Professional Documents
Culture Documents
As seen in Figure 1, the building has five floors with a flat roof, and is rectangular in shape. It has a
total floor area of 700 sq. m with dimensions of 50 m x 14 m. The first floor contains the refectory (dining),
chapel, lobby, infirmary (clinic), recreation area, kitchen and staff room. The second and third floors contain
class rooms, laboratories, library, and offices. The fourth and fifth floor contain the study area and
dormitories. It has a main stair, fire exit, ramps, and an elevator. The height of each floor is 3 m having a
total of 15 m.
PLANNING/CONCEPTUALIZATION
Figure
4. Project
Development
Process
Figure
3. Project
Development
Process
The project development process started with the planning/conceptualization. In this stage, the
identification of client was the most important so as to know the structure to be build. In this case, the
structure requested by the client was a seminary. It also included the identification of the location where the
structure was intended to be built.
The next stage was the identification of design standards. Knowing the structure to be constructed,
the next part was to know the specific design standards that are required before coming up to the design
(i.e., minimum dimension of a classroom, minimum size of an elevator shaft, etc.). These will set the
parameters in the creation of the architectural and floor plans which is the next stage in the process.
4
In the third stage, the plans will be presented to the client so that alterations could be made. After
all has been settled, constraints can now be identified, which is the next stage. In this, the constraints that
were projected will then be classified as either qualitative or quantitative. Knowing the quantitative tradeoffs will pave the way to the determination of the trade-offs for the structure.
In the last stage, the geometric design, computation, and final estimation for each trade-offs will be
made. Then, all of these will be presented to the client. The client will then rate each trade-off. The one
which has the most favorable rating among all will then be chosen for the design of the structure.
Table 1 shows the total floor area and the different areas of the rooms contained in each floor.
Table 1. Total Floor Areas and Functions per Floor
FUNCTION
AREA (m2)
1ST Floor
Ramps and Elevator
49
Stairs
25
C.R.
22.5
Chapel
168
Refectory
168
Staff Room
63
Clinic
49
Lobby
70
Kitchen
63
Hallway
22.5
TOTAL
700
2nd Floor
49
Stairs
25
C.R.
22.5
Offices
3(45)
4(63)
Other Rooms
32.5
Lounge
35
Hallway
79
TOTAL
700
3rd Floor
49
Stairs
25
8
C.R.
22.5
Offices
45
Class Room
2(63)
Other Rooms
133
Faculty Room
65
Library
94.5
Hallway
73.5
Sisters Room
66.5
TOTAL
700
4th Floor
49
Stairs
12.5
C.R.
22.5
Study Area
178.5
Dormitory
255.5
66.5
59.5
Laundry
28
Hallway
28
TOTAL
700
5th Floor
49
Stairs
25
Hallway
28
Dormitory (1)
201
Dormitory (2)
196
2(59.5)
Laundry
28
Rectors Room
66.5
9
TOTAL
700
3500
10
As
Figure 7, the
nearest
to
seen
in
fault
line
the area is
the Makati Valley Fault System which is 16 km away. The seismic source type is considered as Type C
since this fault line is not prone on producing large magnitude of earthquakes. With these data, the near
source factors Na and Nv are both 1.0. The values of Ca and Cv are now determined as 0.44 and 0.64
respectively.
Since the building is rectangular, it is a regular structure. Special Moment Resisting Frame System
(SMRF) was utilized in the longitudinal, and special steel concentric braces frame was utilized in the
transverse axis, thus, the seismic response coefficient (R) is 7. Static force procedure was utilized for the
determination of the seismic forces acting on the strcture.
computed. These values are those needed in the determination of the wind pressure acting on the
structure.
12
Load (kPa)
Ceiling
Gypsum Board
Mechanical Duct Allowance
Wood Furring Suspension System
Floor and Floor Finishes
Cement Finish on
Stone Concrete Fill
Ceramic Quarry Tile
Masonry
For Plastering (both sides)
0.008
0.2
0.12
1.53
1.1
0.24
LIVE LOADS
Basic Floor Area
1.9
13
14
15
16
3. Safety (Deflection). The designer considered the safety of the structure with respect to its
vertical axis. Having considered the constructability of structure either using rolled or built-up
sections, it is also reasonable to look at the safety of the structure. This must be capable to
withstand the gravity loads.
