden, blush
get shorter, shorten
envy
be angry
get easy
grow worse
dry
decrease, become
smaller
become purple
cheer up
ripen
A
Aptal
Bulutlu
irkin
Deli
Deerli
Derin
dikkatli
Dzgn
Eri
Eki
Fakir
Gen
Gerek
G
Gl
Gzel
Hazr
Islak
yi
Kaba
Kalabalk
Karanlk
Kaygl
Kirli
Krmz
Ksa
Kskan
Kzgn
Kolay
Kt
Kuru
Kk
ack
aptalla
bulutlan
irkinle
delir
deerlen
derinle
dikkat et
dzelt
eril
eki
fakirle
genle
gerekle
gle
glen
gzelle
hazrlan
slan
iyile
kabala
kalabalkla
karar
kayglan
kirlen
kzar
ksal
kskan
kz
kolayla
ktle
kuru
kl
hungry
foolish
cloudy
ugly
crazy
precious
deep
careful
straight
bent
sour
poor
young
true
difficult
strong
beautiful
ready
wet
good, well
impolite
crowded
dark
worried
dirty
red
short
envious
angry
easy
bad
dry
small
Mor
Neeli
Olgun
morar
neelen
olgunla
purple
cheerful
ripe
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ADJECTIVE
VERB
ADJECTIVE
VERB + ADJECTIVE
Pahal
pahalan
expensive
adjective
Parlak
Rahat
Renkli
Sakin
Serin
Sert
verb
parla
rahatla
renklen
sakinle
serinle
sertle
adjective
shiny
comfortable
colorful
calm
cool
solid, hard
Sinirli
Sklm
Souk
Tembel
Umutlu
Uslu
sinirlen
skl
sou
tembelle
umutlan
uslan
nervous, angry
bored
cold
lazy
hopeful
well-behaved
Uzun
uza
long
zgn
Yanl
Yaramaz
Yal
Yeil
Yoksul
Yksek
Zayf
Zengin
Zor
zl
yanl
yaramazla
yalan
yeillen
yoksulla
yksel
zayfla
zenginle
zorla
sorry
wrong
naughty
old
green
poor
high
weak
rich
difficult
become more
expensive
verb + adjective
shine
relax
become colorful
calm down
become cooler
become hard,
harden
get angry
be bored
become (get) cold
grow lazier
become hopeful
become wellbehaved
get (grow) longer,
lengthen
be (feel) sorry
be mistaken
get naughtier
grow older
turn green
get poorer
rise
lose weight
get rich
get difficult
Those who want to find more example sentences can find them in my
free book titled English Turkish Grammar Functional and Transformational, Yuksel Goknel on the internet.
79

Morphemes, Allomorphs and Syllables in English and Turkish

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Morphemes, Allomorphs and Syllables in English and Turkish

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[Metni yazn]

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

2. The thin (front) vowel harmony chain:

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

O siz-i gr-d. O o/n/-lar- gr-d.

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

gel-ir-im = I come, al-r-m = I buy, gr-r-m = I see, otur-ur-um = I sit

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

[mez mi-yim, maz m-ym]

Gel-mez mi-yim? (Dont I come?), Al-maz m-sn? (Dont you buy?),

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

Present continuous negative:

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

(ev / *de*vi*ni / yap*man / ge*re*kir*di )

MORPHEMES, ALLOMORPHS and SYLLABLES in TURKISH and ENGLISH

(ev / devini / yapman / gerekir*di )

(daha / dikkatli / olmalydn)