CS322 Lecture 3

CS322
Computer Networks
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Lecturer of Communications at MSA
Member of IEEE Communications Society
Member of IEEE Computer Society
Member of IEEE Information Society
CS322; Computer Networks
Dr. Samir M Hassan
samirmhassan@yahoo.com
Syllabus
1. Introduction to Computer Networks and its Protocol Architecture.
2. Concepts and Terminology. Analogue and Digital Data Transmission.
3. Guided and Unguided Transmission Media.
4. Data Encoding. (Digital and Analogue Signals).
5. Data Link Control, Flow Control and Error Detection.
6. Multiplexing Mechanisms (FDM , STDM , ADSL).
7. Circuit Switching and Switched Networks.
8. Routing in Circuit Switched Networks.
9. Congestion Control and Quality of Service.
10. Basics of Cellular Wireless Networks.
11. Problem Analysis and Network Design.
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Lecture 3
Concepts and Terminology

Analogue and Digital Data
Transmission
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Chapter 3 Data Transmission
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Transmission Terminology
data transmission occurs between a

transmitter & receiver via some medium
guided medium
eg. twisted pair, coaxial cable, optical fiber
unguided / wireless medium
eg. air, water, vacuum
Dr. Samir M Hassan
direct link
no intermediate devices
point-to-point
direct link
only 2 devices share link
multi-point
more than two devices share the link
Dr. Samir M Hassan
simplex
one direction
eg. television
half duplex
either direction, but only one way at a time
eg. police radio
full duplex
both directions at the same time
eg. telephone
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth
time domain concepts

analog signal
various in a smooth way over time
digital signal
maintains a constant level then changes to
another constant level
periodic signal
pattern repeated over time
aperiodic signal
pattern not repeated over time
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Analogue & Digital Signals
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Periodic Signals
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Sine Wave
peak amplitude (A)

maximum strength of signal
volts
frequency (f)
rate of change of signal
Hertz (Hz) or cycles per second
period = time for one repetition (T)
T = 1/f
phase ()
relative position in time
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Varying Sine Waves

s(t) = A sin(2 ft + )
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Wavelength ( )
is distance occupied by one cycle

between two points of corresponding phase in two
consecutive cycles
assuming signal velocity v have = vT
or equivalently f = v
especially when v=c
c = 3*108 m/s (speed of light in free space)
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Frequency Domain Concepts
signal are made up of many frequencies

components are sine waves
Fourier analysis can shown that any signal
is made up of component sine waves
can plot frequency domain functions
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Addition of
Frequency
Components
(T=1/f)
(c) is sum of f & 3f
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Frequency
Domain
Representations
freq domain func

of Fig 3.4c
freq domain func
of single square
pulse
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Spectrum & Bandwidth
spectrum
o
absolute bandwidth
o
width of spectrum
effective bandwidth
o
o
range of frequencies contained in signal
often just bandwidth

narrow band of frequencies containing most
energy
DC Component
o
component of zero frequency
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Data Rate and Bandwidth
any transmission system has a limited

band of frequencies
this limits the data rate that can be carried
square have infinite components and
hence bandwidth
but most energy in first few components
limited bandwidth increases distortion
have a direct relationship between data
rate & bandwidth
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Analog and Digital Data Transmission
data
o
signals & signalling

o
entities that convey meaning

electric or electromagnetic representations of
data, physically propagates along medium
transmission
o
communication of data by propagation and

processing of signals
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Audio Signals
freq range 20Hz-20kHz (speech 100Hz7kHz)

easily converted into electromagnetic signals
varying volume converted to varying voltage
can limit frequency range for voice channel to
300-3400Hz
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Video Signals
USA - 483 lines per frame, at 30 frames per sec

o
525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines per sec

o
o
have 525 lines but 42 lost during vertical retrace

63.5s per line
11s for retrace, so 52.5 s per video line
max frequency if line alternates black and white

horizontal resolution is about 450 lines giving
225 cycles of wave in 52.5 s
max frequency of 4.2MHz
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Digital Data
as generated by computers etc.