4. Strength (Capacity). The designer considered the capacity of a connection to resist the
possible failures such as failure in bearing, shearing (double or single), tensile, block shear.
Knowing the capacity of the bolt would lead the designer to know how serviceable the structure
is. The designer also measured the tensile capacity that the tension members can resist, and
the axial capacity that columns can carry.
3.1.2 Qualitative Constraints
1. Aesthetics. The beauty of the structure lies upon its final output. This constraint depends on
the taste of a person therefore it is considered as a qualitative constraint. It depends on a
persons perception which design is more presentable.
2. Social. People are very influential when it comes to ideas and other things. In this project, the
friends and relatives of the client might give him an idea which might alter the work of the
designer. Demands from these people might affect the decision of the client and the designer.
3. Health and Safety. Different areas surrounding commercial building might affect the people
that might use the commercial building. Smoke from the cars using the roads and cigarettes,
smell from the nearby canal, laundry areas, restaurants, etc., are examples of these hazardous
odor that might affect health and safety of the people in the building.
18
CONSTRAINTS
SPECIFIC
QUALITATIVE
GENERAL
QUANTITATIVE
TENSION MEMBERS
BEAMS
COLUMNS
ECONOMIC
SOCIAL
CONSTRUCTABILITY
AESTHETICS
SAFETY
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
WELDED CONNECTIONS
STRENGTH
19
3.2 Tradeoffs
Design trade-off strategies are always present in the design process. Considering design
constraints, trade-offs that have a significant effect on the structural design of the structure was provided by
the designer. As a trade-off, the designer will have to evaluate which of the two is more effective
considering each constraint. The following are the tradeoffs that were chosen by the designer because they
are the most fitted to the said constraints.
Tradeoffs in Beams and Columns. The first part of the project is to determine which section is
more effective for a structural member (beams and columns). The designer utilized the rolled sections (W
Shapes) and built up sections (BW Shapes) as tradeoffs for the structural members. Considering both
tradeoffs to be effective and efficient in the design, the designer sought to find out which section will have
greater performance considering the constraints; economic, constructability, safety, and strength.
Tradeoffs in Tension Members. The tension members for the structure are the x-bracing. The
designer chose the tradeoffs to be the section of the tension member, namely single angle with equal legs,
20
and single angle with unequal legs. The designer would like to know if there will be difference in the
performance of the two sections.
Tradeoffs in Bolted Connections. Bolted connections are widely used in almost every
mechanical and structural system due to the added flexibility of assembly and disassembly of sub-systems
for inspection, replacement, and routine maintenance. The designer utilized bolted connections in the
bracing of the structure. The tradeoffs for bolted connections is the bolt hole that will be used, namely
standard hole dimensions and oversized hole dimensions. The designer would like to know if there will be
alterations in the performance of the connection when these two are applied.
Tradeoffs in Welded Connections. Welded connections are joints connected through welding.
The designer planned that the beams and columns of the structure will be connected through welding. The
tradeoffs chosen by the designer for the welded connections are the electrodes that will be used in welding.
COLUMNS
TRADEOFF IN SECTION
BEAMS
TRADEOFFS
TENSION MEMBERS
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
CONNECTIONS
21
WELDED CONNECTIONS
TRADEOFF IN TYPE OF WELDING EQUIPMEN
22
Difference( )=
difference
)
10
Equation 1
Equation 2
The above equations will be used for the manipulation of the rankings of each constraint given to
the tradeoffs. The governing rank is the highest possible value set by the designer. The subordinate rank in
second equation is a variable that corresponds to its percentage difference from the governing rank along
the ranking scale.
23
Tradeoffs
Rolled
Php 20,596,736
74 days
0.30%
Built Up
Php 16,529,336
84 days
0.22%
Economic
20,596,736
16,529,336
5
19.75
3
CRITERIA
Constructability
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
2
Safety
0.297
0.222
5
25.09
2
For the economic constraint, initial cost estimate is provided in the Appendix. To make an initial cost
estimate, the designer considered the two tradeoffs to have the same area, and due to their different weights, the
24
tradeoffs will have different cost. To compute the rank of each tradeoff, the designer used the formula formerly
enumerated.
