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MASONRY BASICS

September 25, 2008

1

Masonry Codes and Standards

National Building Code of Canada (NBC) 2005
Local Provincial and Municipal Codes (BC Building Code 2006)
Relevant Canadian Standards Association (CSA) standards:
S304.1-04 Design of Masonry Structures
A179-04 Mortar and Grout for Unit Masonry
A370-04 Connectors for Masonry
A371-04 Masonry Construction for Buildings
Unit Properties
The most important unit properties are:

Strength and deformation under load. Compressive strength, modulus of

elasticity and Poissons ratio are the properties of greatest interest to the
structural designer (closely related to resistance under load, serviceability
and durability).

Compressive strength:
- bricks: 15 to 70 MPa;
- concrete blocks: 15 to 35 MPa (typical values 15 to 20 MPa);

Tensile strength: only a small fraction (approximately 10%) of the

compressive strength.

Creep: concrete products creep under load => redistribution of internal

forces within a structural element and increased deflections.

Thermal expansion and contraction properties affect the location of

control/movement joints which serve to accommodate differential
movements between various components in the building.
Mortar
The basic constituent materials in mortar are:
Portland cement - to provide strength (masonry cement, used as a substitute
for Portland cement and lime, consisting of premixed dry ingredients, is also
available).
Hydrated lime - to provide sufficient cohesion such that the mortar is easily
placed. Lime provides workability and flexibility.
1 Reference: Chapter 2, textbook by Hatzinikolas and Korany

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Sand - the inert filler
Water - required to make the mortar workable and take part in the hydration of
cement.
Other admixtures may also be used.
Mortar types: the basic mortar types are M, S, N, O and K (taken from the words
MaSoNry wOrK). M is the strongest and K the weakest in compression, while K is
the most workable and M the least.
Only Type S and Type N mortar are permitted by S304.1 for structural applications.
Type S mortar more resistant to weathering and should be used for exterior
masonry; commonly used for all engineered masonry.
Compressive strength tests: Mortar specimens are 50 mm cubes, and Type S mortar
has a 28-day cube strength in excess of 10 MPa. Mortar strength in the wall may be
higher due to absorption, which reduces w/c ratio and potentially increases the
strength.

Grout
Grout is required as a bonding medium for reinforcement.
Grouting increases the cross-sectional area of masonry, which is important for
load-bearing since resistance depends on area.
Its slump should be high (about 200 - 250 mm or 8" - 10"), since voids to be filled
are small and the masonry unit quickly absorbs water. Also, since the voids are small,
the maximum aggregate size is about 10 mm.
CSA S304.1 requires grout to have a 28-day compressive strength not less than 10
MPa when prepared in non-absorbent cylinder moulds.
The in-situ grout strength is likely to be considerably higher since water is
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absorbed by the units during placement, lowering the water:cement ratio.
Grout strength need not be greater than that of the masonry unit.

Masonry Compressive Strength (fm)

The most important mechanical property of masonry, since it is most intimately
related to resistance under load and serviceability and durability.
The compressive strength of masonry (fm), whether plain or reinforced, is not
necessarily the sum of the strengths of the individual material components.
Masonry block construction generally requires that the face shells (and not the
cross-webs) are mortared. The area of continuous contact from course to course is
then the area of the mortar bed. Any grouted vertical cores are also included in the
area of continuous contact i.e. effective area.
Since the full area of the unit is not loaded, the masonry strength is lower than the
strength of the unit. Also, because of the different values of Poissons ratio (that for
the unit being higher than for the mortar) the mortar is confined and its strength is
enhanced.
The compressive strength fm can be determined from
a) a prism test, where units are mortared together two courses high and tested
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in compression (CSA A369.1);
b) a knowledge of the unit and mortar strengths (Cl. 5.1.3.5 of S304.1) - then
Tables 3 and 4 in S304.1 are used to determine fm - this is a conservative
approach;
c) actual field tests, where representative samples are removed from an existing
wall and tested.

