Name

: NUR ANIS HAZWANI BT. ABDUL HALIM

Form

: 2 DESIGNER

Collage no. : AP150202

Teacher

:CG. Fais

Chapter 9:Stars & Galaxies

Characteristic of the sun

At the center of Solar System

One of the billion stars seen at night in our galaxy

A huge mass of hot, glowing gases

Nearly 110 times bigger than the Earth
It is about 150 million km away from Earth
Medium-sized star known as a yellow dwarf
The largest object in the Solar System

Property

characteristic

Characteristic compared to
Earth

Diameter

1 392 000 km

109 times the diameter of

Mass

1.989 10 kg

Earth
333 420 times the mass of

Density

1 485 kg m

Earth
0.27 times the density of

Surface temperature

5 500-6 000 C

Earth
227-273 times the

Composed of about 70%

temperature on Earth
The Earths atmosphere

hydrogen, 28% helium, and

contains oxygen, nitrogen,

other elements such as

carbon dioxide, inert gases and

carbon, nitrogen, oxygen,

water vapour

Composition

34

-3

silicon and iron which

amount to less than 2%

Structure of the Sun

The Suns atmosphere consist three part. The part are:
Corona
Chromospheres

 Photosphere

Characteristic of:
Corona

Outermost layer of gas in the Suns atmosphere

Forms rings of whitish-blue light
Only visible during total solar eclipses
It temperature is about 1 000 000 oC

Chromospheres

layer above the visible photosphere

this layer is about 10 000 km thick
glows red because hydrogen gives off a reddish colour at this high

temperature
only visible during the total eclipse

Photosphere
Innermost atmosphere layer of dense gases
Photospheres surface appears turbulence because gas from the Suns core
is release to its surface
This layer is responsible for radiating heat and light from the Sun

Suns core
Consist of hydrogen and helium gases
Nuclear reaction occurs in the core all the time to generate to release heat
and light energy
The core temperature is extremely high. It is about 15 million degree Celsius

Structure of the Sun showing some phenomena on its

surface

Phenomena on the Suns surface

Prominences, solar flares and sunspots are examples of phenomena that
occur on the surface of the Sun
These phenomena are believed to occur because of the changes in magnetic
field of the Sun

Prominences

Immense clouds of glowing gases that erupt from the upper chromosphere
The loop or arches of gases may shoot as high as 100 000 km from the Sun
Can from two to three months
Visible during solar eclipses

Solar flares

the result of violent energy explosions in complex sunspot group

release gases and charged particles far into space
its temperature can reach up to 5 million degree Celsius
emit electrons, visible light, and radiation
it make the night sky above the Earths poles appear colourful. This known as
an aurora

Sunspots

dark regions which are visible on the photosphere

appear dark because they are much cooler than their brighter surroundings.
Usually appear in groups and are of different sizes

Effect of the sun phenomena on Earth

The phenomena that occur on the surface of the Sun have various effects on

Earth
The eruptions of prominences and solar flares release large amounts of solar

material into space

Gases that escape to space carry a stream of electrically charged particles

of energy
The continuous flow of these particle from the surface of the Sun causes a
phenomenon known as solar wind

Communication system
the Earths atmosphere plays an important role in reflecting radio sigals in
communication
solar wind affects radio communication as it causes radio signals to fluctuate

Navigation system and compasses

radio signal from transmitter are used by ship and aeroplanes to determine
their location
solar wind disrupts the radio signals of the transmitter, resulting in
inaccuracies in the navigation systems
intense solar flares send out continuous streams of electrically charged
particles which interfere with the Earth s magnetic field and compasses

Satellites and astronauts

the ultraviolent rays and X-rays given off by solar flares heat up the Earth
upper atmosphere
high energy particles released by intense solar flare increase radiaton
hazard and pose a threat to the health of astronauts in space

Power generation
the charged particles interfere with Earths magnetic field and induce
surges in the electric current along power transmission lines
this overloads the power grids and causes blackouts over large areas

Global climate
sunspots bring about changes in temperature, humidity and atmospheric
pressure, which affect the weather conditions on Earth
wind, land and sea breezes are affected by sunspot

Formation of aurorae

 aurorae are bands of coloured lights visible in the night sky, especially at the
polar regions of the Earth
fluctuations in the solar wind can cause them to be visible at lower altitudes

Generation of the energy by the Sun

consist of hydrogen and helium gases
nuclear reaction that take place in the Suns core generates energy
during a nuclear reaction, 2 hyrogen atoms fuse to form one helium atom.
Heat and light energy are released

Definition of a star

celestial body that released its own heat and light

made of dust and gases like hydrogen and helium
They generate energy through nuclear reactions

The sun as a star

The sun is a medium-sized star

A star that is nearest to Earth
Formed in a huge cloud of gas and dust called a nebula
It is a huge sphere made up mainly of hydrogen and helium
Generate heat and light, and releases energy through nuclear fusion
The sun is about 4.6 billion years old

Various type of stars

From Earth, all the stars in the sky look alike.