For the constructability constraint, the designer considered the manufacturability of each section. In this
constraint, the designer gave a rank of 5 to Rolled Sections, and 2 fof Built Up sections. The main reason is that
the rolled sections is manufactured as one, considering only the molding and curing time of the whole member,
while built up section are rolled sections combined together to form another section, thus, aside from molding and
curing time, we also consider the stiffening of the section.
For the safety of the member, the designer considered the deflection per unit of length, of the same
shapes used in the economic section. The deflection was presented in terms of percentage of the allowable
deflection. Like in economic constraint, the rank for each tradeoff was computed.
COLUMNS
INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
Criteria
Economic
Tradeoffs
Rolled
Php 20,596,736
Built Up
Php 16,529,336
Economic
9,957,151
9,351,936
5
6.08
4
CRITERIA
Constructability
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
2
Strength
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
4
For the economic constraint, initial cost estimate is provided in the Appendix. To make an initial
cost estimate, the designer considered the two tradeoffs to have the same area, and due to their different
weights, the tradeoffs will have different cost. To compute the rank of each tradeoff, the designer used the
formula formerly enumerated.
For the constructability constraint, the designer considered the manufacturability of each section. In
this constraint, the designer gave a rank of 5 to Rolled Sections, and 2 fof Built Up sections. The main
25
reason is that the rolled sections is manufactured as one, considering only the molding and curing time of
the whole member, while built up section are rolled sections combined together to form another section,
thus, aside from molding and curing time, we also consider the stiffening of the section.
For the strength of the member, values cannot be assumed since axial capacity of columns can
only be measured after analyzing the whole structure. Therefore, the designer sought a way to rank this
constraint. The designer gave a higher rank to the rolled beam sections because considering same area of
cross sections, they always give lower value of weight. Thus, they can still carry greater amount of load to
be sum up with their selfweights. Thus, the designer gave a rank of 5 to rolled sections, and 4 for built up
sections.
TENSION MEMBERS
INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
Criteria
Economic
Tradeoffs
Rolled
Php 77,520
Built Up
Php 119,321
Summary
Higher Value
Lower Value
Governing Rank
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
Economic
119,321
77,520
5
35.03
1
CRITERIA
Constructability
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
4
Safety
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
3
26
For the economic constraint, initial cost estimate is provided in the Appendix. To make an initial
cost estimate, the designer considered the two tradeoffs to have the same area, and due to their different
weights, the tradeoffs will have different cost. To compute the rank of each tradeoff, the designer used the
formula formerly enumerated.
For the constructability constraint, the designer considered the manufacturability of each section. In
this constraint, the designer gave a rank of 5 to Single Angle with Equal Legs because there is equal
distribution in the period of time in both legs, unlike in unequal legs, ranked as 4, because they can have
variation of manufacturing, especially in curing time.
For the strength of the member, In this part, values cannot be assumed since axial capacity of
columns can only be measured after analyzing the whole structure. Therefore, the designer sought a way
to rank this constraint. The designer gave a higher rank of 5 to the single angle with unequal legs because
the axial load is possibly higher since the fasteners are placed in the longer leg, unlike in the single angle
with equal legs ranked as 3, both have same dimensions thus giving high possibly of having lesser leg than
that of single angle with unequal legs. Comparing the longer legs is necessary because there will be
computation of gross area and net area, where the axial capacity of the tension member will depend.
27
WELDED CONNECTIONS
INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
Criteria
Tradeoffs
Economic
E70XX
Php 291,600
Constructability
Safety
174.96 man-hrs
485
E60XX
Php 264,600
158.76 manhrs
415
Economic
291600
264600
5
9.26
4
CRITERIA
Constructability
175
159
5
9.21
4
Safety
485.000
415.000
5
14.43
4
To have an initial cost estimate in welded connections, the designer assumed equal length of weld
but different thickness. The designer assumed that E70XX will result to thinner weld size, but is more costly.
For constructability, the designer considered that material cost and the labor cost that will be resolved from
the cost estimate. And finally for the strength, E70XX obviously got higher rank because it has greater
strength than the other.
Bolted Connections
28
Tradeoffs
Standard
Oversized
9,900
11,200
51.48
44.8
Economic
11,200
9,900
5
11.61
4
CRITERIA
Constructability
51
45
5
12.98
4
Safety
N/A
N/A
5
N/A
3
To have an initial cost estimate in bolted connections, the designer based his estimate on the bolt
hole area. The designer assumed the same number of bolts, but the oversized hole still got higher rank
because it is more costly than the standard. For constructability, it comes the other way around where the
oversized won. And finally for the strength, the designer gave rank of 5 into the oversized because the
holes lessen the load that is transmitted.