Factors influencing the fm value

1. Masonry unit strength
2. Mortar strength
3. Grout strength
4. Grouted vs. ungrouted blocks
5. Direction of compressive stress relative to the bed joints

For fm values refer to Tables 3 and 4 of CSA S304.1

Grouted Versus Ungrouted Masonry
Although grouting results in increased load-carrying capacity, the fm value
obtained for grouted masonry is less than the corresponding value for ungrouted
masonry (!)
Why?
Due to the voids that exist in grouted masonry
Due to debonding of grout from blocks caused by the grout shrinkage

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Compressive Strength of Masonry Components and the Assemblages

f m

Direction of Compressive Stress Relative to the Bed Joints

The magnitude of masonry compressive strength (fm) depends on the direction of
compressive stress versus bed joints. Note that the fm measured in the direction
parallel to bed joints is less than that measured perpendicular to bed joints!

Loading/compression normal to bed joints -> columns

Loading/compression parallel to bed joints - > beams

Why?
Due to geometric differences resulting from the unit aspect ratio and cell
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orientation relative to the loading direction
Masonry units could have different strengths in the two orthogonal
directions
CSA S304.1 introduces factor to account for this phenomenon (Cl.11.2.1.6).
The value of factor is less than 1.0 when stresses are acting parallel to bed
joints (more details on the factor to follow in relation to the beam flexural
resistance).
Flexural Tensile Strength (ft)
Masonry structures are usually primarily designed to resist compressive loads. Due
to its low tensile strength, unreinforced masonry is not designed to resist tensile
stresses; however, in some cases tensile stresses develop due to eccentric loading.
An example of flexural tensile stresses: exterior walls under wind pressure ->
flexural tensile strength is relevant for the wall panel design.
Flexural tensile strength (ft) (also known as modulus of rupture) depends on the
orientation of flexural tensile stresses with respect to bed and head joints.
Note: ft is less in the direction perpendicular to bed joints; m is the orthogonal
strength ratio (ft parallel to bed joints versus perpendicular to bed joints)

For ft values refer to Table 5 of CSA S304.1

Effective Area
Walls in which only the reinforced cells are grouted are called partially grouted walls,
whereas the walls in which all the cells are grouted are called fully grouted walls.
Irrespective of the extent of grouting (partial/full grouting), cross-sectional area of the
entire wall section (considering the overall thickness) is termed gross cross-sectional
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area, Ag. In partially grouted or hollow (ungrouted) walls, the term effective crosssectional area, Ae, denotes that area which includes the mortar-bedded area and the
area of grouted cells (S304.1 Cl.10.3). Both the gross and effective wall area are
shown for a wall strip of unit length (usually equal to 1 metre). The difference
between Ag and Ae is illustrated in figure below. In ungrouted masonry construction,
the webs are generally not mortared, however in partially grouted reinforced masonry
construction, the webs on each side of a grouted cell are sometimes mortared to ensure
that grout does not flow into the adjacent cells not intended to be grouted. In any case,
coarse grout will flow from the grouted core to fill the gap between the webs adjacent
to the cell.
In exterior walls the effective area is often significantly reduced by raked joints (this is
not a concern with a standard concave tool joint). The designer should consider this
effect in the calculation of the depth of the compression stress block.

Effective area Ae = the minimum area of continuous contact between

unit and mortar from one course to the next (mortar bedded area).
For a fully grouted wall: Ae = Ag

Wall cross-sectional area: a) gross area; b) effective area.

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Reinforcement
Standard Horizontal and Vertical Reinforcement
Deformed steel bars (fy = 400 MPa) same as reinforced concrete construction:
Enhances resistance to tension and compression;
Needs to be grouted to prevent corrosion.
Joint Reinforcement (ladder- or truss-shaped)
The function of joint reinforcement is not to eliminate cracking in concrete
masonry walls but merely to prevent the formation of conspicuous shrinkage
cracks.
Joint reinforcement does not become effective until the concrete masonry
begins to crack. At this time, stresses are transferred to and redistributed by the
steel. The result is evenly distributed, very fine cracks that are barely visible to
the naked eye.
The effectiveness of joint reinforcement depends on the type of mortar and the
bond between the mortar and the longitudinal wires. The better the bond strength,
the more efficient is the reinforcement in controlling cracking,
Consists of steel wires about 4 mm in diameter (No. 8 or No. 9 A.S.W.G.)
interconnected by welded cross wires, that are placed in the mortar joints between
courses; proprietary products, available in a variety of configurations.

Typical reinforced concrete masonry block wall: a) vertical reinforcement; b) joint reinforcement;
c) bond beam reinforcement.