However, each star has its own characteristic
Astronomers use some of these characteristics to classify the stars
- colour
- temperature
- brightness
- size

The colour and temperature of stars

Clas

Colour of a star indicates its temperature

The hottest stars are blue
The coldest stars are red
The Sun, which is yellow in colour, is a star of average temperature

Colour

Surface temperature (oC)

Example

s
O
B
A
F
G
K

Blue
Whitish-blue
White
Yellowish-white
Yellow
Orange

More than 25 000

11 000 25 000
7 500 11 000
6 000 7 500
5 000 - 6 000
3 500 5 000

Spica
Rigel
Sirius
Procyon A
The Sun
Arcturus

Red

Less than 3 500

Betelgeuse

Size
Neutron star > white dwarf > the Sun > giant star > supergiant star

Type of star

White dwarf

dwarf

Giant

supergiant

Relative size

0.1

10

10 - 100

>100

(the sun = 1)

Brightness
Brightness of a star known as the apparent magnitude. It is determine by
naked eye
A star with apparent magnitude of 1 is the brightest and a star with
apparent magnitude of 6 is the dimmest
Factors such as surface, surface, size, and distance manipulated the
brightness of the star

Name of star

Distance in light years

Sirius
Canopus
Alpha Centauri
Arcturus
Vega

9
98
4.3
36
26

Capella
Rigel
Procyon
Archernar
Beta Centauri

45
900
11
118
490

Formation of stars
Cloud of swirling gas and dust > gas and dust collect at the centres of
whirlpools > collection of gas and dust: a star is formed

Nebulae- huge cloud of gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust (is a

result of pull of gravity between particles)

A star is formed when the nebulae is pulled inward toward the core until it

become compact. As the nebulae collapse, it starts to spin

The gravitational force increase and this cause the materials between the
nebula to condense. As a result, the temperature and pressure of the gases

and the dust particles at the centre increase

When the temperature reaches 15 000 oC, nuclear fusion takes place at the
core of the nebula

Hydrogen atoms fuse together to form helium atoms, releasing a large

amount of heat and light energy

The ball gas starts to shine and a new star is born

Death of stars

The lifespan of a star depends on its size

A star with a small mass has a longer lifespan when compared to a star with

big mass
Small star may finally die after more than 10 billion years
Super large star may not survive more than 100 million years
Once the hydrogen fuel is used up and nuclear fusion is completed, the core

of the star start to shrink. The star is said to be dying

A star will become either a white dwarf, a neutron star, and a black hole
when it dies

Death of a medium-sized star

If the star is less than 1.2 times the mass of the Sun, the heat generated in

the core will heat up the outermost layer of the star

It cause the outer layer expand and become brighter
The star will become bigger and red giant star is formed
the outer layer of the star breaks up and drifts into space
the core cool down and the star shrink to become a white dwarf
white dwarf use helium as its nuclear fuel
when it exhausted, the star will cool and finally fade into dark body called a
black dwarf

Death of a large star

a star with mass of 1.4 to 3 times more than the mass of the Sun undergoes
different changes from those of a medium-sized star

 it expands to become a red supergiant which collapses rapidly and cause

gigantic explosion called a supernova
during the explosion, the outer layer of the star is expelled into space
this leaves a dense core called a neutron star
the neutron star will eventually lose all its heat and become cold

Death of a super-large star

the dying star expands to become a red supergiant

it collapses rapidly and causes a gigantic explosion called a supernova
during the explosion, the outer layer of the star is expelled into space
then, it contracts ad becomes very dense (light cannot escape from it)
the star is known as a black hole and will not be seen again

Galaxies
group of million or billions of stars held together by gravity
there are million galaxies scattered at random throughout the Universe
each galaxies has its own shape, size and luminosity, and contain different
bodies
galaxies can be classified according to their shapes
there are three basic type of galaxies
- elliptical galaxies
- spiral galaxies
- irregular galaxies
Characteristic of;
Elliptical galaxies

has a flattened oblong shape

some are almost spherical while others are very elongated
there is little gas or dust in this galaxies
very few new stars are formed in this galaxies
consist mostly of old stars

its core is bright but its edges are dim

Spiral galaxies

it are disc-shaped with arm spiraling outwards

it is among the brightest galaxies in the Universe
the young, hot stars, dust and gases are concentrated in the spiral arm
the percentage of young stars is high
contain a lot of dust and gases

Irregular galaxies

do not have specific shape

size can change
among the smallest galaxies
contain a lot of dust and gases. Also consist mostly of new star and nebula
image of type of galaxies

Elliptical

Spiral

Irregular

The Milky Way

galaxies were form from the large cloud of cold gases rotating slowly in
space
on a clear night, we can see a band of light spreading across the sky. This is
our own galaxies, the Milky Way
it is home to Earth and the Solar System
it is a Spiral galaxy
it is shapes like flat disc and has projection

The Universe

consist of matter, energy and space

everything you can see around you
it is unimaginably huge
there are over 100 billion galaxies in the whole universe

 galaxies which have been spotted are located up to 10 000 million light
years apart
the actual size of the Universe may be many times bigger

Position of the Solar System in the Universe

-

the Sun, the planets, asteroids, meteors, and moon make up the Solar

System
the Milky Way and millions of other galaxies make up the Universe
the Solar System is only one tiny part of the whole Universe

the milky way

The universe as a gift from god

all living thing depend it life to the Suns energy

photosynthesis- plant use the energy to make food
animal- get energy indirect by eating the plant
Earth- solar energy warmth (help plant and animal to grow)
Solar energy (control Earths climate)- cloud, storm, rain, wind and drought
Human- use energy to produce electrical energy, dry clothing and kill

microorganism
Moon smaller than sun moons gravity effect the Earth influences ocean
and the sea tidal changes

Chapter 10:Space Exploration

A. Development in the field of astronomy
1. Astronomy is the field of study about natural objects in the sky.
2. Ancient astronomers from the Middle East, China and India had made observations about
the movements of the Sun, stars and Moon.
3. Ancient astronomers like the Greeks had tried to explain the movements of planets and
stars.

Galileo Galilei invented

the first asronomical
telescope in 1609.
His telescope had 30 times
magnifying power.

Nicholas Copernicus
suggested that the
Sun is the centre of
the Solar System.

B. Development in space exploration

1. Space exploration was first done from Earth with the used of a telescope.
2. Rockets, man-made satellites, space stations and space shuttles were later invented to
continue the efforts of space exploration.

Events in the development of space exploration