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Safety (Deflection)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
3
5
2
43
5
2
5
53
As for economic constraint, it turned out that the rough cost estimate for the rolled sections is
cheaper than the rolled sections. As for constructability, rolled up sections are easier to manufacture than
the built up sections. As for the serviceability constraint, the deflection of the critical beam in the built-up
section is lesser than that of the rolled section. Overall, it turned out that the built up section tradeoff
outranked the rolled section for the raw designers ranking in beams.
COLUMNS
Criterion
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Strength (Axial Capacity)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
As for economic constraint, it turned out that the rough cost estimate for the built up sections is
cheaper than the rolled sections. As for constructability, rolled up sections are easier to manufacture than
the built up sections. As for the strength of the member, the axial capacity of the built up columns was
hypothesized to be greater than that of rolled columns. Overall, it turned out that the rolled section tradeoff
outranked the built up section for the raw designers ranking in columns.
TENSION MEMBERS
Criterion
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Strength (Axial Capacity)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
30
As for economic constraint, it turned out that the rough cost estimate for the single angle with equal
legs is cheaper than single angle with unequal legs. As for constructability, the former is easier to
manufacture than the latter. As for the strength of the bracing member, the axial capacity of the equal legs
was hypothesized to be greater than that of the unequal legs rolled columns. Overall, it turned out that the
single angle with equal legs tradeoff outranked single angle with equal legs tradeoff for the raw designers
ranking in tension members.
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Criterion
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Strength (Ultimate)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
As for economic constraint, it turned out that the rough cost estimate for the welding electrode
E60XX will result to cheaper price of welding connections compared to welding electrode E70XX. For
constructability constraint, the designer considered the amount of man-hour that the welding connections
will incur. To get an initial estimate, the designer used the economic cost to get the percentage of the labor
cost required for the construction (welding), which resulted to number of hours the process will be finished.
For the strength, the designer considered the ultimate tensile strength of two electrodes, which is their main
difference. The E70XX basically has higher strength than E60XX. Overall, it turned out that the E60XX
tradeoff outranked E70XX tradeoff for the raw designers ranking in welded connections.
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
RAW DESIGNER'S RANKING
Criterion
Importance
Economic
Constructability
Strength
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
31
*Reference: Otto, K. N. and Antonsson, E. K., (1991). Trade-off strategies in engineering design. Research
in Engineering Design, volume 3, number 2, pages 87-104.Retrieved from
http://www.design.caltech.edu/Research/Publications/90e.pdf on January 27, 2016
As per economic constraint, the standard bolt hole is cheaper than the oversized. One reason is
that it is the used by many company, unlike the oversized. Also, the standard bolt hole got higher rank in
constructability. But regarding the strength, the designer gave a rank of 5 into oversized, and 3 to standard,
because the transmission of force is not directly into the bolt.
These tabulated values are just subjective, especially the importance factors. These values will still
go on with the validation after making a final estimate and final ranking.
32
National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP) vol. 1-2001 edition (PD1096)
National Building Code of the Philippines
ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
ASEP Steel Handbook 2004 vol. 1
Steel Designers Manual of the Steel Construction Institute 6th Edition
1. The National Structural Code of the Philippines 2001.This structural code provides minimum
requirements for building structural systems using prescriptive and performance-based provisions. It is
founded on broad-based principles that make possible the use of new materials and new building designs.
It is also designed to meet these needs through various model codes/regulations, to safeguard the public
health and safety nationwide. This is the main reference for the design procedure of the structure.
Material Strength. Materials conforming specifications of NSCP 6th edition 2010 were used in the
design of the project.
Loadings. Dead loads, live loads and environmental loads (wind and earthquake) are the forces
acting on the structure. Dead loads are consists of the weight of all materials of construction and partition
loads that are presented in the next chapter. Live loads shall be the maximum loads expected by the
occupancy; these loads are attached in chapter 4 as well. The required lateral loads due to wind and
earthquake forces shall be separately calculated.
Wind Loads. The wind load is calculated in STAAD Pro using specifications adopted in American
Society of Civil Engineers ASCE7-05 and based on procedure as stated in NSCP 2010, section 207.