Wire yield strengths frequently exceed 480 MPa. The limited ductility of joint
reinforcement is a design concern. Use of stress relieved hot dipped galvanized joint
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reinforcement improves ductility for use in areas of high seismic intensity.
Development and Anchorage of Reinforcement

Reinforced masonry is effective only if there is an effective bond between the

reinforcement and the grout, and also between the grout and the masonry units.

Development length ld is the length of bar required to develop its strength in

bond. Anchorage can be improved by hooking bar ends.

S304.1 Clauses 12.4.2.3 and 12.4.2.4 define basic development lengths for
deformed bars in the same manner as prescribed by the CSA A23.3-04
(Concrete Code) previous editions of CSA S304.1 contained somewhat
different provisions.

The required development length ld is the product of ldb and modification

factors for various bar conditions, that is,
ld = ldb modification factors
Also, when the reinforcement area As is greater than As required, the required ld is
reduced accordingly. These modification factors are detailed in Clause 12.4.2.5 of
CSA S304.1.

Refer to Tables 3.1 to 3.3 in the textbook for bar anchorage properties

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2

DESIGN OF MASONRY BEAMS

Ultimate Limit States Design: Basic Assumptions

The following assumptions governing flexure of masonry are outlined in Clause
11.2.1 of S304.1:

Plane sections remain plane during bending.

Failure strain for masonry m = 0.003 (close to the value of 0.0035 permitted for
concrete in CSA A23.3-04 Design of Concrete Structures).

The stresses in masonry and reinforcement can be computed from the stressstrain curves: reasonable approximations to the curve for masonry, such as
parabolic, trapezoidal or rectangular, are also permitted.

For reinforced masonry, tension is resisted by the reinforcement. This assumes

that the masonry in that vicinity has cracked and has, consequently, no residual
tensile resistance.

The strain in the reinforcement is equal to the strain in masonry at the same
location. This is merely a statement that the steel and grout, and grout and
masonry unit, are fully bonded together.

The compressive stress-strain relationship for masonry may be assumed to be

parabolic or any other shape that results in considerable agreement between
calculated and measured strengths (e.g. equivalent rectangular stress block).
Typical Stress-Strain Curves for Masonry and Steel

The curve for steel is shown as the classical idealized bilinear form, linearly
elastic to the yield point, any further strain being at a stress equal to the yield

2 Reference: Chapter 3, textbook by Hatzinikolas and Korany

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stress

The curve for masonry - normally fairly well a straight to about 0.5fm, but
overall is curved in a parabolic shape

Material resistance factors :

m = 0.6 masonry (it used to be 0.55 per CSA S304.1-94)
s = 0.85 steel (same as for reinforced concrete)
Typical material strengths:
Masonry fm = 10 MPa
Steel - vertical and horizontal bars: Grade 400 steel fy = 400 MPa
Joint reinforcement: fy > 400 MPa (usually 480 MPa) but use 400 MPa for
practical reasons
Design for Flexure: Equivalent Rectangular Stress Block

Equivalent rectangular stress block - masonry (S304.1 Cl.10.2.6):

the masonry stress of 0.85m fm is assumed to apply to a depth of
a = 1c
where
c - neutral axis depth
a depth of the compression stress block
1 = 0.80 for values of fm up to 20 MPa; for greater masonry strengths, 1 reduces
by 0.10 for each 10 MPa above 20 MPa (S304.1 Cl. 10.2.6)
- Factor (S304.1 Cl.11.2.1.6)
According to CSA S304.1, the -factor accounts for the direction of compression
stress and the continuity of grouting in masonry beams. The value of factor
depends on the direction of compressive stress in a masonry member relative to the
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direction used to determine the fm value (see Table 1).

September 25, 2008

Table 1: - Factor According to CSA S304.1 Cl.11.2.1.6

factor
value
0.5

Explanation

Examples

For compression normal to head joints when

grout is not horizontally continuous

0.7

For compression normal to head joints when

grout is continuous in the direction of
compressive force
For compression normal to the bed joints (and
the same stress direction is used to determine
the compressive strength of masonry using
prism tests)

Grouted stretcher blocks, and

grouted bond beam blocks with
the compression zone interrupted
by the webs
Bond beam blocks with a
continuously grouted compression
zone
Vertical members
(columns/walls) or beams with
grouted lintel blocks

1.0

When a beam is built using bond beam blocks, the factor value can be either 0.7
(when grout in the compression zone is not interrupted by the webs) or 0.5 (when
grout in the compression zone is interrupted by the webs), as illustrated in figure
below. The former value is expected to apply in case of shallow beams, while the
latter value is expected to apply in case of deeper beams.