has two dc components
bandwidth depends on data rate
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Analog Signals
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Digital Signals
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Advantages & Disadvantages

of Digital Signals
cheaper
less susceptible to noise
but greater attenuation
digital now preferred choice
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Transmission Impairments
signal received may differ from signal

transmitted causing:
o
o
analog - degradation of signal quality

digital - bit errors
most significant impairments are

o
o
o
attenuation and attenuation distortion

delay distortion
noise
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Attenuation
where signal strength falls off with distance

depends on medium
received signal strength must be:
o strong enough to be detected
o sufficiently higher than noise to receive without error
so increase strength using amplifiers/repeaters
is also an increasing function of frequency
so equalize attenuation across band of frequencies used
o e.g. using loading coils or amplifiers
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Delay Distortion
only occurs in guided media

propagation velocity varies with frequency
hence various frequency components arrive at different
times
particularly critical for digital data
since parts of one bit spill over into others
causing intersymbol interference
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Noise
additional signals inserted between transmitter and

receiver
thermal
o
o
o
due to thermal agitation of electrons

uniformly distributed
white noise
intermodulation
o
signals that are the sum and difference of original frequencies

sharing a medium
Dr. Samir M Hassan
.Noise; cont
crosstalk
o
a signal from one line is picked up by another
impulse
o
irregular pulses or spikes
o
o
o
o
e.g. external electromagnetic interference
short duration
high amplitude
a minor annoyance for analog signals
but a major source of error in digital data
a noise spike could corrupt many bits
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Channel Capacity
max possible data rate on comms channel

is a function of
o
o
o
o
data rate - in bits per second

bandwidth - in cycles per second or Hertz
noise - on comms link
error rate - of corrupted bits
limitations due to physical properties

want most efficient use of capacity
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Nyquist Bandwidth
consider noise free channels

if rate of signal transmission is 2B then can carry
signal with frequencies no greater than B
o
i.e. given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B
for binary signals, 2B bps needs bandwidth B Hz

can increase rate by using M signal levels
Nyquist Formula is: C = 2B log2M
so increase rate by increasing signals
o
o
at cost of receiver complexity

limited by noise & other impairments
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Shannon Capacity Formula
consider relation of data rate, noise & error

rate
o
faster data rate shortens each bit so bursts of noise

affects more bits
given noise level, higher rates means higher errors
Shannon developed formula relating these to

signal to noise ratio (in decibels)
SNRdb=10 log10 (signal/noise)
Capacity C=B log2(1+SNR)
o
o
theoretical maximum capacity

get lower in practise
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a
regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a
bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The signalto-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the
capacity is calculated as
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)
= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000 11.62 = 34,860 bps
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR
for this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and
signal level?
Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper
limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps
Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the

number of signal levels.
4 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 M M = 4
Dr. Samir M Hassan
More About Signals;

Throughput
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Throughput
Throughput is the average rate of successful message
delivery over a communication channel.
The throughput is usually measured in bits per second (bit/s or
bps), and sometimes in data packets per second or data
packets per time slot.
Dr. Samir M Hassan
Summary
looked at data transmission issues

frequency, spectrum & bandwidth
analog vs digital signals
transmission impairments
Dr. Samir M Hassan
:Next
Guided and Unguided
Transmission Media
(ISA)
Dr. Samir M Hassan

CS322 Lecture 3

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CS322

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Concepts and Terminology

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Chapter 3 Data Transmission

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

data transmission occurs between a

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Frequency, Spectrum and Bandwidth

time domain concepts

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Analogue & Digital Signals

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

peak amplitude (A)

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Varying Sine Waves

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

is distance occupied by one cycle

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Frequency Domain Concepts

signal are made up of many frequencies

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

(c) is sum of f & 3f

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

freq domain func

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Spectrum & Bandwidth

range of frequencies contained in signal

often just bandwidth

component of zero frequency

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Data Rate and Bandwidth

any transmission system has a limited

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Analog and Digital Data Transmission

signals & signalling

entities that convey meaning

communication of data by propagation and

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan

Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)

CS322; Computer Networks

Dr. Samir M Hassan