Seismic Loads. The structure shall be designed and constructed to resist the effect of seismic
ground motion as provided in section 208 of NSCP 6th edition (2010).
Load Combinations. Steel sections shall be designed using the Allowable Stress Design method
using the following combination
DL + LL
DL + 0.75 LL
DL + WL
DL + 0.7 EL
33
DL + 0.75 WL + 0.75 LL
0.6 DL + WL : 0.6 DL + 0.7 E
Deformation Limits. Structures or structural members shall be checked such that the maximum
deformation does not exceed the following:
a. Beams and Girders. Beams and girders supporting floors and roof shall be proportioned with
due regard to the deflection produced by the design loads. Considering then the total deflection, which is
due to the additional live loads, occurring after attachment of non-structural elements shall not exceed
L/360.
2. The National Building Code of the Philippines (PD 1096).The National Building Code of the
Philippines, also known as Presidential Decree No. 1096 was formulated and adopted as a uniform building
code to embody up-to-date and modern technical knowledge on building design, construction, use,
occupancy and maintenance. The Code provides for all buildings and structures, a framework of minimum
standards and requirements to regulate and control
B. Steel
: A36
3. Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) Steel Handbook, 3rd
Edition, Volume 1. This provide the civil and structural engineering practitioners with a handy reference to
locally available rolled shapes, built-up shapes, cold-formed steel sections and light gage steel sections.
a. Hot-rolled Sections Dimensions and Properties b. Built-up Sections Dimensions and Properties
34
STRUCTURAL PLANS
NSCP
NBCP
DESIGN SPECIFICATIONS
MATERIAL PROPERTIES
MODULUS OF ELASTICITY
STRUTURAL MEMBER
DIMENSIONS
GEOMETRIC MODELING
STRUCTURAL MODEL
LOAD MODELS
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
SHEAR DIAGRAMS
MOMENT DIAGRAMS
REACTIONS AND DEFLECTIONS
STRUCTURAL DESIGN
DESIGN SCHEDULES
DETAILING
The first process in design methodology was the creation of structural plans. The structural plans
included the foundation plans of the two trade-offs. The next step was to know the design specifications.
These specifications are the codes and standards needed for the structures classification and description.
The National Building Code and National Structural Code of the Philippines are the main references used
for design specifications.
The third step in the process was the identification of the material properties. The compressive
stresses and modulus of elasticity of the concrete and steel to be used were determined. Also, the
structural member dimensions (b, d, etc.) were assumed. The fourth step was the creation of the structural
model. These models included geometric modelling, which showed the positioning of the structural
members (beams, columns, slabs) in 3D form.
The fifth step was the presentation of load models. In this part, the loads acting on the structure
were computed. These loads were the dead load, live load, wind load, and seismic (earthquake) load,
applying also the load combinations. After computing for these loads, load models was presented also in
3D form. The sixth step was the structural analysis. In structural analysis, member (beams and columns)
forces and reactions were determined. The member forces included were the axial force, shear force, and
moment acting on the member.
The last part was the structural design. The structural design did not include the design of footings.
The values from the structural analysis was utilized to design the structural members of the structures,
mainly the beams and columns. The maximum moment acting on a beam was used to design the beam,
and the maximum value of the axial force acting on a column was used to design the column. To design the
slab, the total load on the floors was utilized.
36
37
Material Properties conforming to specifications of NSCP 6th Edition (2010) were used in the
design of the structure using rolled sections. The properties for rolled sections were based on rolled section
of Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines, Inc. (2004).Steel Handbook, Dimensions and
Properties. Philippines. ASEP. Locally produced rolled shapes were applicable only for structural steel
whose minimum yield stress is 230 MPa. In this structure, the designers used A36 for rolled sections with
minimum yield stress of 248 MPa and tensile strength of 400-551 MPa. The following material properties
were used in the design:
38
39
40
42
A summary of values of the member forces is presented in the appendices. The following figures
show the results of the structural analysis done through the software STAAD.