-factor values for beams with bond beam blocks

Stretcher blocks are commonly used in masonry beam construction practice.
Typically, even when the blocks are fully grouted, the space between adjacent
blocks (also known as frog) usually cannot be grouted; this reduces the effective
area and leads to a reduced effective compression zone for flexural stresses, equal
to that in an ungrouted beam. A plan view of the beam with grouted stretcher
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blocks is shown in the figure.

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frog

A plan view of the beam with grouted stretcher blocks in the compression zone
Moment Resistance Mr Singly Reinforced Sections

Reinforcement ratio

150 mm
to the centroid
of the
reinforcement

As
bd

Steel tension resultant:

Masonry compression resultant:

The equation of equilibrium:

Tr = s As f y = (s f y )(b d )
Cr = (0.85m f 'm )(a b )

Tr = C r
a=

fy d
m f 'm

Moment resistance:
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= s As f y (d a 2 )

= Tr

or

where jd = d

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( jd )

a
2

moment lever arm

Balanced Reinforcement
In Limit States Design the balanced case is defined as the amount of steel that has
the concrete crushing just as the steel reaches yield. This represents a potentially
brittle condition and is set as the maximum limit for steel.
m = 0.003

The balanced case is determined from the strain

diagram, when both materials reach their critical
strains simultaneously, that is,
m = 0.003

and

s = y

s = y

Since Es = 200(10)3 MPA, the expression in Clause 11.2.2 of S304.1 (which

defines maximum tension steel) is

c
600

d 600 + f y

or

< b

where b = balanced reinforcement ratio (an upper limit for the flexural
reinforcement)

b =

Ab
bd

and Ab balanced reinforcement area

b value depends on

f m and f y

see Example 3-3 from the textbook, page 50

For example, for f m = 10 MPa and f y = 400 MPa =>

b = 0.0036 or 0.36%

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Flexural Failure Mechanisms

When masonry beams are subjected to flexure up to the failure, the failure
mechanism falls into one of the following two categories:

1) Primary tension failure(steel-controlled): < b or As < Ab

when the area of steel, As, is less than the balanced steel area, Ab, the steel yields in
tension before the masonry crushes and the beam fails. This type of failure is
characterized by ductile behaviour and some warning of failure. However, if the
amount of steel is too small, a brittle failure can occur (under-reinforced beam).
2) Primary compression failure (masonry-controlled): > b or As > Ab
when As>Ab, the masonry crushes and the beam fails before the steel yields. The
behaviour is characteristically brittle, with no warning of failure.
Flexural Reinforcement Limits
Minimum reinforcement
In order to prevent a brittle tensile steel fracture 2 options:
1) Use the minimum steel ratio
min = 0.8/fy
Note: if f y = 400 MPa => min = 0.002
OR
2) Provide 1/3 more steel than required by calculation (Cl. 11.2.3).
In other words, if a beam is being designed and the required area of steel gives a
value of calculated < min, then use 1.33calculated in the design; or, when analyzing a
beam in which < min, use only 0.75 in the analysis. The main reason for this
required increase in the calculated steel is that when masonry first cracks, the
tensile force is transferred abruptly from the masonry to the steel, with greater
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effect on lightly reinforced members.
Maximum reinforcement
To prevent a sudden crushing of masonry, the reinforcement ratio should not
exceed

b , that is,

b =

Ab
bd

where Ab balanced reinforcement area

For acceptable ductile behaviour it is required that

min b

The Design Process

Structural design is normally an iterative process. Once span (centre-to-centre of
supports) and superimposed loading are known, the design proceeds as follows:
1.
Determine beam self-weight (make a conservative estimate if cross-sectional
dimensions are not known), apply load factors to the various loads, and
calculate Vf and Mf.
2.
Select a trial section (considering Vf and Mf) and determine the required
flexural reinforcement.
3.
Check the self-weight of the beam and repeat steps 1 and 2 if the total loading
is significantly in error.
4.
Check the steel ratio = As/bd and confirm that > min and < b
5.
Check shear and design required shear reinforcement.
6.
Check deflections and crack widths and design any required miscellaneous
connection hardware.
7.
Check the bond and development requirements.
Approximate Design Methods
1. How to find the required reinforcement area As?
For values of between min and b the internal moment arm is closely approximated
by jd = 0.8d, and a trial value of d will give a reasonable estimate of the required
reinforcement.
Since
Mr = Tr*(jd) = sAs fy (jd)
Assume (guesstimate!)
jd(approx.) = 0.8d
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Set
Mr Mf
Finally, the reinforcement area can be estimated as