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
248
415
3.807887
24.591
MPa
MPa
m
kN
RESULTS
Ag
12.69295
52
165.2620
97
mm
mm
2
Trial Section
Used L 40 x 40
x5
rx
11.97
mm
ry
11.97
mm
mm
2
mm
rmin
A
t
378.86
5
L
w
40
40
An = Ag - holes
2.87
Net Area
U
bolt
An
0.85
22
268.86
mm
mm
kg/
m
mm
mm
2
Capacity
Pt
47.42018
25
SAFE
kN
54
Given
Fy
Fu
L
P
248
415
3.807887
24.591
MPa
MPa
m
kN
RESULTS
mm
mm
2
rx
15.46
mm
ry
8.44
A
t
L
426.72
5
50
mm
mm
2
mm
mm
40
3.35
rmin = L/300
rmin
Ag = P/(.6*Fy)
*Select a Trial Section based
on the 2
Ag
Trial Section
Used L 50 x 40
x5
Net Area
U
bolt
n
An
0.85
22
3
mm
kg/
m
316.72
mm
pcs
mm
2
55.8614
9
kN
Capacity
Pt
55
SAFE
56
Beam
Column
A
bf
tf
12323
192.8
19.1
mm2
mm
mm
P
Fy
200
248
kN
MPa
A
bf
tf
Fu
30581
356.1
27.4
mm2
mm
mm
E60
E70
E80
E90
E100
E110
E120
Electrode
E70
Fu
485
MPa
12323
1833.66
2
mm2
Capacity
Gross Area
Ag
T
Net Area
U
T
Governing T
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
RESULTS
If L > 2W, U = 1
If 2W > L > 1.5W, U = 0.87
415
485
550
620
690
760
825
kN
0.75
2241.24
6
1833.66
2
SAFE
Dimensions of
Weld
Min t
mm
57
else, Redesign
Part 4. Determine the size
of weld
Min Thickness
Thicker Material
Min t
<6mm
3
>6-12mm
5
>12-20mm
6
>20-38mm
8
>38-57mm
10
>57-150mm
12
>150mm
16
Max t
t (used)
L
17.5
12.75
152.488
6
mm
mm
mm
Max Thickness
Attached Material
<6mm
te = t
>6mm
te = t - 1.6
Part 4. Compute for the Length of Weld
T = 0.707tL*0.3Fu, solve
for L
58
Beam
Column
12323
bf
tf
192.8
19.1
mm
2
mm
mm
P
Fy
200
248
kN
MPa
A
bf
tf
Fu
3058
1
356.1
27.4
E60
415
MPa
mm2
E70
485
MPa
mm
mm
E80
E90
E100
E110
E120
550
620
690
760
825
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
RESULTS
Electrode
E60
Fu
415
MPa
Ag
12323
mm2
1833.662
4
kN
Capacity
Gross Area
Net Area
U
T
Governing T
0.75
1917.766
9
1833.662
4
SAFE
59
Dimensions of
Weld
Min t
mm
Max t
17.5
mm
t (used)
12.75
178.2095
8
mm
mm
Max Thickness
Attached Material
<6mm
te = t
>6mm
te = t - 1.6
60
Beam
Column
12323
bf
tf
192.8
19.1
mm
2
mm
mm
P
Fy
200
248
kN
MPa
E60
Fu
415
MPa
8710
mm2
E70
485
MPa
bf
tf
153.9
8.1
mm
mm
E80
E90
E100
E110
E120
550
620
690
760
825
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
MPa
RESULTS
Electrode
E60
Fu
415
MPa
12323
1833.662
4
mm2
Capacity
Gross Area
Ag
T
Net Area
U
T
Governing T
kN
0.75
1917.766
9
1833.662
4
SAFE
Dimensions of
Weld
Min t
mm
61
safe
else, Redesign
Part 4. Determine the size of
weld
Min Thickness
Thicker Material
Min t
<6mm
3
>6-12mm
5
>12-20mm
6
>20-38mm
8
>38-57mm
10
>57-150mm
12
>150mm
16
Max t
t (used)
L
17.5
11.25
201.9708
6
mm
mm
mm
Max Thickness
Attached Material
<6mm
te = t
>6mm
te = t - 1.6
62
24.591
5
16
18
kN
mm
mm
mm
RESULTS
Fu
MPa
254.469
62.1
2
mm2
MPa
pcs
Ab
Fb
n
90
248.4
2
mm2
MPa
pcs
n (governs)
s
Le
2
24
32
pcs
mm
mm
Block Shear
Av
At
Fv
Ft
Pt
190
155
62.1
103.5
27.8415
mm2
mm2
MPa
MPa
kN
Shear in Bolts
Av per bolt
Fv
n
Bearing of Bolts
207
Le
SAFE
63
64
24.591
5
16
20
kN
mm
mm
mm
RESULTS
Fu
207
MPa
314.15927
62.1
2
mm2
MPa
pcs
Ab
Fb
n
100
248.4
1
mm2
MPa
pcs
n (governs)
s
Le
2
24
32
pcs
mm
mm
180
150
62.1
mm2
mm2
MPa
103.5
26.703
MPa
kN
Shear in Bolts
Av per bolt
Fv
n
Bearing of Bolts
Block Shear
Av
At
Fv
Ft
Pt
SAFE
65
Tradeoffs
Rolled
Php 12135424
74 days
7.41 mm
Built Up
Php 14,785,004
84 days
5.67 mm
Summary
Higher Value
Lower Value
Governing Rank
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
Safety
7.41
5.67
5
30.69
2
Columns
FINAL ESTIMATED VALUES
Criteria
Economic
Tradeoffs
Rolled
Php 7,533,312
Built Up
Php 7,606,979
66
Constructability
Strength
47 days
6385.42 kN
53 days
6762.8 kN
Economic
7,606,979
7,533,312
5
0.97
4
Higher Value
Lower Value
Governing Rank
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
CRITERIA
Constructability
53
47
5
11.11
4
Strength
2264.896667
2203.336061
5
2.72
4
Tension Members
FINAL ESTIMATED VALUES
Tradeoffs
Criteria
Economic
Constructability
Strength
Single Angle
(Unequal)
Php 52,252
9 days
55.86 kN
Summary
Higher Value
Lower Value
Governing Rank
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
Economic
52,252
44,765
5
14.33
4
Constructability
9
7
5
21.08
3
Strengt
h
55.860
47.420
5
15.11
3
WELDED CONNECTIONS
INITIAL ESTIMATED VALUES
67
Criteria
Tradeoffs
Economic
E70XX
Php 291,600
Constructability
Safety
174.96 man-hrs
485
E60XX
Php 264,600
158.76 manhrs
415
Summary
Higher Value
Lower Value
Governing Rank
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
Economic
291600
264600
5
9.26
4
CRITERIA
Constructabilit
y
175
159
5
9.21
4
Safety
485.000
415.000
5
14.43
4
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Criteria
Economic
Constructability
Strength
Tradeoffs
Standard
Oversized
4,800
6,400
24.96
30.72
27.84
26.7
Economic
6,400
4,800
5
CRITERIA
Constructability
25
31
5
Safety
27.840
26.703
5
68
Difference (%)
Subordinate Rank
25.00
3
23.08
3
4.08
4
Criterion
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Safety (Deflection)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
The result of the final ranking and assessment for beams validates that the initial ranking is correct,
although in the final ranking, the hot rolled beams with 53, and built up beams with 51, got very close rank.
COLUMNS
Criterion
Importance
Economic (Cost)
Constructability (Manufacturability)
Strength (Axial Capacity)
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
The result of the final ranking and assessment for columns validates that the initial ranking is
correct. The hot rolled beams with 61, and built up beams with 56.
TENSION MEMBERS
Criterion
Importance
Economic
Constructability
Strength
Overall Ranking
5
4
4
The result of the final ranking and assessment for columns validates that the initial ranking is
correct. The table below shows the difference of the two ranks. In the initial, the equal angle got 15 points
higher than unequal, but in the final, only 5 points is the margin, with each having 57 and 52 respectively..
WELDED CONNECTIONS
Ability to Satisfy the Criterion
E70XX
E60XX
Economic (Cost)
5
3
5
Constructability (Manufacturability)
4
3
5
Safety (Deflection)
4
5
4
Overall Ranking
47
61
Same as the other three, the welded connections is also correct. As seen in the raw ranking, they only have
Criterion
Importance
5 points deficit, but in the final, their diminished value is 14 points. The E70XX got 47, while E60XX got 61
points.
BOLTED CONNECTIONS
Criterion
Importance
Economic
5
Constructability
4
Strength
4
Overall Ranking
In bolted connections, all criteria was won by the standard holes unlike before
that the strength criteria was given to the oversized holes. The standard got 65
while oversized got 43 for a difference of 12 points.
Overall, all the assumptions of the designer on each member are correct.
Some methods are really reliable to come up with an initial estimate of value.