September 25, 2008

Mf

As

0 .7 f y d

2. How to Find the Required Depth d?

ab = bfyd/(mfm)

Depth of the compression zone corresponding to the

balanced reinforcement

Recalling that

= s As f y (d a 2 )

and substituting for ab, it follows that

M r = s b f y (1

b f y
)bd 2
2m f 'm

or

M r = Kbbd 2
where

b f y
K b = s b f y (1
)
2m f 'm

The steps:
1. Set

Mr = M f

2. Since

M f = K bbd 2

2
it follows that d =

Mf
Kb *b

A reference value for the

effective depth d
corresponding to the
balanced reinforcement ratio
can be determined when Kb
is known and a beam width
b is selected.
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Note: the estimate based on the balanced case gives a lower bound for the effective
depth d use larger value to ensure a steel-controlled failure mechanism.
Example B-1 (same as Example 3-5 from the textbook, page 54)
Perform the flexural design of a masonry beam to carry a total factored moment
(inclusive of self weight) of 70 kNm, using 200 mm concrete blocks with a unit
compressive strength of 20 MPa, type S mortar, and reinforcement with a specific
yield of 400 MPa. Assume a 90 mm cover to centre of steel. Consider = 0.5.
Solution:

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Flexural Resistance Mr of Doubly Reinforced Sections

Why doubly-reinforced sections?

Compression reinforcement As can be used to increase resistance, especially

when the required As exceeds Asb.

As increases ductility by reducing stress in masonry.

As reduces long-term deflection by inhibiting creep in the compression zone.

Flexural design
assumption:
the tension steel
(area As) has
yielded, that is,

s y

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Masonry compression resultant:

Cm = (0.85m f 'm )(a b )

Steel compression resultant:

Cs = s A's f 's

Steel tension resultant:

Tr = s As f y

The equation of equilibrium:

Cm + Cs = Tr

Find the depth of the compression zone

a=

As f y A's f 's

m f 'm b

where

c=

1 = 0.8 for f m < 20 MPa

Strains:
c d'
compression steel (area As)
c
d c
s = 0.003
tension steel (area As)
c
Confirm that the compression steel yields, that is,

' s = 0.003

's y

Moment resistance
(with regard to the centroid of tension steel)

M r = C m d + C s (d d ')
2

A
A'
= s
' = s
bd
bd
Reinforcement Checks:

Confirm that the tension steel yields (steel-controlled failure): - < b

Note: if - > b => masonry-controlled failure

Minimum reinforcement > min = 0.8/fy

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Example B-2 (same as Example 3-6, textbook page 57)
A 4-course masonry beam is constructed from standard 200 mm concrete blocks.
The beam is reinforced with 1-30M bottom and 1-25M top and is fully grouted.
Given: fm=10 MPa, fy=400 MPa, d= 690 mm and d= 50 mm.
Find the moment resistance for this beam.

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Lintel Beams

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Lintel beams span over the openings in masonry walls

The main function: to transfer vertical loads from above to the end supports

Two types of vertical loads carried by lintels:

1. Vertical distributed loads from self-weight of the wall above + service loads from
the floors and roof
2. Concentrated loads from the floor beams, roof joists, and other beams framing into
the wall
Lintel load distribution not covered in CSA S304.1.

It is not always required to design the lintels for the total accumulated loading from
above. If the lintel were removed, only a portion of the structure immediately above
would collapse.
The masonry will form an arch over the opening. For example, the part of masonry
contained in triangle ABC shown on the diagram below is usually assumed to be
carried by the lintel.

Recommended practice: to use triangle formed by 45 to 60 angles to

determine the tributary wall area for design (usually 45 angle assumed)

Any loads above point C (apex of the triangle) can be neglected.

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For arching action to be utilized, there must be enough masonry on each side of
the opening to resist lateral thrust from the arching action (a typical lintel
bearing is 200 mm).