4.4 Influence of Multiple Constraints, Tradeoffs and Standards in the Final Design
70
Economic, constructability, and safety, and strength are among the constraints which influenced the
design process of all the alternatives studied by the designer. The charts below show the differences
between all of the tradeoffs.
Economic Constraint
The figure below shows the difference in the economic cost between the two tradeoffs in each
structural member. Knowing the total cost of the structure is essential both for the designer and the client,
so that one can easily choose between which tradeoff to take. The winning tradeoff in each might have a
very large discrepancy against the losing tradeoff, but sometimes have a very small difference, which can
change the mind of the client to pick the losing tradeoff, considering the other constraints in the design.
ECONOMIC CONSTRAINT
Winning Tradeoff
Losing Tradeoff
Constructability Constraint
71
The figure below shows the difference in the constructability between the two tradeoffs in each
structural member. Knowing the total duration of the structure is essential both for the designer and the
client, so that one can easily choose between which tradeoff to take. The winning tradeoff in each might
have a very large discrepancy against the losing tradeoff, but sometimes have a very small difference,
which can change the mind of the client to pick the losing tradeoff, considering the other constraints in the
design.
CONSTRUCTABILITY CONSTRAINT
Winning Tradeoff
Losing Tradeoff
Safety Constraint
The figure below shows the difference in the safety between the two tradeoffs in the beams of the
structure. Although only one structural part was designed with this kind of constraint, it is still necessary to
look at the outcome. Having a beam with a very much large possible deflection is very dangerous, thats
why the designer really need to consider this constraint.
72
SAFETY CONSTRAINT
Winning Tradeoff
Losing Tradeoff
Strength Constraint
The figure below shows the difference in the strength between the two tradeoffs in each structural
member. Knowing the difference in the strength of the two would pave the way for the designer to choose
which of the two is better.
STRENGTH CONSTRAINT
Winning Tradeoff
Losing Tradeoff
73
After all the processes done by the designer, he came up to the final design of the structure.
Summing up all the results of the design, the winning tradeoffs are enumerated as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The beams of the structure will be designed using hot rolled sections.
The columns of the structure will be designed using hot rolled sections.
The tension members (X-bracing) will be designed using single angle with equal legs.
The welded connections will be designed using E60XX
The bolted connections will be designed using standard bolt holes.
The tables below show the final design schedule of the project.
BEAMS
BEAMS AT 2ND FLR
Transverse
W 18 x 65
Interior
Longitudinal
W 16 x 40
Exterior
Longitudinal
W 12 x 30
BEAMS AT 3RD FLR
Transverse
W 18 x 65
Interior
Longitudinal
W 16 x 40
Exterior
Longitudinal
W 12 x 30
BEAMS AT 4TH FLR
Transverse
W 18 x 65
Interior
Longitudinal
W 16 x 40
Exterior
Longitudinal
W 12 x 30
BEAMS AT 5TH FLR
Transverse
W 18 x 65
Interior
Longitudinal
W 16 x 40
Exterior
Longitudinal
W 12 x 30
BEAMS ATROOF FLR
Transverse
W 18 x 65
COLUMNS
COLUMNS AT GRD - 2ND FLR
Interior
W 27 x 161
Exterior
W 21 x 83
Corner
W 18 x 46
COLUMNS AT 2ND - 3RD FLR
Interior
W 27 x 161
Exterior
W 21 x 83
Corner
W 18 x 46
W 27 x 161
Exterior
W 21 x 83
Corner
W 18 x 46
COLUMNS AT 4TH - 5TH FLR
Interior
W 27 x 161
Exterior
W 21 x 83
Corner
W 18 x 46
COLUMNS AT 5TH - ROOF FLR
Interior
W 27 x 161
74
Interior
Longitudinal
Exterior
Longitudinal
W 16 x 40
Exterior
W 21 x 83
W 12 x 30
Corner
W 18 x 46
TENSION MEMBERS
ALL
L 40 X 40
X5
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
Arda, T. S. and Yardmc, N. (1989). elik Yapda ngerme, 4. elik Yaplar Semineri, Nov.27-Dec.2, T
Vakf ve naat Fakltesi, stanbul.
Calado L. Non-linear cyclic model of top and seat with web angle for steel beam-to-column connections,
Engineering Structures, 2003; 25:1189-1197
86