Arching action also requires an adequate depth of masonry above point C to

carry the horizontal compressive forces from the arching thrust.

If floor or roof loads are applied below point C => no arching action considered
(lintel designed for the full load above it).
Concentrated loads from roof and floor beams and trusses => considered to be
transferred to the lintel assuming 60 angle triangular dispersion of the force (note the
part of the load wP distributed over the length DB considered in the analysis)
point loads under 60 angle
with regard to the horizontal
axis

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It is frequently assumed by designers that, while arching action is anticipated, lintel
beams should be designed to support any uniform loading that lies within 45
triangle.

Example B-3 (same as Example 3-2 from the textbook, page 45)
A 200 x 200 mm lintel beam spans a 1600 mm opening in a fully-grouted 200 mm
concrete block wall as shown in figure below. The wall supports a number of 200 mm
thick precast concrete floors, one of which is located one course above the lintel beam.
If each floor imposes a uniform service load of 40 kN/m (D=25 kN/m, L=15 kN/m) on
the wall, determine the factored loading on this beam if arching action may be
assumed.
Effective span =
1600 + 200 = 1800 mm
The self-weight of a fully grouted
200 mm wall is 3.91 kN/m2 (see
Tables handout)

Alternative design solution:

Use uniformly distributed load = 53.75+4.4+0.98
along the beam length

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Design for Shear (CSA S304.1 Clause 11.3)

Maximum shear forces generally occur near the supports. Shear failure,
sometimes referred to as diagonal tension failure, is a brittle mode of failure
with very little deformation and it should be avoided.

BCIT beam tests

The stresses on a unit element at the neutral axis level are equal to v on the vertical
faces. The complementary shear stresses, v, on the horizontal faces are required to
establish equilibrium of the element. This situation leads to diagonal tensile stress,
also v, at 45, and cracks tend to form along the path of least resistance (this may be
through the masonry units, but more frequently along the mortar joints).
Shear Resistance

Strength design criterion:

Vr > Vf

Factored shear resistance is determined as (Cl.11.3.4.1)

Vr = Vm + Vs
Vm - the masonry shear resistance
Vs - the shear resistance of the reinforcement
Masonry Shear Resistance Vm

The factored masonry shear resistance

Vm = (mvu) (bwd)
Where vu depends on fm, beam depth, and whether the units are normal or
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lightweight.

S304.1 (Clause 11.3.4.3) gives the value of the factored shear resistance of
grout-filled hollow masonry beams as

Vm = 0.16 m

d 400
f ' m 1
bw d for 400 mm < d < 1525 mm
2000

where
bw - the width of the beam web (normally the beam width)
=1.0 for normal weight and 0.75 for light-weight units;
m=0.6
Upper bound Vm values

Vm = 0.16 m

f ' m bw d (beams with d < 400 mm)

Vm = 0.07 m

f 'm bw d (beams with d > 1525 mm)

linear variation for Vm between the two depths.

Shear Reinforcement

When the shear force due to the factored load exceeds the shear resistance, that
is, Vf>Vm, shear reinforcement is required to provide resistance, Vs, for the
surplus shear i.e. VsVf -Vm.

S304.1 Cl.11.3.4.7.1 requires that when Vf > 0.50Vm (except for d < 200 mm), a
minimum amount of shear reinforcement must be provided.

Where shear reinforcement is required, single-legged vertical stirrups (or ties)

are used, at a spacing s. They are placed in the cores of a multi-course block
beam.

Vs =

s Av f y d
s

thus
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Av

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Vs s
s f y d or

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s Av f y d
Vs

Note that, for 1-legged stirrups of 10M size, Av = 100 mm2

Maximum steel shear resistance (Cl.11.3.4.6)
To ensure ductile behaviour, S304.1 limits the total shear on the section by limiting
the resistance of the web reinforcement to

Vs 0.36 m

f 'm bw d

Minimum area of shear reinforcement (Cl.11.3.4.7.2)

When shear reinforcement is required by the design, then

Av Av min =

0.35bw s
fy

Maximum stirrup spacing (Cl.11.3.4.8)

To ensure that each potential crack is traversed by at least one stirrup, the spacing
should not exceed the lesser of
s max

d 2
600mm

Shear Envelope (Cl.11.3.4.2)

Critical section for shear design - the maximum shear force Vf is calculated at a
distance d from the face of the support. This is because compression introduced by
the support reaction enhances shear strength. This value of Vf at distance d from the
face of the support applies through to the support.

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Example B-4
The fully grouted 5-course 200 mm normal weight masonry beam may be considered
simply supported over a clear span of 4.8 m. The beam carries a total factored load
(including self weight) of 35 kN/m. Assuming the beam to be adequately reinforced
for flexure, design shear reinforcement and use 10M 1-legged stirrups. The masonry
strength fm = 10 MPa and fy = 400 MPa.

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Masonry Flexural Members - Serviceability Considerations3

Serviceability limit states are those to be maintained under service loads, to ensure
that the structure functions effectively. The serviceability limit states are: durability,
stress level, cracking, deflections and vibration. In general, serviceability requirements
are satisfied by checking deflections and crack control at service loads.
Deflections
S304.1 prescribes the following deflection limits for beams:

Check beam deflection when clear span > 10d (Clause 11.4.1)

Deflection limit < L/480 (Clause 11.4.5)

where L = beam span (centre-to-centre)

Deflection estimates require reasonable values for moment of inertia, I,

modulus of elasticity, Em, and creep factors.

The modulus of elasticity Em for masonry is given in S304.1 (see Cl.6.5.2) as

Em = 850 fm < 20 000 MPa

Long-term (creep) deflection is obtained by a multiplication factor applied to

the immediate elastic deflection (S304.1 Clause 11.4.4)

S1
1 + 50 '

where
S1 varies from 0.5 for loads of up to three months duration to 1.0 for loads
applied for five years or more
allows for the influence of compression steel
Since masonry, like reinforced concrete, cracks in bending, the effective
moment of inertia Ieff is obtained from those of the cracked and uncracked
sections, Icr and Io respectively (transformed section properties)

Cracked section modulus Icr for singly-reinforced beams

Icr = b(kd)3/3 + nAs(d-kd)2

k = ((n)2+2n)1/2- n
n = Es/Em
=As/bd

3 Reference: Section 3.5, textbook by Hatzinikolas and Korany

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Cracked section modulus Icr for doubly-reinforced beams

Icr = b(kd)3/3 + (n-1)As(kd-d)2+ nAs(d-kd)2

k = ((n+(n-1))2+ 2[n+(n-1)d/d])1/2- [n+(n-1)]

Uncracked section modulus: singly-reinforced sections

(approximate formula assumes that the centroid lies at the mid-depth of the
section)

Io bh3/12 + (n-1)As(d-h/2)2
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Effective Moment of Inertia

Based on research, primarily from work in reinforced concrete, the effective moment
of inertia to be used in the calculation of deflection of reinforced masonry beams is
obtained by combining the moments of inertia of cracked and uncracked sections as
follows (Clause 11.4.3.2 of S304.1):

I eff
where
M cr =

3
M 3
M cr
I o + 1 cr I cr I o
=
M a
Ma

(m f t + f cs )I o

cracking moment
yt
ft = flexural tensile strength (Table 5, S304.1)
fcs = unfactored axial load P/Ae
yt = distance from centroid to extreme fibre in tension
Ma = maximum moment due to unfactored loads
Cracking Control
Cracking of masonry may be the result of volume changes, support movement, or
flexural stresses. Excessive cracking allows the ingress of corrosive elements and
affects aesthetics. Crack widths must be controlled.

z = f s d c A(10)
3

where
fs stress in steel reinforcement (may be computed directly, or
taken as 60% of fy)
dc - the cover on the tension steel measured from the centroid of
the outermost bar; and
A - the area of masonry surrounding the tensile reinforcement,
having the same centroid as the tensile reinforcement and divided
by the number of bars.
CSA S304.1 Clause 11.2.6.2 stipulates that cracking of masonry flexural
elements is controlled when the z value
< 30 kN/mm for interior exposure
< 25 kN/mm for exterior exposure (Clause 12.2.3.2)
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For walls subjected to wind loading, the value of z is limited to 50 kN/mm and
60 kN/mm for exterior and interior exposure, respectively.

S304.1 notes that in especially aggressive environments, such as in coastal

regions subjected to high winds and rain, this requirement may not be
sufficiently restrictive.

If masonry is exposed to the weather, any cracking encourages the ingress of

moisture; this can lead to corrosion of reinforcing steel and connectors and
to the disintegration of the mortar due to freeze-thaw action.

33